Download Psychologist BF Skinner helped pioneer research into

Psychologist B.F. Skinner helped pioneer research into
a form of learning known as operant conditioning, in
which individuals learn from the consequences of their
actions.
Operant conditioning depends on the use of
reinforcements and a schedule to execute them.
The principles of operant conditioning can be applied
to help people or animals learn to combine a series of
simple steps or actions to form complex behaviors.
Operant conditioning occurs when people or animals
have learned to respond to a certain situation.
In operant conditioning, people and animals learn to do
certain things—and not to do others—because of the results of
what they do.
They learn from the consequences of their actions.
In operant conditioning, voluntary responses are conditioned.
B.F. Skinner studied operant conditioning by using the
“Skinner box.”
His experiment demonstrated reinforcement, or the process
by which a stimulus (food) increases the chances that a
preceding behavior (a rat pressing a lever) will occur again.
Knowledge of results is often all the reinforcement that people
need to learn new skills.
Primary and Secondary
Reinforcers
Positive and Negative
Reinforcers
• Primary reinforcers are
reinforcers that function due to
the biological makeup of an
organism.
• Secondary reinforcers are learned
by being paired with primary
reinforcers.
• Money is a secondary reinforcer
because we have learned that it
may be exchanged for primary
reinforcers like food and shelter.
• Positive reinforcers increase the
frequency of a behavior.
• In positive reinforcement, a
person receives something he or
she wants following the behavior.
• Negative reinforcers increase the
frequency of a behavior when they
are removed.
• In negative reinforcement, a
behavior is reinforced because
something unwanted stops
happening or is removed following
the behavior.
Rewards
Punishments
• Like positive reinforcement,
rewards help encourage learning.
• Some psychologists, however,
prefer positive reinforcement
because the concept of
reinforcement can be explained
without trying to guess what an
organism will find rewarding.
• Punishments are quite different
from negative reinforcers.
• Punishments are unwanted events
that decrease the frequency of the
behavior they follow.
• Punishments tend to work only
when they are guaranteed.
• Most psychologists believe it is
preferable to reward children for
desirable behavior than punish
them for unwanted behavior.
Rewards and Behavior
The effectiveness of a reinforcement depends
on the schedule of reinforcement—when
and how often the reinforcement occurs.
Continuous and Partial
Reinforcement
• Continuous reinforcement is the
reinforcement of a behavior every
time the behavior occurs.
• Continuous reinforcement is not
always practical or possible.
• The alternative is partial
reinforcement, which means a
behavior is not reinforced every
time the behavior occurs.
Interval Schedules
• Fixed-interval schedule: a fixed
amount of time must elapse
between reinforcements
• Variable-interval schedule: varying
amounts of time go by between
reinforcements
Ratio Schedule
• Fixed-ratio schedule:
reinforcement occurs after a
fixed number of responses
• Variable-ratio schedule:
reinforcement occurs after a
varying number of responses
Extinction in Operant
Conditioning
• In operant conditioning,
extinction results from
repeated performances of
the response without
reinforcement.
Shaping and Chaining
Programmed Learning
• Shaping is a way of teaching
complex behaviors in which one
first reinforces small steps in the
total activity.
• Chaining is combining the steps
of a sequence to progress toward
a final action.
• Chaining can be forward or
backward.
• Chaining can be used to teach
complex behavior patterns to
animals.
• Programmed learning is based on
shaping and chaining.
• Developed by B.F. Skinner, it
assumes that any task can be
broken down into small steps.
• Programmed learning does not
involve punishments.
• Instead, it reinforces correct
responses.