Download Ancient water systems

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UNU-INWEH_Water-Health Course
Case Study: Ancient water systems-Rome
SUMMARY
From the dawn civilization and ancient religious beliefs, to modern man and science, water has
been recognized as essential for life in terms of both quantity and quality, although the latter not
so well understood initially. In ancient times, the challenge of supply meant that populations
could only successfully establish themselves around natural water sources, such as rivers, lakes
and oases. The role of water in ill health was recognized, but the supply of safe water and
sanitation was always a lot more challenging. Despite rapid technological developments that
have allowed for successful settlements at increased distances from the water sources,
availability of safe water remains a limiting factor on human settlements and calls for intensified
water-health discourse for the accelerated search for innovative approaches to water for health
solutions. This document will discuss the water systems of ancient Rome, which remains one of
the most admired in ancient times.
INTRODUCTION
Natural water sources have always formed a critical determinant for human settlements. This
was more so in ancient times, when technology for pumping water over distances was limited,
resulting in a tendency for settlements in ancient civilizations to cluster around natural water
sources. The initial priority for these settlements was ample water quantity for all purposes.
Water quality was however not so well understood or documented. Water quality determinant
was limited to basic water quality aspects such as appearance, taste and smell, which are easy to
determine (1). With the discovery of microbes, scientists gained a greater understanding of the
sources and effects of contaminants in drinking water, which were not visible to the naked eye.
It thus became apparent that gauging water by what was visible to the naked eye was not
necessarily an accurate determination of the quality of water.
Ancient Rome was advantaged to have a constant supply of water not only due to its proximity
to Tiber River, but also from the abundance of springs, and ease of sinking wells at low depths.
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Ancient Romans also utilized their option of and rain water harvesting, which was collected in
cisterns (2). As water sources close to the settlements grew polluted and became inadequate for
the city's growing population, the ingenious aqueduct technology, which moved water for
distances through gravity, was used in the year 312 B.C, developing a larger and more advanced
system than any other culture (Fig.1) (3). Although there is no accurate estimate of the
population of Rome or the per capita water usage for any particular period, the population of
Rome is estimated at approximately one million during Frontinus' era (c. 40 – 103 AD) (4).
According to one estimate by Frontinus, “the aqueducts served 591 lacus (or major delivery
points), and each, on average, delivered 60 cubic meters of water per day. Bruun estimates that
each delivery point served, on average, 900 individuals. This computes to a per capita water use
of 67 liters per day” (5).
Water Supply and Storage: Water from the aqueducts passed into large, covered catch-basins,
where water was supposed to deposit their sediment (5). The water was then distributed through
free-flowing canals, lead pipes, and terra-cotta pipes to storage reservoirs, then through lead
pipes (called fistulae) to users and storage tanks. Only a limited number of customers received
private connections, while most Romans got their supply from public fountains. However, even
ancient Rome had to deal with the problem of illegal connections and bribery of officials to tap
into the aqueducts so that not all the water diverted into the aqueduct arrived in Rome. Frontinus
(5) aptly described this problem “. . . a large number of landed proprietors, past whose fields the
aqueducts run, tap the conduits; whence it comes that the public water courses are actually
brought to a standstill by private citizens, just to water their gardens”. Most houses in Rome
were actually ill-supplied with water and sanitary arrangements. For the most part, water from
the aqueducts reached only the ground floor of apartment buildings, and had to be physically
ferried to the upper floors. The constant fire concern in ancient Rome added an extreme burden
to residents who had to ferry water to the upper floors.
Public Water Centers: Water and wastewater systems were thus provided in centrally located
public areas for a variety of uses such as fountains, latrines, and public baths. Baths were very
elaborate during the Roman Empire, and were not only bathing facilities, but also served as
facilities for games, lectures, musical performances, prostitutes, calisthenics, and places to
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lounge and gossip. The baths had hot, warm, and cold water pools, with the water in the pools
changed several times each day and heated by underground furnaces.
Water Contamination: As one might expect, Roman water quality standards that only took
into consideration such factors as taste, temperature, smell, and appearance were remedial. Since
the quality of water from the nine aqueducts varied, the worst waters were used for artificial
lakes and irrigation, and the best for drinking. The aqueducts carrying water to Rome were
covered to prevent the water from being contaminated by dust, dirt, and other impurities and
from being heated by the sun.
The potential for disease to be transmitted through microscopic organisms that were invisible to
the naked eye was first realized in the late 1880s when Louis Pasteur demonstrated the “germ
theory” of disease. In 1855, cholera was shown to be a waterborne disease when Dr. John Snow
linked an outbreak of an illness in London to a public well that was contaminated by sewage (6).
In Ancient Rome, once the water was in the watershed from the aqueducts, some of them were
open to contamination every time it rained. Safety of the lead pipes was often thought to
compromise health, but was generally mitigated by running water and deposition of scale on the
pipes due to the high concentrations of calcium contained in the Roman water (7).
Water purification: The realization of the potential for water to be contaminated by germs
created a need to decontaminate the water. Availability of methods for purification in ancient
Roman systems were however limited. From written sources and archaeological excavations, the
various methods at their disposal were limited to using settling tanks, sieves, filters and the
boiling of water. Before 2000 BC in Sanskrit writings, there is evidence of efforts to purify
water through boiling and filtration and Hippocrates wrote of waters contributing to ill health and
the need to boil or strain water in 400 BC (8).
Sanitation and Wastewater Systems: In providing water for latrines, the Roman aqueducts
played a big role in improved sanitation. For most of the Romans, lack of indoor facilities forced
them into using one of the city's public latrines (Fig 2)(9) for a fee, or using chamber pots..
Many of Rome's public latrines were luxurious for the time. Latrines were heated as marble of
which they were made can be very cold. Waste water from the baths, latrines, palaces, fountains
as well as other urban runoff was removed by complex sewage systems and released into nearby
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bodies of water, such as the Tiber, which logically must have become extremely polluted.
Roman sewers were enduring, but ignored basic sanitary principles, by carrying sewage, urban
runoff, and drainage water together. The sewers had large openings along the streets, thus
exposing the residents to the contents of the sewers.
The Roman latrine system must represent one of history's earliest employments of the pay
sanitation facility - pay latrine. Chamberpots were emptied into vats placed under the stairwells
or, if vats were not provided, jars could be emptied into a nearby cesspool or an opening into the
central sewer. However, it was not unheard of for chamberpots to be emptied from windows onto
the streets below, much to the chagrin of passersby.
CONCLUSIONS
The Ancient Roman aqueduct water supply system was an engineering feat that is still admirable
today. The advantages of proximity to natural water sources for human settlements are still very
much apparent, but technological advances have made it less critical. Imperial Rome, like many
cities of today was filled with apartment buildings with services that were often less than
satisfactory. However in spite of its shortcomings, Rome's water system was an admirable
engineering achievement. Rome was supplied with large quantities of water, an achievement
which many cities of today cannot boast of. Compared to modern urban settlements, The
potential for distribution was quite limited, owing to the lack of pumping systems, yet the
residents had access at many public places. Access points were generally located outside the
household for both the water and wastewater system unlike the convenient modern systems, in
which, for developed communities, water supply is delivered on demand to individual customers.
There are however many communities throughout the world who still have no access to indoor
water supplies and sanitation amenities.
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References cited
1.
Hansen, R. D. (1983), WATER AND WASTE WATER IN IMPERIAL ROME. JAWRA
Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 19: 263–269. doi: 10.1111/j.17521688.1983.tb05324.x
(http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/rome/rome.pdf)
2.
(http://www.forumromanum.org/life/johnston_16.html). The Private Life of the Romans
by Harold Whetstone Johnston, Revised by Mary Johnston Scott, Foresman and
Company (1903, 1932).
3.
http://historylink101.com/2/Rome/roman-aquaducts.htm
4.
Parker, James E., 1967. Housing and Population in Imperial Ostia and Rome. Journal of
Roman Studies 57:82-91.
5.
(Citation). Frontinus, Sextus Julius (trans. Charles Bennett), 1961. Stratagems and the
Aqueducts of Rome. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Kukaswadia, Atif. John Snow – The First epidemiologist.
http://blogs.plos.org/publichealth/2013/03/11/john-snow-the-first-epidemiologist/
7. Hodge, A.T., 1981. Vitruvius, Lead Pipes and Lead Poisoning, AJA 85: 486-491.
6.
The History of Clean Drinking Water. http://www.Freedrinkingwater.Com/Resource-History-Of-CleanDrinking-Water.Htm
9. AlMere/Wikimedia Commons Latrine in Ostia (port city at the mouth of the Tiber River),
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Rome. (http://www.sewerhistory.org/images/w/wemi/wemi_Ostia_Latrine.jpg)
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IMAGES:
Fig 1. Roman Aqueduct
http://lh4.ggpht.com/-3J_U18orWSY/UEZH5MX5siI/AAAAAAAAcWQ/Nk5xz0x_YTY/pontdu-gard-1%25255B2%25255D.jpg?imgmax=800
.Fig. 2. Latrine in Ostia (port city at the mouth of the Tiber River), Rome. Source:
AlMere/Wikimedia Commons.
(http://www.sewerhistory.org/images/w/wemi/wemi_Ostia_Latrine.jpg
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Fig. 3. Cistern
http://lwmays.files.wordpress.com/2012/12/day-5-457.jpg?w=640&h=425
Fig. 4 Fountain
http://lwmays.files.wordpress.com/2012/12/day-5-520.jpg?w=640&h=425