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The roman empire
Mr. Cline
History
Marshall High School
* Augustus: A Man of Many Names
• Meet Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus, Pater Patriae. You can call him Augustus.
• Without question, Augustus is one of the most important people in history. So, who
is this Roman fellow with the unwieldy name?
• Well, we can learn a lot about him and about the history of Rome just by looking at
that name. Augustus' name tells the story of his rise to power, the collapse of the
Roman Republic, and the birth of the Roman Empire.
• Julius Caesar
• Augustus did not always have such a fancy name. When he was born in 63 BCE,
his name was Gaius Octavius.
• Octavius was just another young man of one of the many noble families in
Rome, and an impoverished one at that.
• Then, Gaius Octavius' grand-uncle, Gaius Julius Caesar, who we know as Caesar,
began his meteoric rise to power.
• Caesar took over the Roman Republic and set himself up at its head, making
himself incredibly wealthy and powerful.
* Augustus: A Man of Many Names
• Caesar adopted his grand-nephew, Gaius Octavius, as his sole heir, then got
assassinated. Hoping to inherit the fame, property and popularity of Caesar,
Gaius Octavius took his uncle's name and became Gaius Julius Caesar
Octavianus.
• Since that is a mouthful, let us refer to him as Octavian for the time being.
• Mark Antony
• Octavian was not the only fellow hoping to succeed Caesar.
• When Octavian arrived in Rome after his uncle's assassination, he found
Caesar's right hand man, Mark Antony, making his own bid for power.
• Mark Antony held the city in tyranny and had incited the masses against
Caesar's assassins in the Senate, driving them from Rome.
• Much of Mark Antony's power and authority derived from his association with
Caesar.
• Yet with Caesar's heir Octavian at hand, the public favor began to slip from
Antony.
* Augustus: A Man of Many Names
• Mark Antony
• The common people saw the son of Caesar; the Senate saw a young man they
could manipulate to get rid of Mark Antony.
• Realizing his dire situation, Antony fled to Gaul.
• Yet the Senate had gotten more than they had bargained for in Octavian.
• Using the menace of Mark Antony as a goad, Octavian bullied the
frightened Senate into granting him extraordinary powers for a man of his
age.
• He was made a senator and granted the same powers as the consuls. More
importantly, he was given legal control over the armies of Rome.
• This was a wise choice by the Senate, since much of the Roman army
revered Caesar and might have defected to Antony without Caesar's
heir there, Octavian, to hold them to the Senate.
• With the full backing of the Roman Senate, Octavian and the two
consuls set out for Gaul.
* Augustus: A Man of Many Names
• Mark Antony
• They beat the heck out of Antony at Mutina, forcing the bedraggled
general to retreat. In the fighting, both consuls died, leaving all the
glory and military command to Octavian.
• The Second Triumvirate
• If Octavian had hoped for a hero's welcome upon returning to Rome, he was
sorely disappointed.
• The Senate had grown wary of the young Octavian and were reluctant to
grant him any more glory or power than they could avoid.
• The Senate had never been a fan of Caesar in the first place, nor of his heir.
• They had used Octavian to keep Antony occupied while they waited for
Caesar's assassins, the fugitive senators, to return to Rome with an army.
• Realizing the situation, Octavian allied himself with Antony and another of
Caesar's supporters named Lepidus. The three formed the Second
Triumvirate.
* Augustus: A Man of Many Names
• The Second Triumvirate
• Working together, these three men killed off their political rivals and seized
their property in a series of political murders, known as proscriptions.
• This removed the last obstacles to absolute power and made the three
very wealthy.
• In 42 BC, the Triumvirate strong armed the Senate into naming Julius Caesar a
god, Divus Julius, after which point, Octavian was able to add the title Divi
Filius, the son of a god, to his already long name.
• While Octavian and Antony had been fighting among themselves in the West,
Caesar's assassins had been amassing power in the East.
• A conflict was inevitable, and in 42 BC, the two sides clashed at the Battle
of Phillipi. Caesar's assassins, the last champions of the Republic, were
completely defeated, and Brutus, who had betrayed Caesar, took his own
life.
* Augustus: A Man of Many Names
• The Second Triumvirate
• A few years later in 36 BC, the Triumvirate destroyed the fleet of Pompey
Magnus' son, Sextus Pompeius, wiping out the last of those who had
opposed Caesar.
• Imperator
• With their common enemy destroyed, the members of the Triumvirate turned
against one another.
• Lepidus attempted to claim Sicily, but his troops abandoned him, and he
was exiled.
• But the biggest rivals in this conflict were Octavian and Antony, who soon
turned against one another.
• Antony was far more ambitious than Lepidus; he wanted the entire
eastern Empire.
* Augustus: A Man of Many Names
• Imperator
• He was setting himself up as an eastern despot and sought to rule all
of the Empire from Egypt, with his queen Cleopatra, or at least that's
what Octavian tried to convince the Romans.
• It might have even been true. Eventually this conflict came to a head,
and in 31 BC, the two sides met in a naval battle at Actium, in which
Antony and Cleopatra's fleet was utterly destroyed.
• After suffering another defeat the next year at Alexandria, the two
committed suicide together, inspiring poets and playwrights through
the ages.
• Octavian had now defeated all his enemies. The Romans had a name for a
victorious general: Imperator.
• Octavian took this title and made it something more. He made it his name,
and by doing so, he changed its meaning.
• Though imperator continued to hold implications of military victory, by the
time Octavian was finished, all military victories belonged to him.
* Augustus: A Man of Many Names
• Imperator
• Imperator became the title of the loftiest position that man has ever
achieved: the absolute ruler, the king of kings, the emperor.
• Augustus
• Though Octavian held the Empire in his hand, he knew that an iron fist could
not hold him in power forever.
• Rather than seizing authority and becoming a dictator, he allowed many of
the offices of the Republic to remain.
• Octavian refused to be named dictator or even consul for life.
• Instead, he just made sure he held enough important positions to get him
what he wanted.
• By maintaining the illusion of the Republic, Octavian gave his reign
legitimacy.
* Augustus: A Man of Many Names
• Augustus
• That being said, the Senate still laid on the titles.
• They named Octavian proconsul: the governor of a province;
• they called him tribune: by which they meant he was a defender of the
people;
• they hailed him as princeps: the first among equals; and finally,
• they gave him the title by which we know him today, Augustus: which, in
Latin, means dignified, majestic, sacred, venerable, and worthy of honor.
• Pater Patriae: Father of the Nation
• Yet even this was not enough. Augustus knew that all of the titles in the world
could not protect him if the people turned against him. And so he attempted to
shore up his legitimacy in a number of other routes.
• He enacted laws to restore the ancient morality and customs of Rome,
despite the fact that his very authority defied those laws and customs.
* Augustus: A Man of Many Names
• Pater Patriae: Father of the Nation
• To hide this hypocrisy, Augustus started an aggressive propaganda
campaign, headed by his friend and adviser Maecenas.
• Maecenas brought several poets to the Emperor's cause,
including the famous Virgil, who wrote the Aeneid, an epic poem
for the Roman people.
• Augustus used Virgil's Aeneid to weave himself and his agenda
into the pages of Roman history.
• Augustus also built a vast number of public works and monuments,
transforming the city of Rome to such an extent that upon his death
he could say, 'I found Rome a city of brick and left it clothed in
marble.'
• These accomplishments so endeared Augustus to the Roman people
that in 2 BCE, they named Augustus Pater Patriae, Father of the
Nation.
Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus Gaius Octavius, Pater Patriae
* Introduction to the Julio-Claudian Dynasty
• In this lesson, we're going to tackle the Julio-Claudian Dynasty, the first imperial
dynasty of the Roman Empire.
• In power from 27 BC to 68 AD, the dynasty included the reigns of Augustus,
Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero.
• Although many of its members seemed a bit nuts, the Julio-Claudian Dynasty is
arguably the most famous dynasty of the Empire.
• As we go through the details of this dynasty, it may just seem like a really violent
soap opera. Men came to power through forced marriage, divorce,
assassination, and murder.
• While discussing the twists and turns that make this dynasty infamous, there
are three main points I'd like us to grasp.
• First, the Julio-Claudian Dynasty was the first dynasty to rule the Roman
Empire.
• Second, Augustus was its first emperor and the only Julio-Claudian not to
face a violent death.
* Introduction to the Julio-Claudian Dynasty
• Last, none of the emperors of the dynasty were succeeded by their
biological sons, or in other words, their direct male heir.
• Keeping these three things in mind, let's get to our Julio-Claudian emperors.
• Augustus
• As previously stated, Augustus kicked off the Julio-Claudian Dynasty.
• From the Roman family group, Julia, he gives us the Julio part of the JulioClaudian name. Although he is remembered by history as Augustus, his
actual name was Octavian.
• Furthermore, he was the adopted son and actual great nephew of the
famous Julius Caesar.
• After the assassination of Julius Caesar, and after winning an infamous
battle with the forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra, the Roman senate
declared Octavian the guy in charge, giving him the name Augustus,
meaning great, venerable, or revered. This occurred in the year 27 BC.
* Introduction to the Julio-Claudian Dynasty
• Augustus
• As previously stated, Augustus kicked off the Julio-Claudian Dynasty.
• Ironically, Augustus never declared himself emperor, but instead called
himself the First Citizen (Princeps).
• However, due to the power and control he wielded, history and tradition
have awarded him the title of the first Roman emperor.
• During his reign, he definitely lived up to this title, having complete
authority over every Roman colony.
• This power enabled him to restore peace within the Empire, beginning the
famous Pax Romana, or Roman Peace.
• Under this peace, the agricultural production, economy, and arts of
the Empire boomed, and in 2 BC Augustus was declared Pater Patriae,
the father of his country.
* Introduction to the Julio-Claudian Dynasty
• Tiberius
• Augustus illustrious reign came to an end with his natural, non-violent death in
the year 14 AD.
• Upon his death, Tiberius, from the Roman family group, Claudia, took the
throne. Hence the name, Julio-Claudian Dynasty.
• Now, let's remember none of the Julio-Claudian emperors were succeeded by
their biological sons. In fact, Tiberius was the son of Augustus' wife from her
first marriage.
• He was, what we would call, Augustus' step-son.
• In order to make the family connection even stronger, and in perfect soap
opera style, Augustus forced Tiberius to divorce his wife, and then take the
hand of his, Augustus', daughter in marriage.
• Unlike his predecessor, Tiberius was a soldier who never really wanted to be an
emperor.
* Introduction to the Julio-Claudian Dynasty
• Tiberius
• Not one for enjoying the pomp and circumstance of Rome, he spent a large
part of his reign on the island of Capri.
• While there, he abandoned most of his imperial duties to his advisor,
Sejanus.
• Unfortunately, Sejanus decided to have an affair with the wife of
Tiberius' son.
• This didn't go over to well with Tiberius, and after a series of very
dramatic events, Sejanus was brutally executed.
• History tells us Tiberius became more and more paranoid as he aged.
• His later years were filled with the trial and executions of those he
even suspected of treason.
• As his paranoia grew, he remained on the island of Capri.
* Introduction to the Julio-Claudian Dynasty
• Tiberius
• Having reached their fill of his paranoia and murderous reign, Tiberius
was assassinated by a member of his praetorian guard, or body
guards, in the year 37 AD.
• With this violent death of the second Julio-Claudian emperor, Caligula
took the throne.
• Caligula and Claudius
• Caligula was the adopted, not biological, son of Tiberius. In actuality, he was his
nephew, the son of his deceased brother Germanicus.
• Germaincus had been a great general, beloved by his troops, and he had
taken his young son on campaign with him, and even provided him with a
miniature military uniform, right down to some “little boots,” which is what
Caligula means in Latin, little boots.
• Although they weren't truly father and son, it could be said Caligula was a chip
off the old Tiberius block.
* Introduction to the Julio-Claudian Dynasty
• Caligula and Claudius
• Like his adopted dad, Caligula executed many of his subjects for treason.
• Taking things a step further, he murdered his own adopted son, pillaged the
treasuries of Rome, and is generally remembered as being a madman.
• Whether all the stories of his violent reign are true, his unpopularity did lead to
his assassination in the year 41 AD, making him the second Julio-Claudian
emperor to die a violent death.
• This brings us to Claudius, the next guy to claim the throne.
• Turning things a bit up-side down, Claudius was actually the uncle of his
predecessor, Caligula.
• Making him stand out from his fellow Julio-Claudians, Claudius was chosen by
the army, not a ruling emperor or the senate.
* Introduction to the Julio-Claudian Dynasty
• Caligula and Claudius
• Although the army actually chose him because they thought he would be
weak and easy to control, as he was lame in one leg, and never considered
intelligent, nor athletic or warrior like by the other members of his family,
including his mother and step father, Claudius ended up being rather
competent.
• He waged several military campaigns and is credited for increasing the
territory of the Roman Empire.
• He is most famous for his conquering of Britain in the year 43 AD.
• Although Claudius may have been an excellent military leader, he was a
very poor judge of character.
• In 54 AD he was murdered by his wife, who also happened to be his
niece, and her son Nero, a son from another man, we might add, took
the throne.
• Thus, we have another Julio-Claudian dying a violent death and
someone not his son taking the throne.
* Introduction to the Julio-Claudian Dynasty
• Nero
• Unfortunately for the Julio-Claudian Dynasty, Nero takes the cake as one of the
most infamous emperors of Rome.
• Although it has never been proven, he is accused of starting the 64 AD Great
Fire of Rome.
• Making him even more notorious, history tells us he blamed the Christians
for the fire and began persecuting them en masse.
• Add to this, he is credited with the murder of his mom (yes, the same
woman who poisoned her husband so he could have the throne), his first
wife, and his stepbrother, and you can see why Rome reached their fill of
him by 68 AD.
• Facing a sentence of death from the Roman senate, Nero committed
suicide.
• Dying with no heir in place, his suicide brought the final violent death to
the Julio-Claudian Dynasty.
* Year of the Four Emperors
• Other than Caesar Augustus, the most famous emperors of Rome are arguably the
Flavian Emperors.
• These famous Flavians, Vespasian and his two sons, Titus and Domitian, reigned
during some of Rome's greatest triumphs and tragedies.
• Before we get to the details of these famous Flavians, let's see how they came to
power in the year known to history as the Year of the Four Emperors.
• When Emperor Nero was deposed without an heir in the year 68 AD, the
position of emperor was up for grabs.
• What ensued was a bloody year in which four men claimed, then tried to hold,
the crown.
• The first man to begin the Year of the Four Emperors was Galba.
• As a respected general, Galba seemed to have what it took to be emperor.
• Unfortunately, he was old, and when he chose his heir, a man named Otho
challenged this decision.
* Year of the Four Emperors
• When a supporter of Otho assassinated Galba, Otho took the throne as the
year's second emperor.
• Sadly for Otho, he lacked the military might to hold the throne.
• When Vitellius, another military man, challenged the throne, Otho actually
committed suicide, handing the crown to Vitellius, the year's third emperor.
• Ironically, Vitellius proved to be as weak as his predecessor. Within a very short
time, his generals had more power than he did, and Vitellius was actually
dragged into the streets and murdered.
* Vespasian as Victor
• Enter Titus Flavius Vespasianus, a conquering general, who claimed the throne as
the year's fourth and final emperor.
• Known to history as Vespasian, he took and held the crown, beginning the
Flavian Dynasty of emperors.
• Since Vespasian sort of won the Year of the Four Emperors, we're giving him the
nickname, Vespasian the Victor.
* Year of the Four Emperors
• This is especially fitting since he restored stability to the Empire after a year of
chaos.
• As the victor, he also suppressed several rebellions throughout the Empire, the
most famous being the Jewish rebellion, centered in Judea.
• Adding to these victories, Vespasian won the heart of Rome by creating a welloiled propaganda machine.
• For example, when his son, Titus, sacked Jerusalem, Vespasian organized
an extravagant ceremony, or triumph, in which they showed off their spoils
of war.
• Not content with only showing off the spoils of war, Vespasian won public
opinion by beginning the construction of one of Rome's greatest treasures,
the Colosseum, known to ancient Rome as the Flavian Amphitheatre.
• Winning the game of public opinion, Vespasian ruled until his death by illness,
not assassination, in the year 79 AD.
• Upon his death, his eldest son, Titus, took his crown.
* The Tragedies of Titus
• As emperor, Titus held great promise.
• After all, it was he who commanded the Roman legions that conquered
Jerusalem.
• It was he who marched through Rome in victorious triumph.
• One of Rome's greatest monuments, the Arch of Titus, commemorates his fame.
• Despite this illustrious resume, Titus' reign was short. It was also filled with some of
Rome's greatest tragedies.
• For this reason, we'll remember him as Titus the Tragic.
• It was within Titus' reign that Mt. Vesuvius erupted, burying the cities of
Pompeii and Herculaneum under volcanic ash.
• Adding to this tragedy, a fire ravaged Rome in the year 80 AD.
• As if this wasn't enough to earn him the nickname Titus the Tragic, his reign also
saw the outbreak of the plague within the Empire.
* The Tragedies of Titus
• On top of all these ill-fated events, Titus himself succumbed to illness, dying in
81 AD.
* Domitian Dominates
• Upon the tragic death of Titus, the third and last Flavian emperor took the throne.
• His name was Domitian, son of Vespasian and younger brother of Titus.
• Because of Domitian's overbearing personality, and his propensity to see himself as a
god, we'll be remembering him as Domitian the Domineering.
• As a domineering emperor, this famous Flavian considered himself a god.
• While previous emperors at least referred to themselves as 'first citizens' or 'first
among equals,' Domitian preferred to be called 'master and god.'
• Seeing himself in this light, Domitian usually ignored the desires of the Roman
senate and aristocracy.
• He dealt cruelly with his critics, seizing their property, and ordering their deaths.
* Domitian Dominates
• He also levied heavy taxes, and spent a great deal of money staging extravagant
games and building monument after monument in his family's honor.
• Eventually, the aristocracy of Rome reached their fill of Domitian and his
domineering ways.
• In 96 AD, Domitian was assassinated.
• Since he died without a living heir, the famous Flavian Dynasty died with him.
* Introduction to Five Good Emperors
• When Emperor Domitian was assassinated without a living heir in the year 96 AD,
the Roman Senate quickly and wisely chose a man to take his place.
• This man's name was Nerva, and lucky for the Empire, this choice was a good one.
• Nerva's reign began the Nervan-Antonine Dynasty, which included what history calls
the Five Good Emperors.
* Introduction to Five Good Emperors
• In order of their reign, they were:
• Nerva,
• Trajan,
• Hadrian,
• Antoninus Pius,
• And, last but certainly not least, Marcus Aurelius.
• As we discuss these emperors, we'll highlight the details of each reign.
• In doing this, there are two main points I'd like you to grasp.
• First, the Five Good Emperors brought relative peace, stability, and prosperity to
Rome.
• Since they were preceded, then followed by, some pretty ruthless
characters, this makes them stand out in the pages of Roman history.
* Introduction to Five Good Emperors
• Second, the reign of the Five Good Emperors was characterized by the adopting
of one's heir to the throne, rather than the crown simply going to a biological
son or whoever was strong enough to take it.
• In other words, the emperor passed his crown on to the man he felt was
the most worthy to wear it, regardless of blood ties.
• Making this transition even more seamless, the adopted son actually
shared in the imperial duties while his adopted father still lived.
• Now, onto our Five Good Emperors.
• Nerva and Trajan
• As already stated, Nerva began the reign of the Five Good Emperors in 96 AD.
• Unlike many emperors, he is remembered in history as a rather honorable guy.
• He lessened the strain of taxation on his people and worked to bring back
into the fold of Rome those who had been mistreated and exiled by his
predecessor, Domitian.
* Introduction to Five Good Emperors
• Since Nerva was up there in age when he took the crown, his reign was
short lived.
• However, before he died, he adopted Trajan as his heir, thus beginning the
custom of adoption to the throne.
• Trajan ruled as a soldier and went to work expanding the boundaries of the
empire.
• He annexed several areas, and grew the empire larger than ever before.
• Adding to this, he oversaw many building programs within Rome, including
the renovation of the Circus Maximus and the enlargement of the Forum.
• Today, Trajan's Column still stands in honor of his reign.
• Before Trajan died, he adopted Hadrian as heir.
• Hadrian and Pius
• Unlike Trajan, Hadrian did not work to extend the boundaries of the
empire.
* Introduction to Five Good Emperors
• On the contrary, he is most famous for the wall he built in order to plant
them firmly in place.
• Although the most famous of these is Hadrian's Wall in Britain, several
others were constructed throughout the empire.
• Apart from the walls he built, Hadrian is also remembered for the
Second Jewish War.
• In this conflict, his reign squelched a Jewish rebellion in Judea,
destroying the city of Jerusalem, its population, and its
surrounding villages.
• And, with this we come to his successor, Antoninus Pius.
• Antoninus Pius reigned from 138 AD to 161 AD.
• Although his reign was long, we know very little about the man himself.
• Perhaps the least famous of the Five Good Emperors, history tells us he was
actually very well-liked by the subjects he ruled.
* Introduction to Five Good Emperors
• Unlike his predecessors, Pius was content to stay within the borders of Italy,
ruling the Empire during one of its most peaceful eras.
• Perhaps his most memorable accomplishment is his adoption of Marcus
Aurelius as heir and his odd choice to give Aurelius a co-heir named Lucius
Verus.
• Aurelius and Verus
• Coming to the throne in 161 AD, Aurelius and Verus shared the title of emperor.
• Although Aurelius never sought to rob Verus of honor or power, Verus died from
illness less than a decade into their reign.
• With his early death, Verus has been overshadowed by Aurelius.
• In fact, he is not even included as one of the Five Good Emperors.
• With this we turn attention to Marcus Aurelius, arguably the most famous of
the Five Good Emperors.
* Introduction to Five Good Emperors
• Aurelius and Verus
• Ironically, Marcus Aurelius is not usually remembered for military
accomplishment or political advancement.
• Instead he's remembered for his philosophical beliefs.
• As a student of Stoicism, Aurelius held to the belief that any
destructive emotions (for example jealousy, rage, fear) come from an
error in a person's judgment.
• Accordingly, through exercising self-control, a wise man can free
himself of such emotions, thus reaching moral perfection.
• This belief system ruled Aurelius' life and left us with his famous
writings known simply as his Meditations.
• In this collection, Marcus Aurelius gives a glimpse into the man
he was.
• Here are just a few of his most famous meditations.
* Introduction to Five Good Emperors
• Aurelius and Verus
• You have power over your mind - not outside events. Realize
this, and you will find strength.
• Everything we hear is an opinion, not a fact. Everything we
see is a perspective, not the truth.
• And perhaps my favorite: Waste no more time arguing
about what a good man should be. Be one.
* Commodus
• With these quotes, we come to the end of our Five Good Emperors, but
unfortunately, not the end of the Nervan-Antonine Dynasty.
• There is one more emperor we must mention, and he is known to history as
Commodus. He is definitely not remembered as good.
• Commodus took the throne as the actual biological son of Marcus Aurelius in
the year 180 AD.
* Commodus
• Unlike his father and the other Five Good Emperors, Commodus had no
compunction toward self-control or goodness.
• Upon taking the throne, he began executing anyone he felt was a threat to his
power.
• He also terrorized the Senate, robbing them of their possessions in order to fill
his own pockets.
• Remembered by history as being rather nuts, he believed himself to be the
embodiment of the god Hercules.
• Not only did he believe this, he forced those around him to address him as such.
• After putting up with his craziness for over a decade, Rome reached its fill
of the Emperor Commodus.
• He was assassinated in the year 192 AD.
• This assassination would make him the only emperor of the NervanAntonine Dynasty to meet a violent death. It would also spell the end of
the dynasty.
* Septimius and the Severan Dynasty
• Once upon a time, around the year 200 AD, in a land far, far away (the Roman Empire
to be exact), there lived the Severan Emperors, a family who ruled Rome and its vast
lands.
• Although history tells us they were a very violent people, and probably a bit off their
rockers, they brought military and social reform to Rome.
• Let's start with the first Severan emperor who gave the dynasty its name, Septimius
Severus.
• To make it easier to remember what he did, we'll call him 'Septimius the Soldier.'
• Septimius, our soldier Severan, came to power in the year 193 AD, also known
as the Year of Five Emperors, in which five different rich guys fought for the title
of Emperor.
• Being rather brutal, and more than willing to kill for power, Septimius the
Soldier was the last guy standing in this fight.
• Upon becoming emperor, he reformed the military. Hence our name, Septimius
the Soldier.
* Septimius and the Severan Dynasty
• To stabilize his lands, Septimius the Soldier disbanded the very large and very
corrupt Praetorian Guard, or the emperor's elite bodyguards.
• He was also the first emperor to create a standing, or permanent, army within
Italy.
• Not only did this keep the homeland safe, it also made Septimius very
formidable.
• Anytime there was a threat to his power, he had an army ready and
waiting!
• In order to keep the soldiers on his side, he increased their pay and
benefits.
• Working to keep the citizenry content, he put on games, supplied grain,
and even forgave the debts of his powerful friends.
• Although all these actions kept him safe from assassination, it added a huge
financial burden to the empire. This burden was so large, many historians
actually blame his policies for the eventual fall of Rome.
* Septimius and the Severan Dynasty
• Yes, his fiscal policies may have been a bit reckless, but he did establish and
maintain a strong Roman military.
• Geta & Caracalla
• After the peaceful death of Septimius the Soldier, his sons, Caracalla and Geta,
were co-emperors of Rome.
• Not really keen on the idea of sharing power, Caracalla arranged for the
murder of his brother and took outright control of the Empire.
• Since Caracalla is most remembered for his Antonine Constitution, in
which he granted citizenship to every free person in the Roman Empire,
we'll call him 'Caracalla the Citizen'.
• Although granting citizenship like this improved the lives of many, he was
also cruel and punishing.
• As we already learned, he had no problem killing family members.
However, he was also known for burying his victims alive and
massacring at will.
* Septimius and the Severan Dynasty
• Geta & Caracalla
• For example, during a visit to Egypt he was mocked while in
Alexandria.
• He retaliated by ordering a massacre of the city's youth.
• All in all Caracalla the Citizen wasn't really a guy you'd like to see in control of
things, but in his defense, he did grant citizenship to every free person within
the empire.
• Macrinus & Elagabalus
• Having had enough of Caracalla the Citizen, one of his relatives, Macrinus,
murdered him and claimed the title of emperor.
• For this deed, we'll call him 'Macrinus the Murderer'.
• History really doesn't record a lot about Macrinus the Murderer. For the most
part, he stayed out of Rome and was assassinated within a year by another
power hungry Severan known to history as Elagabalus.
* Septimius and the Severan Dynasty
• Macrinus & Elagabalus
• Unfortunately for Rome, Elagabalus was a young teenager when he became
emperor.
• Like lots of teenagers, he had more interest in partying than ruling.
• For this reason, history says very little about his accomplishments. Instead, he's
remembered, for lack of a better term, as being quite the pervert.
• He enjoyed pretending to be a female prostitute, marrying both men and
women, forcing those around him to participate in sexual acts, and
generally doing things not suitable to print.
• To remember Elagabalus, we'll simply call him 'Elagabalus the Icky.'
• Being fed up with his antics, Elagabalus the Icky's bodyguards murdered him,
and his very young cousin, Severus Alexander, was put on the throne.
• Upon taking the throne, Severus's rule was dominated by his mom. For this, we
give him the name, 'Severus the Sissy'.
* Septimius and the Severan Dynasty
• Severus & His Mom
• Fortunately for Rome, Alexander Severus' mom, Julia Avita Mamaea, wasn't all
bad, and his rule was marked by peace.
• Although she was a rather jealous woman who got rid of anyone who
challenged her control, she did make sure Severus the Sissy was surrounded by
wise council.
• She was also very fiscally strict and imposed cuts to the military and its
spending.
• This, along with the fact that Severus and his mom tried to bribe enemies rather
than fight them, made the military mutiny.
• Like most of the other Severans, Alexander Severus and his mom were
assassinated in the year 235 AD.
• With the death of Severus the Sissy, the reign of the Severan Dynasty came to
an end, and history said goodbye to one of Rome's most infamous dynasties.
* Introduction to the Crisis
• The 3rd Century Crisis was a period in which the Roman Empire came very close to
collapsing.
• It was a time when the position of emperor lost its power, and, to put it in modernday terms, the inmates began running the asylum.
• With this collapse of authority, things like civil war, foreign invasion, economic
depression and even a plague brought the Roman Empire to its knees.
• To help us remember the causes of the crisis, we're going to call them The Five
Fs: feuding, factions, funding, foreigners and a freaky disease.
• Fortunately for the Empire, a man named Diocletian would step in to save the
day.
• But, before we get to the hero of the story, let's take a look at how the
crisis began. Then, we'll delve into our Five Fs.
* Introduction to the Crisis
• Feuding & Factions
• The 3rd Century Crisis began with the end of the Severan Dynasty of emperors.
• The Severan Emperors, while being rather violent and a bit nuts,
maintained control of Rome for several generations.
• Their strength as rulers kept the military and the people from open
rebellion.
• However, when Severus Alexander, the last of the Severans, was
assassinated, the title of Emperor went up for grabs.
• Soon dozens of wealthy military leaders fought for the throne, creating
chaos, and throwing the Empire into civil war.
• These civil wars give us our first F: feuding
• Our second F is factions.
* Introduction to the Crisis
• Feuding & Factions
• Seeing the Empire in chaos, the conquered territories of Rome
decided to add to the melee by breaking from the Empire and
creating their own factions.
• The territories of Gaul, Spain and Britain declared their independence
and named themselves the Gallic Empire.
• They even went as far as crowning their own emperors.
• Witnessing the rebellion of these territories, the eastern provinces,
comprised of Syria Palaestina and Egypt, also decided to try their hands at
revolution.
• Making matters worse, the territories that did remain loyal to Rome were
burdened with warring generals trying to assert their power.
• These generals, who were mostly killed in battle or assassinated, are
known to history as the Barracks Emperors.
* Introduction to the Crisis
• Funding
• As if civil war wasn't enough, the 3rd Century Crisis was a period of economic
depression.
• From this we get our third F: funding.
• In order to try to gain or keep power, Rome's rulers began bribing soldiers
to play on their team.
• To come up with the extra funds, those in power started decreasing the
amount of precious metals in the currency.
• In other words, they made the coins worth less and less.
• Hmmm...sounds eerily familiar.
• In doing this, the buying power of Roman currency plummeted and
inflation spread like bad news.
• Also, since currency meant so little, people began trading and
bartering, rather than paying and purchasing.
* Introduction to the Crisis
• Funding
• Since no money was trading hands, tax revenue was scarce and the
economy of the Empire fell further into a pit.
• Foreign Invasion and Freaky Disease
• With little money, the Empire found itself going from the frying pan into the
fire.
• Since money was barely flowing, Rome had little with which to defend
itself from our fourth F: foreigners.
• Add to this that the Roman armies were busy fighting each other, and
attacking Rome became as easy as shooting fish in a barrel.
• Before long, Germanic tribes were allying with one another and ransacking
prosperous Roman cities.
• While the Germanic tribes were wreaking havoc in the North, Persians
were attacking from the East, pillaging cities and even capturing one of the
acting emperors.
* Introduction to the Crisis
• Foreign Invasion and Freaky Disease
• Adding complete insult to injury, our fifth F, a freaky disease, hit the Empire.
• This freaky disease, known as the Plague of Cyprian hit the Empire in the
midst of all these other troubles.
• Unfortunately for Rome, the plague was as capricious as the warring
generals.
• Having no respect for rank or position, it devastated towns and
villages, killing farmers, soldiers and whomever it saw fit.
• Claudius and Aurelian
• Fortunately for Rome, the sun began to come out with the rise of a few
competent emperors.
• First, Emperor Claudius II began shoring up the borders around 270 AD.
• He did this by running the Gauls out of the Empire.
* Introduction to the Crisis
• Claudius and Aurelian
• Unfortunately for Rome, the darn plague set its sights on Claudius and he
died before being able to gain complete control.
• Next to take the throne was an aggressive and smart military man known to
history as Aurelian.
• Upon taking the throne, Aurelian saw victory against the Goths, the Gallic
Empire, Syria Palaestina and Egypt.
• For this he earned the title, 'Restorer of the World.'
• Unfortunately for Rome, his body guards, who must not have been too
impressed with his restorations, assassinated him in the year 275 AD; yet
another kick in the shins for the Roman Empire.
• Diocletian
• Fortunately for the Empire, their prince was about to come. In the year 284 AD,
Diocletian came onto the scene, claimed power and began to pull the Empire
from the pit of despair.
* Introduction to the Crisis
• Diocletian
• Picking up where Aurelian left off, he instituted several reforms.
• Also, in order to let people know he was boss, he took a page from Aurelian's
book and began calling himself Lord and God.
• This move set him up as a deity, not to be messed with.
• In the matter of the economy, Diocletian also took the bull by the horns.
• He introduced coins with purer metal content.
• These coins became known as the gold solidus, the Latin word for
solid, and soon became the standard currency of the Empire.
• To battle inflation, he instituted an Edict on Maximum Prices, which was
basically a comprehensive list, telling suppliers what they could and could
not charge for an item.
• In other words, the edict, not the market, determined price.
* Introduction to the Crisis
• Diocletian
• Not one to back away from a fight, Diocletian also took on the military.
• Unlike many of his predecessors, Diocletian was not afraid to leave the
safety of Rome. This made him a force to be reckoned with.
• Adding to this, he created a cavalry-based army which he could deploy as
soon as trouble arose.
• He also split troops into layers, leaving some at the borders, but also
placing some within the interior of the Empire.
• Perhaps his greatest military tactic was the creation of the Tetrarchy, in which
he placed four rulers across the Empire to keep his laws and orders.
• Two senior Augustii, and two junior Ceasars
• The Augustii shared power in ruling the empire, and the Ceasars were
heirs apparent who assisted the Augustii
• In doing this, Diocletian could keep his finger on the pulse of the Empire.
* Introduction to the Crisis
• Diocletian
• At the end of Diocletian's remarkable reign, the Empire had crawled its way
from the dark pit known as the Crisis of the 3rd Century.
• Yes, problems like foreign invasion, a pathetic economy and civil war would
eventually sink the Empire.
• However, Diocletian will be remembered as the man who conquered the
Crisis of the 3rd Century, and kept the Empire standing for a little while
longer.
* Conversion Experience
• There are moments in time that have changed the world, standing out as turning
points in history.
• For the United States, there's Lexington's shot heard 'round the world;
• for Europe, the crowning of Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor.
* Conversion Experience
• Although these events shaped continents, many historians give them a back seat to
the conversion of Constantine, an event which elevated Christianity to political
prominence and power.
• Ironically, such a profound event is believed to have begun with a vision and a
dream.
• To explain, tradition holds that Constantine converted to Christianity after an odd
experience in the 312 AD battle of Milvian Bridge.
• While warring against Maxentius, his co-heir, Constantine began praying for
assistance.
• In the midst of such prayer, he saw a beaming cross bearing the words: in hoc
signo vinces (translated 'by this sign you will conquer').
• At which point, he saw a sign in the sky of what we would call a letter “P”
crossed at the bottom by a letter “X”
• To Constantine, this represented the Greek
letters “Chi” and “Rho”, the first two letters
of the Greek name “Cristos,” or Christ
* Conversion Experience
• When he had a dream that very night in which God reaffirmed this vision,
Constantine was sold.
• Constantine I, or Constantine Maximus was a Caesar under his father, the
Augustus of the West, and when his father died in Great Britain, where
Constantine had been born in the present day city of York, the Legions
there proclaimed him Emperor, not Augustus.
• Because of this Constantine had to fight against the other members of the
tetrarchy in order to assume the sole emperor position.
• The Battle of Milvan Bridge was one of the last battles of these wars for
ascension.
• As a result of his vision, and his dream, Constantine had his soldiers place
crosses on their shields, and they won the day.
• Now, whether Constantine's conversion was heartfelt or whether he used his
new found faith as an exaggerated good luck charm is still fodder for great
debate among historians and theologians.
* Conversion Experience
• However, everyone agrees on one point. Constantine's conversion caused the
political ascent of Christianity.
• Legalization and Legislation
• For starters, Constantine wasted little time promoting his new found faith.
• In 313 AD, his reign saw the issue of the Edict of Milan, which legalized
Christianity and freed its followers from the vicious, state-instituted
persecutions experienced under emperors like Nero and Diocletian.
• Not content with merely legalizing Christianity, Constantine had no problems
mixing church and state.
• In fact, the integration of church and state is often referred to as
Constantinism.
• In other words, he enacted legislation that acted like fertilizer for the
faith. He declared Sunday as an official Roman holiday, making getting
to church much easier for his subjects.
* Conversion Experience
• However, everyone agrees on one point. Constantine's conversion caused the
political ascent of Christianity.
• Legalization and Legislation
• He also offered tax exemption to the church and many of its clergy.
• Adding to this, Constantine changed December 25th from a
celebration of a pagan God to a celebration of Christ's birth, giving
Christianity and kids all over the world Christmas!
• Why December 25th?
• Spring had been accepted in most religions as the rebirth of
nature.
• According to the Roman religious calendar, Spring’s arrival
was on March 25th
• The Virgin Mary’s annunciation would have signified the
beginning of rebirth, so it seemed logical to place it when
spring began.
* Conversion Experience
• However, everyone agrees on one point. Constantine's conversion caused the
political ascent of Christianity.
• Legalization and Legislation
• As she was human, her birth would have occurred nine
months from that date, which would be December 25th.
• So, the fact that Christmas occurs near the Pagan
celebration of the Winter solstice and traces of several
pagan festivals can be found in Christmas including the
birthday of the God Mithra and the Roman festival of
Saturnalia (Sun God) starting on the 17th December and
ending on the 23rd with 'Dies Natali Solis Invictus', 'the
birthday of the unconquered sun‘, are not the reason
Christmas is December 25th, as many other festivals
throughout the year could have been chosen as well.
* Conversion Experience
• Corruption
• It must be mentioned that although these things definitely aided the ascent of
Christianity, many historians also credit them with its corruption.
• Seeing the favor Constantine showered on the church and its members, it's
believed many flocked to the faith for political gain and personal
advancement.
• Yes, their hearts may have been a bit tugged but their pocketbooks were
downright sucked in.
• This trend only increased as Constantine became more and more intolerant of
the pagan faiths throughout his reign.
• Anyone wanting to climb the social ladder would have been a fool not to
convert.
* Conversion Experience
• Nicaea and the Bible
• Perhaps the most well-known and lasting piece of Constantine's political
portfolio is the 325 AD Council of Nicaea, a gathering of about 300 bishops
issuing an official statement affirming Jesus Christ as completely divine.
• This statement of faith is known as the precursor to today's still famous Nicene
Creed.
• Without a doubt, Constantine put his political weight behind this creed, and the
world still feels his influence.
• For instance, Marshall is a rather small town, but I wouldn't have to go very
far on a Sunday morning before I'd run into a Christian church displaying
the Nicene Creed or quoting it as a congregation.
• For most congregations, it goes something like this in English:
* Conversion Experience
• Nicaea and the Bible
• We believe in one God, the Father, the Almighty, Maker of all that
is, seen and unseen. We believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ,
the only Son of God, eternally begotten of the Father, God from
God, Light from Light, true God from true God, begotten, not
made, one in Being with the Father. Through him all things were
made. For us and for our salvation he came down from heaven:
and by the Holy Spirit was born of the Virgin Mary, and became
man. For our sake he was crucified under Pontius Pilate;
he suffered, died and was buried. On the third day he rose again
in fulfillment of the Scriptures; he ascended into heaven
and is seated at the right hand of the Father. He will come again
in glory to judge the living and the dead, and his kingdom will
have no end. We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of
life, who proceeds from the Father and the Son. With the Father
and the Son he is worshipped and glorified. He has spoken
through the Prophets. We believe in one holy catholic and
apostolic Church. We acknowledge one baptism for the
forgiveness of sins. We look for the resurrection of the dead,
and the life of the world to come.
* Conversion Experience
• Nicaea and the Bible
• Basically, a statement of what defines what it means to be a
Christian
• Constantine also played a role in validating the Bible.
• Wanting Christendom to rally around the sacred texts, he led the Council of
Nicaea to begin the process of formal acceptance, or canonization, of
scripture.
• Since the word canon actually means measuring stick, this was an official
proclamation saying these books measure up!
• They are inspired by God, while there are some books that are not,
and did not make the cut into what we accept as the Bible to this day.
• In short, Constantine and the Council sort of put their rubber stamp of
agreement onto the words actually found in 2 Timothy of the Bible itself,
which reads, 'All Scripture is God-breathed and is useful for teaching,
rebuking, correcting and training in righteousness, so that the servant of
God may be thoroughly equipped for every good work.' (2 Timothy 3:16,17)
* An Introduction to St. Augustine
• Throughout time, there have been pieces of writing that captured the hearts and
minds of generations.
• There's Gone with the Wind, The Grapes of Wrath, and perhaps most famous,
the Bible.
• Today we'll be discussing a famous work that in many ways has come to be a
companion read to the Bible.
• It's known as the City of God.
• Although this work isn't found in most households or lining most bookstore
walls, its content molded modern Christianity, and its author, St. Augustine of
Hippo, is revered as one of the preeminent sculptors of modern-day
Christianity.
• Because the work is so complex, we could take days studying the City of God, a work
that flew in the face of the Greek philosophies of men like Plato and the pagan
philosophers of Rome.
• In order to condense these vast writings, we're going to break it down into his three
main points.
* An Introduction to St. Augustine
• First, Augustine wrote the City of God to refute the Romans who blamed the
Christians for Rome's troubles.
• Second, Augustine wanted people to know that internal peace could be found
here on earth.
• Third, Augustine wanted people to know that hell is real.
• Before we jump into his works, let's take a look at St. Augustine.
• Born in 354 AD in a Roman North African province, Augustine was an educated
and well-traveled man, spending time in places like Africa, Carthage, and Italy.
• Although he wasn't always the most upstanding of gents (for example, he had
some real issues with promiscuity and mistresses before finding God),
Augustine is heralded as one of the most influential figures in Christianity, an
influence that really began to take shape around the year 386 AD.
• Tradition tells us it was in this year that Augustine heard a voice telling him to
read the Bible.
* An Introduction to St. Augustine
• Upon picking up his Bible, it fell open to the book of Romans, which reads,
“Let us behave decently, as in the daytime, not in carousing and
drunkenness, not in sexual immorality and debauchery, not in dissension
and jealousy.”
• With this, his heart was convicted and changed.
• Christians Blamed
• After his conversion and baptism, Augustine moved back to North Africa to
become a preacher.
• Around 395 AD he became the Bishop of the Algerian region of Hippo Regius,
hence his name, St. Augustine of Hippo.
• As bishop, Augustine sought to guide his people through a turbulent time in
Roman history, a time when the empire was being invaded and destroyed by a
Germanic tribe known as the Visigoths.
• When Rome was captured in the year 410 AD by the Germanic king, Alaric I, the
future of the empire was bleak.
* An Introduction to St. Augustine
• Looking for someone to blame for their woes, many Romans turned to the
Christian faith, saying it was their fault that the empire was in such turmoil.
• Wanting to refute such claims, Augustine picked up his quill/pen and began the
City of God sometime around 413 AD.
• With this we come to our first main point: Augustine hoped to silence Romans
blaming the Christians for the fall of their empire.
• As Rome was ransacked and its people brutally murdered and raped, the
rest of the empire was left wondering how the Eternal City of Rome could
have fallen?
• Needing some way to make sense of it, they blamed the Christians, their
argument being that the gods of Rome had abandoned the empire because
the Christian monotheists, or worshipers of only one god, had insulted
them by refusing to pay them homage.
• Being ticked off, the gods had allowed the Visigoths to destroy the city.
• Completely disagreeing, Augustine used the City of God to lay out a
logical refutation of this argument.
* An Introduction to St. Augustine
• First, he reminded the people that bad things happen to
everyone.
• Next, he gave a list of horrible things, like plagues, that happened
while almost all of Rome actively worshiped the old gods and
Christianity wasn't even on the scene.
• Simply put, he asked, 'Where were your gods then?'
• He then took the gloves off by stating Rome fell because it was
spiritually corrupt and morally bankrupt.
• The Christians had nothing to do with it.
• Peace is Possible
• Once he dealt with all the blamers, Augustine got to our second point: Peace
can be acquired here on earth by those who choose the city of God, over the
city of man.
* An Introduction to St. Augustine
• Peace is Possible
• Concerning peace, Augustine explains there are two cities, one that is
temporal, called the City of the World, and one that is eternal, the City of
God.
• In his writings, the City of the World represents the natural, sinful
world (for example, Rome).
• By doing this, he encouraged his fellow Christians that Rome was
never their true city.
•
On the contrary, heaven is their true home and it alone will last.
• It will never be conquered.
• With this truth, he told his fellow believers that peace could
be experienced on earth by those who follow the guidelines
of the Holy Scriptures.
• This is the highest good.
* An Introduction to St. Augustine
• Hell is Real
• With the blamers dealt with, and how to acquire peace explained, Augustine
moved on to last point, eternal punishment is real and waiting for those who
belong to the City of the World.
• Obviously, this one didn't make him a crowd favorite, but it does give us
our last point.
• Augustine told the people of his age that the judgment described in
the Holy Scriptures is true.
• He wholeheartedly believed the words of the Bible, which read:
• “If this is so, then the Lord knows how to rescue the godly from
trials and to hold the unrighteous for punishment on the day of
judgment. This is especially true of those who follow the corrupt
desires of the flesh and despise authority.”
* An Introduction to St. Augustine
• Hell is Real
• Taking it a step further, Augustine encourages his audience to live as
citizens of the City of God, for not only will they escape judgment,
they will be welcomed into heaven, a place of eternal rest and
happiness with God.
• And you know what, I'm thinking that sounds like a much better
option.
* Reasons for the Fall of Rome
• As the familiar saying goes, 'Rome wasn't built in a day.'
• As the not so familiar saying also goes, 'It didn't fall in a day either!'
• To explain this saying, we're going to look at the gradual decline of Rome,
culminating with its sacking in the year 476 AD.
• In doing this, we're going to blame internal corruption, division, and outside
invasion for the demise of Rome, known to the ancient world as the Eternal
City.
* Reasons for the Fall of Rome
• Although there are a plethora of reasons for the fall that we could cite, most of
them can be traced back to these three.
• Internal Corruption
• Let's get started with internal corruption.
• As the Empire grew, it became very hard to govern and control.
• Violence began replacing law and order.
• Instead of emperors, generals, and politicians being chosen on the basis of
merit, positions of power were paid for or gained through violence that
could rival any modern day mob movie.
• Adding to the problem, the rulers of Rome - many of whom had bought or
murdered for their positions - had little desire to actually govern, let alone
preserve the city.
• Without a strong central power base, civil wars waged between feuding
political groups, while corrupt officials levied devastating taxes on the
people of Rome.
* Reasons for the Fall of Rome
• Although there are a plethora of reasons for the fall that we could cite, most of
them can be traced back to these three.
• Internal Corruption
• Inflation soared, commoners died of starvation and disease, and the lights
of the Eternal City began to dim.
• Division
• In an attempt to keep the light of Rome from completely dying, one emperor,
Diocletian, stepped in with a plan to save the day.
• However, his 3rd century plan actually gives us our second reason for the fall of
Rome: division.
• Seeing that the Empire was just too large to govern effectively, Diocletian
decided to divide it into Western and Eastern halves.
• When one of Diocletian's successors, the famous Constantine, officially
moved the capital of the Empire from Rome to Constantinople in the first
half of the 4th century, the center of political power moved with it.
* Reasons for the Fall of Rome
• Although there are a plethora of reasons for the fall that we could cite, most of
them can be traced back to these three.
• Division
• Constaninople is located in modern day Turkey, and would have its
name changed later to Byzantium, and then when the Turks
conquered it in 1453 AD, they changed it to Istanbul. Today it is called
Ankara, and is the capital of Turkey
• Outside Invasion
• To history, the Eastern part of the Empire came to be known as the Byzantine
Empire, while the Western half remained under the faltering control of Rome.
• Since the political force of the Empire had moved East, Rome was, in a manner
of speaking, left to fend for itself against not only corruption from within, but
also our third reason for its fall: outside invasion.
• As the Byzantine Empire of the East began to thrive, Rome and its
surrounding areas faced further decline.
* Reasons for the Fall of Rome
• Although there are a plethora of reasons for the fall that we could cite, most of
them can be traced back to these three.
• Outside Invasion
• With the political power of the Empire now in the East, and with the city of
Rome suffering from corruption from within, the ancient city was ripe for
attack.
• Soon nomads from the North, known as the Germanic tribes, began
attacking along the northern borders of the Empire.
• Without a strong leader, or a strong, well-disciplined military, the city
could not mount a suitable defense.
• Around the year 410 AD, Rome, the city once thought unconquerable,
was invaded by the Germanic Visigoths led by Alaric, a name which
has become synonymous with the demise of Rome.
• The Eternal City was looted, much of its ancient architecture was
reduced to rubble, and its people were ravaged.
* Reasons for the Fall of Rome
• Although there are a plethora of reasons for the fall that we could cite, most of
them can be traced back to these three.
• Outside Invasion
• For many historians, this event signaled the beginning of the very end
for the Eternal City.
• Ironically, in order to prevent this, emperors for generations had
been paying off the Germanic tribes not to invade Italy, and even
hiring them as mercenary supplements to their legions.
• The actual Romans began to depend on them so much, that over
90% of the Roman legions were actually made up of Germans
and other foreigners
• Alaric was actually not only a Germanic barbarian chieftain, and
King of the Visigoths, but also a general in command of a Roman
Legion, who, when passed over for a greater command, rebelled
and took Rome with his legion, who owed more to their
Germanic brothers, than to any perceived alliance with Rome.
* Reasons for the Fall of Rome
• Although there are a plethora of reasons for the fall that we could cite, most of
them can be traced back to these three.
• Outside Invasion
• In other words, the Germans were treated more as slaves than as
equal Roman citizens by the Romans themselves.
• The Romans had become insolent, fat, and lazy
• They made fun of the barbarians
• They did not speak refined Latin
• They wore beards
• They were often not Christian
• But yet, they depended on them for their security
• Finally, in 476, the Germanic people fell once again on Rome.
* Reasons for the Fall of Rome
• Although there are a plethora of reasons for the fall that we could cite, most of
them can be traced back to these three.
• Outside Invasion
• However, this time they gained complete control of the city and its
surrounding lands.
• Their leader, Odoacer, declared himself the ruler of Italy, forcing the last
emperor of Rome, Romulus Augustulus, a nine year old boy, to surrender
his crown.
• This signaled to history the fall of Rome - the extinguishing of the Eternal
City.
* Effects of Constantine
• When discussing Roman history, most of the emperors after Constantine don't get a
lot of mention. In fact, other than perhaps Justinian, most people probably couldn't
even name one.
• Possibly, because they were all in the east
* Effects of Constantine
• The emperors in the east were comfortable
• The east was stable, as they had been used to imperial rule by
foreigners for over a millennia, the west, on the contrary, had only
been conquered over the last 400 years, and was still not fully under
Roman control then.
• They suffered migrations of northern barbaric tribes looking for a
better life
• They lived in pockets of rural people governed by tribal
chieftains, and not in the civilized cities with mass populations
and the formal governments of the east.
• The east generated a lot of agricultural wealth with its wide sweeping
plains, where the west was heavily forested and difficult to farm
* Effects of Constantine
• As a result, the western half of the empire always required a great
deal of money to be spent on it in terms of soldiers to maintain order,
food to placate the populations, government officials to visit the many
tribes, and the vast areas, and the upkeep of the defenses on the
border, and maintaining the several thousand tribal leaders so they
would stay loyal to Rome.
• Eastern emperors were content to leave this expense to their western
“brother” emperors, who were always asking for assistance from the east
to maintain their empires, which the east rarely provided.
• Today we're going to remedy this by exploring a few of the emperors after
Constantine.
• Although we're going to focus mainly on Justinian, we'll still give a few others
their day in the sun.
• For starters, when Constantine converted to Christianity in the year 312 AD
and then moved the capitol of the Roman Empire from Rome to
Constantinople in the year 330, the Roman Empire drastically changed.
* Effects of Constantine
• The West, or Rome and its surrounding areas, faced continual invasion
from the Germanic tribes of the North, while the Eastern regions of
the Empire flourished.
• Now onto our emperors.
• Julian & the Apostate
• After Constantine, the first event and emperor really given much historybook playing time is Emperor Julian and his reign spanning 360-363.
• His claim to fame is his attempt to restore paganism to the Empire.
• Paganism refers to any religion other than Judaism or
Christianity.
• History has termed this period, the Apostate.
• In short, Julian tried to undo Constantine's Christian
reforms, calling for the Empire to return to the worship of
their old gods.
* Effects of Constantine
• Unfortunately for Julian, he underestimated the sticking
power of Christianity. His attempts at restoring paganism
were overturned by his successor, Jovian.
• Valens and Adrianople
• The next noteworthy event we'll discuss is the entrance of the Huns into
Europe and the Battle of Adrianople, occurring under Emperor Valens.
• The Huns were a warring and rather ruthless people from Asia.
• While Asiatic and possibly Turkic in origin, they had had contact
with Germanic peoples for hundreds of years, and intermarried
with them, and had many Germanic peoples counted in their
numbers.
• They were led by a rather aggressive and strategic minded
chieftain named Attilla, who had brought several of their tribes
together through military might to create a formidable armed
force.
* Effects of Constantine
• Valens and Adrianople
• To put it very mildly, they were intent on claiming whatever land they
came to.
• They pushed to very near Italy itself, and may have conquered
the eternal city if not for the intervention and pleas of the Bishop
of Rome at that time, Leo, I
• They also came close to capturing the whole of France, but were
defeated near the city of Orleans in the Battle of the Catalaunian
Plains
• Attilla died before he could complete his plans to subdue the
western half of the empire, and the Huns were forced to settle
on the edges of the Balks forests between the eastern and
western halves of the empire, in what is today modern Hungary.
• When the Huns entered Europe from the East, they pushed the Goths,
or members of Germanic tribes, into the Roman Empire.
* Effects of Constantine
• Valens and Adrianople
• Rather than declaring all-out war on these refugee-like Goths,
the Empire folded them into its lands giving them use of poor
lands oon the periphery, where they were forced to serve as a
buffer to the such aggressive tribes as the Huns, and therefore
had to be prepared militarily on a consistent basis.
• Not only did they have to be prepared themselves, but they
also had to provide the empire with a large part of their
young male population for military service elsewhere in the
empire
• This setup worked for a while, but soon the Germanic Goths
rebelled and defeated the Roman army in the 378 AD Battle of
Adrianople.
• Emperor Valens himself was captured, and paraded around
naked and in chains before the victorious Goths, a rather
humiliating thing for not just Valens, but the Roman people
as well.
* Effects of Constantine
• Valens and Adrianople
• Eventually, they executed him, just as Rome had sent
out the ransom for him the Goths had demanded.
• Theodosius
• The last event and emperor we'll discuss before getting to Justinian is
Emperor Theodosius.
• He is known to history as the last emperor to rule both the Western
and Eastern halves of the Empire.
• History tells us Theodosius' reign, which spanned 379-395, was one of
violence and military vengeance.
• Any who dared cross him, or his imperial forces, was severely
punished.
* Effects of Constantine
• Despite his propensity toward violence, he is often referred to as
Theodosius the Great.
• After all, he managed to hold the Empire together during a very
turbulent time, as well as outlaw any pagan religious practices, and
convert pagan temples to use as Christian churches, insuring Romans
would have no religion but Christianity.
• Unfortunately, going along with this practice, he also closed
Plato’s Academy, an act that most Romans were not in support
of.
• Justinian
• Now, we come to Justinian.
• By the time Justinian came to the throne in the year 527, the Eastern
Roman Empire was also known as the Byzantine Empire.
• It was Justinian's goal to bring the Empire back to its glory days.
* Effects of Constantine
• Justinian
• Not one to waste any time, he sent his military to reclaim much
of the Western Empire that had been lost after the Battle of
Adrianople and the fall of Rome.
• This even included Italy and the beloved city of Rome.
• Not content with merely reclaiming lands, Justinian also respected the
laws of ancient Rome.
• In order to cement them into his time and his Empire, he called
for all of Rome's ancient laws to be recorded.
• In doing this, Rome's ancient laws, also known as the Twelve
Tables, were broken down into categories.
• Outdated laws were done away with, and complex laws were
simplified.
• Desiring the Empire to thrive, Justinian also added new laws
dealing with the fair treatment of those within the Empire.
* Effects of Constantine
• Justinian
• For instance, one of his laws held that a person is innocent until
proven guilty.
• This one should be very familiar to anyone who has sat in a
history class or watched a TV cop show.
• Justinian's new laws, together with the laws of ancient Rome, are
known today as the Corpus of Civil Law or Justinian's Code of
Laws.
• Completed around the year 529, these laws have formed the
basis for the judicial systems of the Western world since that
time.
• Yes, Justinian may not be as well-known as Caesar or Nero, but his
influence just might be one of the strongest and longest-lasting of all
the Roman Emperors.
* The Legacy of the Roman Empire
• Perhaps nothing has defined western civilization as much as having once been part
of the Roman Empire
• The construction of cities, buildings, monuments, and the roads that connected
them throughout the empire brought a feeling of connectedness to people
living thousands of miles apart.
• Many great cities of Europe today began as Roman military camps, or trade
centers
• London
• Vienna
• Zurich
• Paris
• Orleans
• Palermo
• Cologne
• Florence
• Barcelona
• Milan
• York
• Strasbourg
• Budapest
• Geneva
* The Legacy of the Roman Empire
• The inventions and innovations which were generated in the Roman Empire
profoundly altered the lives of the ancient people and continue to be used in
cultures around the world today.
• indoor plumbing,
• aqueducts,
• and even fast-drying cement were either invented or improved upon by
the Romans.
• The calendar used in the West derives from the one created by Julius
Caesar, and the names of the days of the week (in the romance languages)
and months of the year also come from Rome.
• Apartment complexes (known as `insula), public toilets, locks and keys,
newspapers, even socks all were developed by the Romans as were shoes,
a postal system (modeled after the Persians), cosmetics, the magnifying
glass, and the concept of satire in literature.
* The Legacy of the Roman Empire
• During the time of the empire, significant developments were also advanced in
the fields of medicine, law, religion, government, and warfare.
• The Justinian Code became the basis of law throughout Western Europe to
this day, and guaranteed the rights of not just everyday Romans, but also
of medieval serfs as well.
• The governmental systems of Republicanism and monarchy were borrowed
from Rome
• Tactics, strategy, weaponry, military organization were Roman innovations
until the Renaissance
• The Latin language of the Romans provided a lingua franca for
academicians, business people, governments and church leaders to
communicate across borders and with colleagues across the continent
• And, most importantly, the official religion of Rome at the time of its
demise served as the official religion, and unifying force of western Europe
for another 1000 years.
* The Legacy of the Roman Empire
• And so, as we began this unit with the advent of Christianity, we conclude
it with an examination of Christian innovation throughout the age of the
Roman Empire.
* Early Christian Art: An Underground Movement
• The first few centuries after the death of Jesus afforded Christians few opportunities
for artistic or architectural expression.
• Christianity was often oppressed by the Roman Empire.
• Christians might have their property seized or be burned alive.
• In such a hostile environment, Christian artwork would have proven a liability.
• The only distinctly Christian symbol of this early age was the Ichthys, or 'Jesus fish.'
• The Ichthys was a secret symbol, whose name formed an acrostic for the central
concept of Christian faith.
* Early Christian Art: An Underground Movement
English Spelling of Greek
Letter
Word
Translation
Iota
Iesous
Jesus
Chi
Christos
Christ
Theta
Theou
God's
Ypsilon
Uios
Son
Sigma
Soter
Savior
• ICTYS (the Greek word for fish) is merely an acronym for, Jesus Christ, God's Son,
Savior.
• So the nature of Jesus could all be summed up with a simple fish, allowing
Christians to identify their secret places of worship as well as the burial places
of the faithful.
* Early Christian Art: An Underground Movement
• The Catacombs of Rome
• The burial of Christians was a secret affair as well.
• Unlike their pagan predecessors, Christians were not fans of cremation.
• Christians believed in a bodily resurrection.
• I suppose they thought Jesus wouldn't know what to do with an urn
full of ashes.
• So, instead of keeping the burnt remains of their loved ones on a shelf at
home, Christians buried their dead.
• In overpopulated Rome, with its severe lack of space, this meant
Christians had to find unique places to put their bodies.
• So Christians tunneled into the soft volcanic stone beneath the city,
and there they built amazing catacombs.
• And it is in these catacombs that we begin to see the first traces of
Christian art.
* Early Christian Art: An Underground Movement
• The Catacombs of Rome
• Early Christians decorated their catacombs with frescoes, or paintings on fresh
plaster. These frescoes are very simple and allegorical; not refined at all.
• This sort of primitive Christian painting copies the Pompeian style that was
popular across the Roman Empire.
• They just reused an old style for new content.
* Early Christian Art: An Underground Movement
• Sarcophagi
• After the Emperor Constantine fully legalized Christianity with the 313 Edict of
Milan, Christians began moving their burials above ground, with grand
sarcophagi, or stone caskets.
• These sarcophagi provide us with our first examples of Christian sculpture.
* Early Christian Art: An Underground Movement
• Sarcophagi
• Yet with sculpture, Christians faced a new problem.
• The classical world was full of sculpture, from idols of gods to friezes to lifesized sculptures adorning buildings.
• The early Christians saw pagan sculptures of gods as what they were graven images, which are strictly forbidden by the Bible as idolatry.
• For this reason, sculpture took a back seat during the early Christian years.
• Though the early Christians did make use of sculpture on occasion, they took
special care to make sure that the sculpture was clearly part of the decoration,
rather than an object of adoration.
• Therefore, early Christian sculpture avoided the life-sized scale of their pagan
predecessors, and almost completely avoided full statues or sculpture in the
round.
• Instead, Christians used shallow relief sculpture and depicted biblical scenes
and Christian allegory.
* Early Christian Art: An Underground Movement
• Early Christian Mosaic
• Yet Constantine did more for Christianity than just protecting it from
persecution.
• Constantine also actively sponsored the spread of Christianity through the
building of churches throughout his empire.
• Though these churches were very plain on the outside, their interiors were
bursting with colorful design in the form of mosaics.
• The mosaic had been around since Sumerian times.
• The Romans and Greeks did some incredibly detailed mosaics using cubes
of colored marble.
• Provided with these vast spaces, early Christians took the art form of
mosaic from the floor and spread it onto the ceilings, the walls,
everywhere.
• Early Christians created mosaics of biblical narratives and symbolic
awesomeness.
* Early Christian Art: An Underground Movement
• Early Christian Mosaic
• And instead of natural stone, they used colored glass, allowing them to
create vibrant colors.
• This glass also gives the mosaic a sort of glittery, semi-translucent quality
that you really must see in person to appreciate.
• The figures seem to shimmer as you move about.
• Though the Christians created some beautiful mosaics, the art of mosaic
would reach its apex in the Byzantine art to follow.
An early Christian mosaic in
Ravenna Italy depicting
Jesus
A Byzantine mosaic a;so
from Ravenna depicting the
Emperor Justinian
* Early Christian Art: An Underground Movement
• Illuminating the Word of God
• Just one form of early Christian art remains to be covered, and that is the
illuminated manuscript.
• Illuminations are illustrations to accompany a written text, usually incorporating
gold leaf.
• This addition became possible as the ancient world shifted from the tightly
wound scroll of papyrus to the bound codex, what we would call a book.
• The fact that papyrus scrolls needed to be rolled made illumination all but
impossible, because layers of paint would crack off and fall apart with
repeated rolling and unrolling.
• The advent of vellum, or parchment, as a writing surface provided artists
with a much more supple surface than brittle papyrus.
• It also meant that pages could lie flat, rather than being rolled and
unrolled.
* Early Christian Art: An Underground Movement
• Illuminating the Word of God
• The codex arrived on the scene around 100 AD, just in time for Christians
to start illustrating their favorite book: the Bible.
• One of the earliest surviving illuminated Bibles is the Vienna Genesis,
created around 500 AD.
• Here we can see a naturalistic style and a strange association of place and
time.
• The picture does not display a single event, but a whole sequence, strung
out along the path of the illustration - sort of like a medieval comic book.
• This illustration technique allowed illustrators to pack a lot of story into a
very small space.
* Early Christian Art: An Underground Movement
• Christian Architecture
• Early Christian architecture exploded under the protection and patronage of the
Emperor Constantine.
• Constantine wanted to unify the crumbling Roman Empire under Christianity.
• To do so, he began building churches across the empire on a massive scale.
• The Basilica
• For centuries Christians had been meeting secretly in houses.
• With Constantine's conversion to Christianity, there was suddenly an
opportunity to build public places of worship.
• Yet what should these churches look like?
• They could not look like Roman temples.
• A Roman temple is a pretty place for an idol to sit.
* Early Christian Art: An Underground Movement
• Christian Architecture
• The Basilica
• It holds a god, a place for ritual sacrifice and perhaps a
treasury.
• Christian ritual is not about burning food to an idol; it's
about coming together as a congregation.
• The problem is there's nowhere in a Roman temple for a
congregation to congregate.
• A bigger, more open space is necessary.
* Early Christian Art: An Underground Movement
• Christian Architecture
• The Basilica
• To meet these needs, Constantine chose the Roman basilica as
the model for his churches.
• Basilicas were the shopping malls of ancient Rome; they also
served as council chambers, meeting halls and law courts
throughout the empire.
* Early Christian Art: An Underground Movement
• Christian Architecture
• The Basilica
• The basilica was a large rectangular hall with colonnades running
down both sides.
• It had high windows to let in plenty of light.
• Many were built with a wooden roof, making their construction
cheap and fast.
• Others featured an apse or raised semi circle at the opposite end
of the entrance, framed by a triumphal arch, one of the most
distinctly Roman forms of architecture.
* Early Christian Art: An Underground Movement
• Christian Architecture
• The Basilica
• Constantine adapted this building to Christian services.
• The long, open rectangular colonnade was the perfect place for
congregations to congregate.
• This area became known as the nave.
• That semicircular area at one end, or apse, seemed like the
perfect place to put an altar.
• The entrances were then moved from the sides to the front,
so the whole building has a single axis, with the apse as its
focal point.
• Before the entrance, he added an atrium, or open-aired
columned courtyard typical of Roman palaces.
* Early Christian Art: An Underground Movement
• Christian Architecture
• The Basilica
• Between the atrium and the nave was the narthex, or main
entrance of the church.
The Nave
The Apse
The Atrium
* Early Christian Art: An Underground Movement
• Christian Architecture
• The Basilica
• Between the atrium and the nave was the narthex, or main
entrance of the church.
The Narthex
* Early Christian Art: An Underground Movement
• Christian Architecture
• The Basilica
• Between the atrium and the nave was the narthex, or main
entrance of the church.
• With these adaptations, Constantine's basilicas provided the space
the Christians needed for their congregations and lent the Church the
authority of an established form of imperial architecture, thereby
proclaiming Christianity's status as a state religion.
• Unfortunately, none of Constantine's basilicas survive unaltered. The
closest surviving example is the Basilica of St Paul outside the walls in
Rome.
* Early Christian Art: An Underground Movement
• Christian Architecture
• The Basilica
• Here we can see how these architectural elements came together to
create a powerful visual and spatial effect.
• Entering the church requires passing through all of the elements
we just covered.
• You start out in the columned atrium and then pass through
the narthex.
• This brings you to the nave, which runs up to the triumphal
arch, with the apse behind it.
• The overall effect was one of increasing grandeur as one stepped
deeper and deeper into God's house.
* Early Christian Art: An Underground Movement
• Christian Architecture
• The Basilica
• The basilica provided Christians with a place to commune and engage
in the foremost Christian sacrament: the eucharist, in which pious
Christians shared a communal meal of bread and wine, symbolizing
the body and blood of Christ.
• Yet there was another important Christian sacrament, something that
made a Christian a Christian, and that was baptism.
• The Baptistry
• While baptism would eventually become a matter of sprinkling
babies, the early Church followed the example of the Bible and
baptized people of all ages by immersion.
• Indeed, the very word 'baptismo' means 'I submerge.'
• Most Basilicas lacked an in-ground pool, thus a different space would
need to be created for this important rite of passage.
* Early Christian Art: An Underground Movement
• Christian Architecture
• The Baptistry
• Luckily, the Romans already had the perfect public places for this
service readily available: the Roman bath.
• The Roman bath took several forms, but the most popular
was a round or polygonal building crowned with a dome.
• By the 1st century AD, this round design had already been
expanded upon by the Romans to build temples, like the
Pantheon.
• The form was later adapted for tombs, like the mausoleum
Constantine built for his daughter.
The Mausoleum of Santa Costanza 350 AD
* Early Christian Art: An Underground Movement
• Christian Architecture
• The Baptistry
• Early Christians adapted this form to build baptistries, or
places to baptize people, like this Arian baptistry built in
Ravenna circa 400-500 AD.
* Early Christian Art: An Underground Movement
• Christian Architecture
• The Baptistry
• Later, the Byzantines would expand upon this form, building
their churches around this central-planned, domed scheme.
The Hagia Sophia in
Constantinople, 537
A.D. (It served as a
Christian church until
the Turks conquered
Byzantium in 1453
and converted it into a
Muslim temple.
Today it is open as a
secular museum.)
* Early Christian Art: An Underground Movement
• Christian Architecture
• True Beauty Lies Within
• As you've looked at these pictures of early Christian churches, you may
have noticed a trend.
• These buildings have a rather plain, if not severe, exterior.
• However, their lack of external decoration is offset by their lavish interior
decoration.
• This marks a sharp contrast with the Roman temple.
• The Roman temple is a grand thing, decked with life-sized, realistic
sculpture.
• Yet life-sized statues make Christians nervous, since they're so close to
pagan idols.
• Christians needed a new way to decorate their buildings.
* Early Christian Art: An Underground Movement
• Christian Architecture
• True Beauty Lies Within
• Rather than sculpture and friezes, the early Christians chose a
different medium: the mosaic.
• And it is with this beuaty that we leave the Roman Empire, and early Christianity and
enter a time period where the knowledge to create things so grand was lost, and western
man was lost in an age where the light of classical ancient knowledge was exinguished, a
dark age.