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Challenging the Dominant Paradigm: Theories on Children, Systems & Effects Chapter 8. Pgs. 185-216 Slides Preview At the end of this lesson you should be able to identify the following theories: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Overview TV Violence Theories Social Learning Theory Active View of Television Viewing Development Perspectives System Theories of Communication Process. 7. The rise of the System Theory 8. Mathematical Theory of Communication 9. Modeling System 10. Cybernetic Theory By 1960’s about 90% of homes in US reached by TV & its influence in a social system. A system theory was created. Theory that examines the mass communication process as composed of inter-related parts that work together to meet some goals. Psychologist turned their attention to mass media esp. TV which later created the theory of social cognitive i.e. learning takes place through interactions with many factors such as behaviors, personal factors & the environment. Social Cognitive Theory This is a theory where learning takes place through interaction with the environment that involves reciprocal causation of behavior, personal factors & environmental events. (work of White, 1972; Miller & Dollard (19411); Bendura, 1965, 1971,1994; Berkowitz, 1965; Potter, 1997) About this time, there is a greater concerned in America on the effects of TV because of the following reasons: 1. More women entered the workforce resulting both parents working outside homes. 2. Migrations to urban areas. 3. TV is very popular & the focus increased on the real world of violence. John & Robert Kennedy and Martin Luther King were dignitaries that were assassinated. The world is a dangerous place to lived. 4. Social movement such as Civil Rights & anti Vietnam war protests catch the attention of the nation. 5. Young people were listening to new unfamiliar music. 6. There exist a generation gap between conservative , middle-class parents & their liberal, radical parents. 7. Evidence showed that families, school and churches became less important to children. Children are being socialized more and more away from home and classrooms. 8. TV became target criticism esp. on violence \ programming forming social instability. 9. Riots everywhere -in Los Angeles, Detroit and Cleveland. President’s Johnson established a National Commission to locate causes of violence. This Commission recommended changes in both news reporting and entertainment. Research suggest the idea of CATHARSIS or SUBLIMATION Hypothesis i.e. the idea that viewing violence is sufficient purge to satisfy a person’s aggressive drive & therefore most likelihood reduces a person aggressive behavior. B. Social Learning Theory Human learn from observation. IMITATION is the direct reproduction of observed behavior. IDENTIFICATION is a form of imitation in which copying a model , wanting & trying to be like a model in terms of characters or quality. Miller & Dollard argued that imitation learning occurred when observers were motivated to learn , when the cues or elements of the behavior to be learned were present and when he/she perform the same behavior were positively reinforced. SOCIAL LEARNING is applying both imitation and identification to explain how people learn through observations of others in their environment. SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY is that observers can acquire symbolic representations of behaviors & these ‘pictures’ provide information on which to base on their subsequent behavior. E.g. behavior depicted on screen. MODELING is a efficient way to learn a wide range of behaviors & solutions to problems that we would otherwise learn slowly or pay high price to learn the same thing. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING refers to when the observation of the behavior is sufficient to learn that behavior. AGGRASIVE CUES refer to media portrayals of violence and expected to show higher level subsequent aggression. PRIMING EFFECTS refers to the idea that presentation in media heighten the likelihood that people will develop similar thoughts about those things in the real world. CONTEXTUAL VARIABLES – referring to the environmental variables surrounding the presentation of violence (e.g. reward/punishment, consequences, motive, realism, humor, media characters, arousal). Theory of TV Viewing ACTIVE THEORY – refer to viewing of TV consumption that assumes viewer comprehension causes attention (effects) DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVE refers to view that child undergo cognitive growth and adulthood influence. Part of the intellectual development through media exposure (Sesame's Street). CHILDREN’ SOCIALIZATION – this is the view that children learning beyond social cognition. It also involves process of socialization. EARLY WINDOW – refers to the idea that television allows children to see the world before they have the skill to successfully act on it. STRENGTH Causal link between the media and behavior. Applies across several viewer and viewing situations Has strong explanatory power (e.g. catharsis, cues etc) WEAKNESSES Lab. Demonstration raises questions of generalizability. Demonstration might overestimate media power. Has difficulty explaining long term effects. Underestimate people’s active use of media Focuses too narrow on individual rather than cultural. Part II B. System Theory This theory examines the role of mass communication process consisted of interrelated parts that work together to meet some goals. It can influence & control one another through communication and feedback loops. Some system are capable of monitoring the environment and alter their operations in response to environmental changes. Bukley, 1967; Wiener1954, 1961; Shannon & Weaver 1949; Fisher & Fisher, 1996; Westly & MacLean 1957. Engineers are concerned with designing a system which communication links efficiently transmit information accurately. Communication is a means to an end. COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS – Systems that function primarily to facilitate communication. TH E RISE OF THE SYSTEM THEORY In 1960’s engineers development of system theories based on the idea of Cybernetics i.e. is the study of regulation & control in complex machines. CYBERNETICS investigates how communication links between various parts of machine to perform very complex tasks and adjusted to changes taking place in its external environment. e.g. in weapon system, radar, air conditioning, FEEDBACK LOOPS referring to ongoing adjustments in systems. Complex machines rely on feedback loops as a means of making ongoing adjustments to change caused by the environment. Feedback loops enable sources to monitor the influence of their message. C. Mathematical Theory of Communication Shannon & Weaver (1949) created a system model known as the Mathematical Theory of Communication. The components of this theory consisted of SIGNAL, INFORMATION, NOISE, REDUNDANT, CHANNEL & CHANNEL CAPACITY. SIGNAL – the flow of communication from one part of the system to the other. INFORMATION BIT – individual elements of the signal. NOISE – The difference between the signal sent and the signal received. REDUNDANT – when the system contains many bits carrying the same information CHANNEL – the carrier of the signal CARRYING CAPACITY –the ability for the channel to transmit complex and simple accurate signal Shannon & Weaver (1949) Mathematical Model led to the development of the INFORMATION THEORY. A theory that attempts to explain the process of communication. Information Theory This theory attempts to explain the application of mechanical notions of information flow to the understanding of all forms of communication & applied it to human communication. Using the concept of SYSTEM MODELING. The system of this model is INTERDEPENDENCE to each other (relationships) as such that changes in one element changes the other elements. This theory was then adopted replacing the TRANSMISSIONAL Model that assumes the message source dominates the communication process, & that the primary outcome of the process is the effects on the receiver. E.g of the TRANSMISSIONAL Model is Lasswell’s Theory (1949) Who Says What Through what Medium with What Effects. System theory has greatest practical impact on communication. In particular the system theory can be applied both close system (Homeostatic) or open system (dynamically balanced). E.g of close system applied on machines air conditioning, machines using some form of automatic regulator etc. E.g. of open system like the biological organism in our body. Using electrical & chemical messages transmitted by nervous and circulatory system our organs functions and make adjustment accordingly. The same analogy is applied on human communications. Critics of the System Model Theory Two types of critics argued strongly against this theory: (a) The humanistic scholars (b) The Social Scientists Dehumanizing & overly simplistic. This is just an elaborate metaphors or analogies. It is not suitable to explain complex human interrelationships. People are not like machines. System theorists argued that the model can represent quite complicated phenomena. The Simulation Model for example is capable of analyzing complex social system in which interrelationships between agents are represented. Another critics of the system theory is that the system assumed that the structure functions accordingly as designed. Functionally properly and maintaining a proper relationships with other parts. Our body, one organ tells the other organ what to do – control & command. But in the process of communication, communication sometimes play different roles. As an improvement to the system theory model other scholars suggested the introduction of SECOND ORDER OF CYBERNATIC THEORY. These theorists argued that many system theory often continually undergo fundamental sometimes chaotic, transformations of their own structures. As such that it is not possible to predict by simply examining the past behavior of the system. By the end of this lessons you should have learned the following topics: 2. TV Violence Theories 3. Social Learning Theory 4. Active View of Television Viewing 5.Development Perspectives 6. System Theories of Communication Process. Thank You 7. The rise of the System Theory 8. Mathematical Theory of Communication 9. Modeling System 10. Cybernetic Theories