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Evaluating Arguments Premise Conclusion Ethos Pathos Logos Inductive Deductive Valid Sound Propaganda Arguments are constructed with 2 basic elements 1. Premises: The evidence or reasons provided to support a logical conclusion Premise Premise Premise Premise Conclusion 2. Conclusion: the claim or truth that is trying to be proven, confirmed or verified. ***Premises are the “pillars” used to lift up or support the desired conclusion*** Pool of evidence The strength of an argument is dependent on the strength of the premises. If the premises crumble, the conclusion will fall. Distinguishing between Premises and Conclusions Conclusions: typically direct statements taking a stance on an issue. Premises: series of facts or reasoning that logically supports and builds toward the conclusion Some Premise Indicator Words Some Conclusion Indicator Words Because Since Given that For On the grounds that This follows from Therefore Thus Hence So Consequently This shows that Argument Structure: Inductive and Deductive Reasoning Deductive Reasoning Inductive Reasoning Moves from general premises to an absolute, specific conclusion. Provides numerous specific observed facts to draw a probable general conclusion Major Premise (General) If one smokes then they are endangering their health. Minor Premise John is a smoker Conclusion (Specific) Therefore John is endangering his health THIS CONCLUSION IS ABSOLUTE Premises (Observed Pattern) Three generations of the Smith family have rushed for a sorority. General Conclusion (Theory) So we can assume that Mr. Smith’s daughter will rush for a sorority as well. THIS CONCLUSION IS VERY PROBABLE Evaluating the Validity and Soundness of Arguments A deductive argument is VALID if it has a structure that makes it impossible for the conclusion to be false if the premises are true. Consider the syllogisms below: If A then B (major premise no proof needed) Not B (minor premise typically needs proof) . The argument on the left has a “valid” structure, whereas the argument on the right has a structure that is invalid. Therefore Not A (specific logical conclusion) If one owns a Toyota 4Runner, then they own a SUV. Not A (minor premise typically needs proof) Therefore Not A (specific logical conclusion) LEFT: Not owning an SUV absolutely eliminates any possibility of owning a 4Runner. John does NOT own a SUV. Therefore John does not own a Toyota 4Runner. If A then B (major premise no proof needed) If one owns a Toyota 4Runner, then they own a SUV. John does not own a 4Runner. RIGHT: Not owning a 4Runner does not eliminate the possibility of owning some other type of SUV. Therefore John does not own a SUV. Evaluating the Validity and Soundness of Arguments VALID structure = SOUNDNESS A deductive argument is SOUND only if it has both a VALID structure and the premises are true and/or acceptable. Therefore, to determine if an argument is SOUND, one must both evaluate the. validity of its structure and the truth and acceptability of the supporting premises. Evaluating the Validity and Soundness of Arguments How credible is the source of the claim? -Does the source have real knowledge about the issue in question? Relevant factors: Education, expertise, accomplishments, and reputation -Is there reason to doubt the source’s honesty, objectivity, or accuracy? 2 Key Considerations How credible is the claim itself? -Does the claim conflict with your own observations or commonly accepted principles? Evaluating the Validity and Soundness of Arguments EXAMPLE: (Major Premise) If one is a smoker, then they are endangering their health. (Minor Premise) John is a smoker. (Conclusion) Therefore John is endangering his health In order for the argument to be sound, both the major and minor premise need to be classified true. (Major Premise) This would be generally accepted as true, because of the data from numerous medical studies. (Minor Premise) This would need observed data such as, eye witnesses, financial statements of buying cigarettes, the smell of cigarettes on breath/clothing, stains on teeth, etc… (Conclusion) if the preceding premises are verified as true, the conclusion of the argument would be determined sound. Evaluating the Validity and Soundness of Arguments PREMISES BASED ON OPINION: Opinions or value judgements cannot be proven or disproven. These can still should be evaluated as reasonable or unreasonable according to their relative strengths or weaknesses. Rhetorical Appeals Ethos: An appeal to character or credibility. Either speaker's personal ethics and expertise or utilizing an external expert/ professional. Pathos: An appeal to emotion. Typically creating sympathy and empathy for a cause or negative emotions towards the opposition. Top Writing Academy™ © 2015 Logos: An appeal to logic. Organizing facts and evidence to build toward a logical conclusion. Possibly Inductive or Deductive. Employing Rhetorical Appeals In persuasion, rhetorical appeals are like a Christmas Tree. LOGOS: The branches that support your claim. Your logic needs to be strong to hold up your argument. Faulty reasoning will bend and break. PATHOS: The ornaments that attract the most attention. People are emotional and make many decisions based on what is attractive and emotionally appealing. EVIDENCE: Must be reliable, sufficient and related to your claim to appeal to the audience. CONNOTATION: Use strong diction, imagery, and figurative language to develop mood/tone. INDUCTIVE: Provides numerous observed specifics to draw a probable conclusion. HYPOTHETICAL SITUATION: Put the reader into the situation to create empathy/sympathy. DEDUCTIVE: Moves from general premises to form a specific, absolute conclusion ANECDOTES: Tell personal or general anecdotes to draw in the audience. ETHOS: The foundation or trunk that holds everything together. Without the trust and respect of your audience, your argument will fall to pieces. TONE: Set a tone that connects with the personality and values of your audience EXPERTISE: Refer to your own background or credentials or refer to credible, reliable experts in the field for evidence. Top Writing Academy™ © 2015 Argument "As a doctor, I am qualified to tell you that this course of treatment will likely generate the best results." "The data is perfectly clear: this investment has consistently turned a profit year-over-year, even in spite of market declines in other areas." "A qualified veterinarian says that an Australian shepherd will be the perfect match for our active lifestyle." "There’s no price that can be placed on peace of mind. Our advanced security systems will protect the wellbeing of your family so that you can sleep soundly at night." "If his years as a Marine taught him anything, it’s that caution is the best policy in this sort of situation." Top Writing Academy™ © 2015 Primary Appeal Argument Primary Appeal "As a doctor, I am qualified to tell you that this course of treatment will likely generate the best results." Ethos "The data is perfectly clear: this investment has consistently turned a profit year-over-year, even in spite of market declines in other areas." "A qualified veterinarian says that an Australian shepherd will be the perfect match for our active lifestyle." "There’s no price that can be placed on peace of mind. Our advanced security systems will protect the wellbeing of your family so that you can sleep soundly at night." Logos "If his years as a Marine taught him anything, it’s that caution is the best policy in this sort of situation." Top Writing Academy™ © 2015 Ethos Pathos Ethos Argument "They’ve worked against everything we’ve worked so hard to build, and they don’t care who gets hurt in the process. Make no mistake, they’re the enemy, and they won’t stop until we’re all destroyed." "It’s a matter of common sense that people deserve to be treated equally. The Constitution calls it ‘self-evident.’ Why, then, should I have been denied a seat because of my race?" "More than one hundred peer-reviewed studies have been conducted over the past decade, and none of them suggests that this is an effective treatment for hair loss." "Don’t be the last person on the block to have their lawn treated – you don’t want to be the laughing stock of your community!" Top Writing Academy™ © 2015 Primary Appeal Argument "They’ve worked against everything we’ve worked so hard to build, and they don’t care who gets hurt in the process. Make no mistake, they’re the enemy, and they won’t stop until we’re all destroyed." Primary Appeal Pathos "It’s a matter of common sense that people deserve to be treated equally. The Constitution calls it ‘self-evident.’ Why, then, should I have been denied a seat because of my race?" Logos "More than one hundred peer-reviewed studies have been conducted over the past decade, and none of them suggests that this is an effective treatment for hair loss." Logos "Don’t be the last person on the block to have their lawn treated – you don’t want to be the laughing stock of your community!" Pathos Top Writing Academy™ © 2015 Argument "Our expertise in roofing contracting is evidenced not only by our 100 years in the business and our staff of qualified technicians, but in the decades of satisfied customers who have come to expect nothing but the best." "Better men than us have fought and died to preserve this great nation. Now is our turn to return the favor. Do not be afraid, but push forward for God and country, gentlemen!" Top Writing Academy™ © 2015 Primary Appeal Argument "Our expertise in roofing contracting is evidenced not only by our 100 years in the business and our staff of qualified technicians, but in the decades of satisfied customers who have come to expect nothing but the best." "Better men than us have fought and died to preserve this great nation. Now is our turn to return the favor. Do not be afraid, but push forward for God and country, gentlemen!" Top Writing Academy™ © 2015 Primary Appeal Ethos Pathos Argument Persuasion Propaganda Remains objective, using facts and evidence to prove or reveal a truth. Both subjective and objective, combining facts and evidence with emotional appeals to influence the audience to embrace their opinion. Completely subjective and biased, often distorting evidence or manipulating emotions to influence the audience. Argument Characteristics Propaganda Characteristics Based on factual proven facts and premises versus Based on distorted facts or made up evidence Uses objective credible sources for evidence versus Uses extremely biased sources for evidence Evidence is thorough and sufficient versus Evidence is taken out of context and incomplete Based on rational, logical thought versus Mimics logic and twists rational thought Uses a objective and non-emotional tone versus Emotional tone that exploits insecurities/desires Uses direct and clear language versus Capitalizes on the ambiguities of language Argument, Persuasion, Propaganda Exercise Identify if the thesis statements below are Argument, Persuasion, or Propaganda in nature and content. THESIS: West Ranch High School is the highest academic performing school in the Hart District revealed by the CAHSEE results, SAT scores, and GPA. _________________________ THESIS: One Direction is a better band than the Beatles because they are cuter, better dancers, and started at a younger age. _________________________ THESIS: Alex Rodriguez is guilty of using steroids proven by doctor's records, professional testimonies, and forensic evidence. _________________________ Argument, Persuasion, Propaganda Exercise Identify if the thesis statements below are Argument, Persuasion, or Propaganda in nature and content. THESIS: West Ranch High School is the highest academic performing school in the Hart District revealed by the CAHSEE results, SAT scores, and GPA. ARGUMENT THESIS: One Direction is a better band than the Beatles because they are cuter, better dancers, and started at a younger age. PERSUASION THESIS: Alex Rodriguez is guilty of using steroids proven by doctor's records, professional testimonies, and forensic evidence. ARGUMENT Argument, Persuasion, Propaganda Exercise Identify if the thesis statements below are Argument, Persuasion, or Propaganda in nature and content. THESIS: People should vote Democrat because Republicans are elitist, power mongers, and thieves. ___________ THESIS: Alex Rodriguez should never be allowed to play Major League Baseball again because he broke league rules, lied to the public, and ignored the ethics of the sport. _________________________ THESIS: Justin Bieber should be kicked out of America because he is an ignorant, grade school dropout and wanna be poser. _________________________ Argument, Persuasion, Propaganda Exercise Identify if the thesis statements below are Argument, Persuasion, or Propaganda in nature and content. THESIS: People should vote Democrat because Republicans are elitist, power mongers, and thieves. PROPAGANDA THESIS: Alex Rodriguez should never be allowed to play Major League Baseball again because he broke league rules, lied to the public, and ignored the ethics of the sport. ARGUMENT THESIS: Justin Beiber should be kicked out of America because he is an ignorant, grade school dropout and wanna be poser. PROPAGANDA Argument, Persuasion, Propaganda Exercise Identify if the thesis statements below are Argument, Persuasion, or Propaganda in nature and content. THESIS: Stop global warming and make a safe world, a bright future, and hope for the next generation. _________________________ THESIS: The defendant is guilty of murder shown by evidence from the crime scene, eye witnesses, and the murder weapon found in the home of the accused. _________________________ Argument, Persuasion, Propaganda Exercise Identify if the thesis statements below are Argument, Persuasion, or Propaganda in nature and content. THESIS: Stop global warming and make a safe world, a bright future, and hope for the next generation. PROPAGANDA THESIS: The defendant is guilty of murder shown by evidence from the crime scene, eye witnesses, and the murder weapon found in the home of the accused. ARGUMENT Propaganda Techniques and Examples Exercise Common Propaganda Techniques Critical Analysis Questions Name Calling “Ad Hominem”: The name-calling technique links a person, or idea, to a negative symbol. The propagandist who uses this technique hopes that the audience will reject the person or the idea on the basis of the negative symbol, instead of looking at the available evidence. Ad hominem is when there is an attack on the merits of the individual instead of the merits of the argument. What does the name mean? Does the idea in question have a legitimate connection with the real meaning of the name? Is an idea that serves my best interests being dismissed through giving it a name I don't like? Leaving the name out of consideration, what are the merits of the idea itself? Example: Tony wants us to believe that the origin of life was an “accident”. Tony is a godless hypocrite who has spent more time in jail than in church, so the only information we should consider from him is the best way to make license plates Use the questions above to analyze the fallacy in this argument. Propaganda Techniques and Examples Exercise Common Propaganda Techniques Critical Analysis Questions Glittering Generality: The Glittering Generality is, in short, Name Calling in reverse. While Name Calling seeks to make us form a judgment to reject and condemn without examining the evidence, the Glittering Generality device seeks to make us approve and accept without examining the evidence. What does the virtue word really mean? Does the idea in question have a legitimate connection with the real meaning of the word: Is an idea that does not serve my best interests being "sold" to me merely through its being given a name that I like? Leaving the virtue word out of consideration, what are the merits of the idea itself? Example: I stand for freedom: for a strong nation, unrivaled in the world. My opponent believes we must compromise on these ideals, but I believe they are our birthright Use the questions above to analyze the fallacy in this argument. Propaganda Techniques and Examples Exercise Common Propaganda Techniques Critical Analysis Questions Transfer: Transfer is a device by which the propagandist carries over the authority, sanction, and prestige of something we respect and revere to something he would have us accept. In the most simple and concrete terms, what is the proposal of the speaker? What is the meaning of the thing from which the propagandist is seeking to transfer authority, sanction, and prestige? Is there any legitimate connection between the proposal of the propagandist and the revered thing, person or institution? Leaving the propagandistic trick out of the picture, what are the merits of the proposal viewed alone? Example: As I stand in front of this flag, next to this incredible statue of our great president Abraham Lincoln, I think of the greatness of this country and how I as president will serve to keep it great. Use the questions above to analyze the fallacy in this argument. Propaganda Techniques and Examples Exercise Common Propaganda Techniques Critical Analysis Questions Testimonial: The most common misuse of the testimonial involves citing individuals who are not qualified to make judgments about a particular issue. Who or what is quoted in the testimonial? Why should we regard this person (or organization or publication) as having expert knowledge or trustworthy information on the subject in question? What does the idea amount to on its own merits, without the benefit of the Testimonial? Example: In my last movie, I saved my family from terrorists and I'm supporting this party because they will save you from terrorists! Use the questions above to analyze the fallacy in this argument. Propaganda Techniques and Examples Exercise Common Propaganda Techniques Critical Analysis Questions Plain-folk: By using the plain-folks technique, speakers attempt to convince their audience that they, and their ideas, are "of the people." The device is used by advertisers and politicians alike. What are the propagandist's ideas worth when divorced from his or her personality? What could he or she be trying to cover up with the plain-folks approach? What are the facts? Use the questions above to analyze the fallacy in Example: An ordinary looking family sits this argument. together at a table to eat a certain brand of macaroni. Propaganda Techniques and Examples Exercise Common Propaganda Techniques Critical Analysis Questions Bandwagon: The basic theme of the Band Wagon appeal is that "everyone else is doing it, and so should you." Since few of us want to be left behind, this technique can be quite successful. What is this propagandist's program? What is the evidence for and against the program? Regardless of the fact that others are supporting this program, should I support it? Does the program serve or undermine my individual and collective interests? Example: ATT is the largest growing cell phone network in America. Don’t be the last one to take advantage of this incredible offer. Use the questions above to analyze the fallacy in this argument. Propaganda Techniques and Examples Exercise Common Propaganda Techniques Critical Analysis Questions Appeal to Tradition: When one appeals to a sense of custom, belief or loyalty. Phrases like “it’s always been done this way” or “don’t change it if it isn’t broken” are often used in this technique. Tradition assumes that something is better or correct simply because it is older or a tradition. What is the issue under discussion? How have the circumstances changed? What are the real needs in this situation? What are the biases of the tradition referred to? Example: Our school has been using this testing system for years, so there is no reason to tweak something that has been working for so long. Use the questions above to analyze the fallacy in this argument. Propaganda Techniques: Component Fallacies (Inductive and Deductive Fallacies) Component Fallacies Begging the Question/Circular Reasoning: When one uses their own conclusion as evidence for to prove that very conclusion. Examples Freedom of speech is important because people should be able to speak freely. The death penalty is wrong because killing people is immoral. Ghosts are real because I have had experiences with them myself. Hasty Generalization: Misuse of inductive reasoning when there is insufficient evidence, but the speaker rushes to the desired conclusion regardless of the small sample size of evidence. "Susan failed Biology 101. Herman failed Biology 101. Egbert failed Biology 101. I therefore conclude that the teacher is too hard and isn’t a strong instructor. (Maybe Susan, Herman, and Egbert are exceptionally poor students. Maybe they were sick and missed too many lectures that term to pass.) Propaganda Techniques: Component Fallacies (Inductive and Deductive Fallacies) Component Fallacies Examples False Cause: This fallacy establishes a cause/effect relationship that does not exist. There are various Latin names for various analyses of the fallacy. The Republicans pass a new tax reform law that benefits wealthy Americans. Shortly thereafter the economy takes a nose dive. The Democrats claim that the tax reform caused the economic woes and they push to get rid of it. (Their could have been several causes for this dive in the economy, and blaming it on one cause is bias) Irrelevant Conclusion/Non Sequitur: any argument that does not follow from the previous statements. Usually what happened is that the writer leaped from A to B and then jumped to D, leaving out step C. "Giving up our nuclear arsenal in the 1980's weakened the United States' military. Giving up nuclear weaponry also weakened China in the 1990s. For this reason, it is wrong to try to outlaw pistols and rifles in the United States today." (The connection between nuclear weapons and small fire arms is weak at best.) Propaganda Techniques: Component Fallacies (Inductive and Deductive Fallacies) Component Fallacies Examples False Dilemma: This fallacy occurs when a writer builds an argument upon the assumption that there are only two choices or possible outcomes when actually there are several. Outcomes are seldom so simple. This fallacy most frequently appears in connection to sweeping generalizations Either we must go to war with country X or the American way of life will never be the same. (No middle ground or room for negotiations makes this a manipulative and shortsighted conclusion) Logical Paradox: Establishing a premise in such a way that it contradicts another, earlier premise. If there is one winning ticket in a large lottery, it is reasonable to believe of any particular lottery ticket that it is not the winning ticket, but it is not reasonable to believe that no lottery ticket will win. Faulty Analogy: Relying only on comparisons to prove a point rather than arguing deductively and inductively. “education is like cake; a small amount tastes sweet, but eat too much and your teeth will rot out. Likewise, more than two years of education is bad for a student.” The analogy is only acceptable to the degree a reader thinks that education is similar to cake.