Download Verbs are a necessary component of all sentences

VILNIUS PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH PHILOLOGY
DALIA KLIACEVIČ
THE USE OF CONGRUENT AND NON-CONGRUENT CLAUSES
IN OSCAR WILDE’S PLAY “THE IMPORTANCE OF BEING
EARNEST”
MA Paper
Academic Advisor: Prof. Dr. Hab. Laimutis Valeika
Vilnius, 2008
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VILNIUS PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH PHILOLOGY
THE USE OF CONGRUENT AND NON-CONGRUENT CLAUSES
IN OSCAR WILDE’S PLAY “THE IMPORTANCE OF BEING
EARNEST”
This MA paper is submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for the
degree of the MA in English Philology
By Dalia Kliacevič
I declare that this study is my own and does not contain any unacknowledged work from any
source.
(Signature)
(Date)
Academic Advisor: Prof. Dr. Hab. Laimutis Valeika
(Signature)
(Date)
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CONTENTS
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................5
INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................6
1. TEXT AND ITS TEXTURE.................................................................................................9
1.1. Spoken and written discourse……………………………………………………........10
1.2. Texture………………………………………………………………………………...13
1.3. Coherence………………………………………………………………………..........13
1.4. Cohesion………………………………………………………………………………14
2. SEMANTIC AND STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF CONGRUENT AND
NON-CONGRUENT CLAUSES..............................................................................................16
2.1. Transposition of finite clauses........................................................................................18
2.2. Finite verb forms............................................................................................................19
2.3. Non-finite verb forms.....................................................................................................21
2.3.1. Infinitive..............................................................................................................21
2.3.2. Gerund.................................................................................................................23
2.3.3. Present participle.................................................................................................25
2.3.4. Past participle......................................................................................................26
3. CONGRUENT CLAUSES IN THE DIALOGUES OF OSCAR WILDE’S PLAY
“THE IMPORTANCE OF BEING EARNEST”
3.1. Introductory observations…….………………………………………………….……28
3.2. Tenses of the clauses…………………………………………………………….…….29
3.3. The category of voice…………………………………………................................31
3.4. The category of aspect……………………………………………………….……...32
3.5. The category of order………………………………………………………….…….33
3.6. The category of mood………………………………………………………….……34
4. NON-CONGRUENT CLAUSES IN THE DIALOGUES OF OSCAR
WILDE’S PLAY “THE IMPORTANCE OF BEING EARNEST”.........................................36
4.1. Introductory observations……………………………………………………………..36
4.2. Infinitival clauses……………………………………………………………………...36
4.2.1. Infinitival clauses and the process types……………………………………….40
4.2.2. Syntactic functions of the infinitival clauses……………………………..........43
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4.3. Gerundive clauses……………………………………………………………………..46
4.3.1. Gerundive clauses and the process types............................................................48
4.3.2. Syntactic functions of the gerundive clauses......................................................49
4.4. Participial clauses...........................................................................................................50
4.4.1. Syntactic functions of the participial clauses......................................................52
5. CONCLUSIONS.................................................................................................................54
6. SUMMARY IN LITHUANIAN.........................................................................................56
7. REFERENCES....................................................................................................................57
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ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to present the concept of the text and its texture, to explore the
syntactic, semantic and structural features of the congruent and non-congruent clauses. The
analysis of the congruent and non-congruent clauses was conducted on the basis of evidence
taken from the play “The Importance of Being Earnest” by Oscar Wilde. The methods used in the
research were descriptive-inductive and the statistical analysis. The research demonstrated that
the author of the play mainly used congruent. The study also showed that non-congruent clauses
with the infinitive had the highest level of occurrence of all the non-congruent clauses. The
research also revealed that the most common syntactical function of the infinitival clauses was
the function of the notional part of the compound verbal predicate and the function of the
complex object. The prevailing form of the included non-finite clauses was simple form (nonprogressive, non-perfect, active).
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INTRODUCTION
Language is a means of communication. It is a way to convey and obtain information. In the
process of interaction the participants use simple and composite sentences. A sentence can be
defined as a word, clause, or phrase or as a group of phrases forming a syntactic unit which
expresses a complete thought. Logically related sentences form a text or a discourse. In
contemporary English the term text and the term discourse are used interchangeably; though
earlier the text was understood as a written text while the discourse was understood as dialogic
language.
According to the number of participants, the text is divided into a monologue and a dialogue. A
monologue is extended speech involving only one participant. Yet it does not mean that another
person or an audience cannot be present. A dialogue can be defined as a conversation between
two or more participants. The difference between a dialogue and a monologue is that in a
dialogue the speakers get feedback immediately.
In order for a conversation to be successful the participants must have an opportunity to speak, no
one should be constantly interrupting, and the participants must know when to speak and when to
listen to what the other person says. The success of the communication also depends on the
general view of their interaction. The speakers try to speak by following the four conversational
maxims: the maxim of quality, the maxim of quantity, the maxim of relevance and the maxim of
manner.
Sentences are composed of clauses (predicative units) which are minimal structural units of the
text. The clauses used present two types: finite and non-finite. Finite clauses contain a finite verb
form and a subject. Non-finite clauses are clauses consisting of a non-finite form of the verb.
When non-finite clauses are embedded into finite clauses, they are subjected to certain
transformations and when used independently they are considered as fragments of a textsentence. There are three types of non-finite clauses: infinitive, gerundive and the participial.
Clauses that do not include non-finite clauses are referred to as congruent, and clauses that
include them are referred to as non-congruent. The purpose of inclusion of non-finite clauses into
finite ones is to abbreviate the text and make language more economical. Congruent and non-
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congruent clauses may be simple and composite. The present study is concerned with both types
of clause.
The problem of the inclusion of non-finite clauses into a finite clause has been discussed by many
different scholars, including Halliday and Hasan (1976), Valeika and Buitkienė (2003, 2006),
Kobrina (1985), Blue (2002), Leech and Svartvik (1994), and many others. However, this
problem cannot be considered to be thoroughly explored; the works are mostly concerned with
the general problems of clauses (structure and meaning), with little attention being paid to their
functioning peculiarities in different types of the text (e.g. dialogues and monologues).
This study makes an attempt to examine congruent and non-congruent clauses used in dialogues.
The evidence has been drawn from Oscar Wilde’s play “The Importance of Being Earnest”
The Research Question
The basic clause in the dialogues is a finite clause without the non-finite forms. Of the noncongruent clauses, the more common are clauses with the infinitive. As concerns the use of the
verbal grammatical categories, non-congruent clauses do not differ from congruent ones.
The Significance of the Research
This research has professional significance because it extends the existing knowledge. The
practical importance of the research is determined by the fact that its results can be used in the
process of teaching students to form and interpret non-congruent clauses. The formation of noncongruent clauses makes it possible to use the language more economically.
The Purpose of the Research
The purpose of this work is to examine the congruent and non-congruent clauses and to find out
what semantic and structural types of clauses dominate in the corpus.
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The Objectives of the Research
1. To analyze the structure of non-congruent clauses.
2.
To analyze the semantic and structural features of finite and non-finite clauses.
3. To analyze the frequency of congruent and non-congruent clauses used in the dialogues.
4. To analyze the embedding potential of congruent clauses.
The Methods of the Research
The main method used in the study is descriptive-inductive. The method of statistical analysis
was applied to demonstrate the frequency of different types of congruent and non-congruent
clauses in the play. The corpus examined consists of 70 pages.
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1. TEXT AND ITS TEXTURE
The purpose of this chapter is to introduce several definitions of the text used by different
scholars, texture of the text or discourse and differences between a dialogue and a monologue.
According to structural linguists (Leonard Bloomfield, Zellig Harris), language is a process,
where the smaller units are joined into larger units (Glauner 2000). Sounds, morphemes, words
and sentences are the units of language that let people to be engaged in many everyday activities.
Sounds are combined to convey words, clauses and sentences. Sounds, morphemes and words are
rarely used on their own as they are usually joined together to make larger language units.
Transformational-generative grammarians such as Noam Chomsky, Zellig Harris, Myers and
others point out that language is composed of a certain number of kernel sentences. Kernel
sentences are main simple statements or declarative sentences containing a noun and a verb
phrases. In addition, kernel sentences can be transformed to derive other sentence structures
(Glauner 2000).
Ilyish (1971, 6) points out that language is phonological, lexical and grammatical system that is
based on all speaking. A language is a whole that is composed of certain closely related parts.
According to Ilyish (1971, 6), linguists have to point out distinctions and connections between
these parts.
As Valeika and Buitkienė (2006, 7) consider, the language units are put together to form the text
or discourse. Wiśniewski (2006) claims that the word discourse comes from the Latin word
“discursus” which means conversation or speech. Discourse is a continuous stretch of language
larger than a sentence, often constituting a coherent unit. The word discourse and the word text
can be used interchangeably. Louwerse and Graesser (2005) assume that sometime ago, the term
discourse was considered to be a dialogue and the term text was related to a monologue. In
contemporary English, the term discourse covers both monologic and dialogic language
(Louwerse and Graesser 2005). The text is a product of writer’s or speaker’s discourse. In other
words, a text can be in written form and it also can be unrecorded speech. The reader or the
hearer will search the text for cues or signals that can help to reconstruct the writer’s or the
speaker’s discourse.
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We communicate with each other by using sentences-simple or composite. A sentence is a
contextualized clause or a contextualized combination of clauses. Such being the case, the text or
the discourse has two levels of analysis: surface and deep. On a surface level, the text is a
combination of logically interconnected sentences; on a deep level, the text is a combination of
clauses. The minimal structural unit of the text is a clause, which is the same as a predication.
Halliday and Hasan (1976, 3) state that the text or discourse is a unit of language. The text is not
a grammatical unit or something that is like sentence but bigger. It differs from a sentence. A
collection of random sentences cannot be regarded as the text. The text can be regarded as
semantic unit where the meaning is very significant, not the form. Thus the text is not composed
of sentences; it is realized by sentences. Sentences should be related logically. They should have
certain meaning.
1.1. Spoken and written discourse
Like any other language, English can be divided into spoken and written. According to ( ) people
create discourse by speaking and writing. These processes rely on language in different ways.
Spoken language or spoken discourse is the most widely used form of language. As Ilyish states
(1971, 6), speech is the manifestation of language. What people have before them, in oral or
written form, is always a product of speech.
Crystal (2005, 263) states that text or discourse can also be divided into a monologue and a
dialogue. The term “monologue” suggests that only one person is involved in the production of a
text. The term “dialogue” refers to the spoken form of the text and is used to speak of the type of
conversation involving two or more participants. A monologue does not mean that the person is
alone since there may be a person or an audience present. A monologue is the type of text where
the speaker or the writer does not expect an immediate answer. It is also considered as selfcontained presentation. In contrast to dialogues, monologues are not interrupted by others.
Monologues without audience present are more common in writing than in speech.
Speech is a process occurring in real time and is transitory. Spoken discourse requires fast
production and understanding as there is no time to prepare what to say in advance. Conversation
and public speaking are two main uses that can be distinguished within spoken discourse.
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Conversation is communication with two or more people taking turns while talking to each other
face-to-face or on the telephone. The most significant feature of conversation is cooperation of
the participants as a conversation is not just the way to give and receive information. A
conversation is a form of social interaction; therefore, a turn-taking is involved. A turn during the
interaction is a period of time when the listener has the opportunity to speak. When people speak,
they try to achieve some aims such as present new information, introduce their thoughts, ideas
and perform different speech acts (a greeting, a request, a compliment and many other). Speakers
usually anticipate what the listeners need or want to hear. Yet it is sometimes difficult to capture
all the information presented by the speaker in a more than a few sentences. Moreover, it is
difficult to reconstruct shades of meaning of speech when several people are talking. Very
important information may be presented in a pause, a gesture, an intonation or the arrangement of
words in a phrase or a sentence (Crystal 2005, 117). According to Leech and Svartvik (1994,
12), in a conversation, the speaker gets feedback immediately and learns whether the listener has
understood the message properly.
Every communication has some constraints, which can be divided into two groups: system
constraints and ritual constraints. System constraints are the necessary components required for
all communication. Social constraints help to make interaction fluent.
One of the system constraints is the openings which differ according to the channel (e.g., phone
calls, letters, meetings etc.). The second system constraint indicates that there must be some
signals showing that a message is conveyed. The signals such as eye contact, smiles, gestures or
head nods help to tell whether the recipient has answered the to a message. In conversation there
must be turnover signals allowing to make the conversation smooth. The length of each turn in
conversation is very short. The participants have the right to share their turns in a fair way.
However, sometimes a speaker can speak for a long time. The conversation can be interrupted
since there are times when the listener has to preempt the ongoing conversation in order to say
something important or to request clarification of a message.
Hatch (1992, 34) asserts that the communication cannot work without the four main norms
(maxims) of cooperation: relevance, truthfulness or quality, quantity and clarity or manner. The
first maxim suggests that the person has to be relevant to the topic. Sentences in conversation
cannot be random since they have to be related to what was said before. The second maxim
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denotes that the speaker does not say other than he or she thinks to be true. The maxim of
quantity is related to the fair share of the talk time. The final maxim is maxim of clarity which
suggests that the producer of conversation has to be clear and understandable. He or she must
avoid ambiguity and construct the message in appropriate way.
Hatch (1992, 61) also thinks that ritual or social constraints reveal the system of social markers
that make the interaction to flow in an appropriate way. For instance, if a speaker greets someone
he or she except to be greeted as well. If the speaker is not greeted in return, something has gone
wrong. The speaker may think that a person is angry with him or her. When the speaker begins
the conversation, he or she expects that others want to speak to him or her. When the participant
interrupts the conversation, he or she expects to be understood and not be considered as rude. The
speaker expects that the listeners will consider the talk not only as appropriate but also as a
valuable contribution to the theme of the conversation. The truthfulness in conversation is very
important. If the listener is not very good at distinguishing the irony or sarcasm, he or she may
misunderstand the speaker’s words.
Unlike spoken text, written text has longevity and can be read, reread and examined in a closer
way than instantaneous speech. The main difference between these two discourses is that
speaking is faster than writing. During a conversation an idea or thought can be quickly changed
into other ideas and thoughts; thus, making interaction fragmented. Writing is more thoughtful
and longer process requiring to group the ideas into complex sentences in which various types
and levels information are included or integrated. Integration is the arrangement of different
kinds of information into long and syntactically complex chunks of language that present more
than one idea at a time. Another basic difference between spoken and written discourse is the role
of the recipient. In conversation the recipient provides feedback immediately by asking for
clarifications and he or she can take the role of the speaker. In spoken discourse the participants
alternate between two roles: the role of the speaker and the role of the listener. The capability to
shift the roles has a great impact on the overall flow of discourse. Producers and recipients of
written discourse interact different participation frameworks than the participants of spoken
discourse. Writers have to imagine the reader, his or her needs and interests. They try to intend
what the reader wants. Writers have also to think of maintaining the reader’s attention and
interest by using different aspects or means of language ( , 187).
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1.2. Texture
As Crane assumes, the text has texture which distinguishes it from something that is not text.
Texture makes any text meaningful and coherent as it is the basis for unity and semantic
interdependence within text. Moreover, a text without texture would be a group of isolated
sentences that are not related. Texture has two basic components: the arrangement of the sentence
and its constituents in a particular order and macrostructure of the text that makes the text of a
certain type such as narrative, lyric, conversation, etc. The basic elements of the sentence texture
are the theme systems which include the Theme and the Rheme, and the informational systems.
The information systems are related to the units of information, which can be expresses in spoken
language by intonation patterns. In written language, the units of information can be expressed by
punctuation. The Theme plays constructional and cohesive role since it connects the sentences or
the text with the previous text. The Rheme is related to the development of the text; it expands
the communication (Valeika 2001, 69).
Structure is related to unity. Unity is to do with forming the separate parts of the text into a
whole. It is thought of as the flow of ideas, the visible links that bind the text together into a
whole. A unified text will link the thoughts of one text with the next so that there is continuum in
the flow of ideas. The last sentence of the previous text will lead into the beginning of the next. In
other words, language follows a linear sequence. The linear progression of text creates a context
for meaning. Contextual meaning, at the level of paragraph is referred to as “coherence” and the
internal features of meaning are called “cohesion”.
1.3. Coherence
Coherence in discourse has been studied in many disciplines and one of these disciplines is
linguistics. Linguists identify and analyze inventories of the linguistic markers of coherence that
are available in a language. A text coheres when all its points are relevant to the whole, when the
information given is complete and when the thoughts are ordered sequentially within paragraphs,
sections and the whole. Coherence manifests in relevance, completeness and the order of
reasoning. Hamilton claims that coherence in spoken and written discourse is achieved by
different means. Every point mentioned in speech or writing should be relevant. The text
presented in speech or writing should provide enough information to the listener and the reader. It
should be comprehensible and clear. It will not be easy to understand the text if all the
information is not presented. Coherence in writing is much more difficult to sustain than coherent
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speech simply because writers have no nonverbal clues to inform them if their message is clear or
not. Therefore, writers must make their patterns of coherence much more explicit and much more
carefully planned.
Coherence is the product of two factors: paragraph unity and sentence cohesion. To achieve
paragraph unity, a writer must ensure two things. Firstly, the paragraph must have a single
generalization that serves as the focus of attention, in other words it must have a topic sentence.
Secondly, a writer must control the content of every other sentence in the paragraph's body such
that it contains more specific information than the topic sentence and it maintains the same focus
of attention as the topic sentence. Coherence is achieved through syntactical features such as the
use of deictic, anaphoric (an anaphora is emphasizing words by repeating them at the beginnings
of following sentences), cataphoric ( cataphora is used when the earlier expression is referred to
or described a forward expression) elements or a logical tense structure, as well as
presuppositions and implications connected to general world knowledge.
1.4. Cohesion
As Louwerse and Graesser (2005) state, some scholars relate the term cohesion to the surface
structure of the text and the term coherence to the concepts and relations underlying its meaning.
Some reserchers applied cohesion to smaller units of language in the text.
According to Halliday and Hasan (1976, 4), cohesion is related to the semantic tie, that is,
relations of meanings that exist within the text and which define it as a text.
Cohesion deals with the interpretation of one element dependent on another. One element
presupposes the other and is integrated into the text. Sentences or utterances would seem to lack
any type of relationship to each other without the semantic ties; moreover they even may not be
considered as texts. It should be stated that cohesion creates interdependent ties within the text.
Cohesion has many functions in social interactions. Spoken text is a process that unfolds
dynamically, turn-by-turn and cohesion is very important factor helping to create an intelligible
text. Cohesion enables the speakers to relate their speech to each other.
There are many grammatical resources in English for the expression of textual meaning and to
create coherence in spoken text. According to Valeika (2006), ellipsis, substitution, word order
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and logical connectors are the four linguistic processes that help to connect the clause into the
text.
Ellipsis contributes to the semantic structure of the discourse. It sets up a relationship connected
with words rather than directly in the area of meaning. The structure of the main clause consists
of two parts: the subject and the predicate. The structure of the basic clause may lack one of these
parts in the discourse. Consider the example (1) below:
(1) Who is dancing with my mother? John.
In this example, the predicate part is omitted. However, not only the subject or the predicate can
be omitted, but also the attributive adjunct, the objective compliment or the adverbial adjunct.
The role of the ellipsis is very important in the discourse as it is a cohesive device that
abbreviates the text. When the reader or the speaker is confronted with the vacancy, he or she will
look for the missing part. In addition, ellipsis focuses the recipient’s attention on the newly
presented information in the following sentence. Ellipsis is very often used in dialogues.
Substitution is the replacement of one item by another. It is very similar to ellipsis (Valeika and
Buitkienė 2006, 172). According to Halliday and Hasan (1976, 143), ellipsis can be defined as
substitution by zero. Valeika distinguishes three types of substitution: grammatical, semigrammatical and lexical. The substitutes one/ones and do are used in grammatical substitution.
As Valeika assumes, when a nominal constituents is substituted by a pronoun, it is called semigrammatical substitution. Halliday and Hasan (1976) propose to regard pronouns as reference
since the pronoun refers back to a previous noun. Consider the following example (2):
(2) I saw a strange man yesterday. He was wearing black clothes.
In the example (2), the pronoun he is referred to the referent noun a strange man. According to
Hatch (1992, 224), ties that refer back to the previous nouns are called anaphoric. Ties that point
to forward nouns are called cataphoric.
Lexical substitution includes the use of synonyms, antonyms, repetitions. In order to integrate
clauses into the text or discourse it is important to put constituents in correct order. The
constituents have to be placed according the Theme-Rheme order. The Theme should be used in
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the beginning of the clause or sentence. One more reason for changing word order is the intention
of the communication, i.e. modification of the main clause structure (questioning, declaring etc.).
According to Valeika and Buitkienė (2006, 176), the logical connectors help to achieve
coherence as well. They relate sentences in a logical way. The four groups of connectors can be
singled out: a) additive (in addition to, also, moreover, furthermore, besides, etc.), b) adversative
(but, still, however, while, on the over hand, conversely, etc.), c) causal (since, as, because, due
to, so, therefore, as a result of this, consequently, etc.), d) sequential (to start with, secondly, to
begin with, first of all, after this, in the end, to conclude with, etc.).
2. SEMANTIC AND STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF CONGRUENT
AND NON-CONGRUENT CLAUSES
We communicate with each other by using sentences-simple or composite. A sentence is a
contextualized clause or a contextualized combination of clauses.
Semantically, the sentence describes a situation consisting of the following components:
participants, processes and circumstances. The most significant is the process as it sets up the
number and the origin of the participants and circumstances. The processes can be congruent and
incongruent. The congruent processes are expresses by a finite form of the verb. In congruent
processes the process is expressed directly. Processes that are expressed by verbals, i.e. gerunds,
infinitives and participles are called incongruent processes. Incongruent processes express the
process indirectly. See the examples of congruent (3), (4) and incongruent (5), (6) processes
below:
(3) Tom came home early.
(4) Ann phoned me yesterday.
(5) Smoking is dangerous for our health.
(6) They do not like my singing.
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Congruent processes are pure processes when incongruent processes contain additional
components. A verbal noun, gerund and the infinitive may have a component of substantivity and
the participle can have additional element of adjectivity (Valeika and Buitkienė 2006, 25).
As Leech and Svartvik (1994, 249) claim, sentences are made up of clauses that have a certain
structure. A clause can be defined as a unit of syntax consisting of several phrases. Clauses are
the building blocks of sentences. Clauses can be divided into finite and non-finite. Finite or
congruent clauses are clauses that contain a finite verb form and a subject which shows the
agreement in person or number with the finite verb. They have the structure subject + predicate.
Finite clauses include: adverbial clauses, noun clauses, wh-clauses, and relative clauses. An
adverbial subordinate clause modifies the meaning of the main clause. Noun clauses, like nouns,
pronouns and noun phrases, can function as the object of a verb, the subject of a verb, a
complement and the object of a preposition. Relative clauses are adjectival because, like
adjectives, they modify nouns; but unlike adjectives, they come after the modified noun. Nonfinite or non-congruent are clauses that include a non-finite form of the verb. They cannot stand
alone. Non-finite forms of the verb, being put in the matrix clause, have a structure determined by
its syntactic function in a clause as a whole.
Non-finite clauses derive from finite clauses. The aim of the inclusion of a non-finite clause into
a finite clause is to shorten the text. In other words, what makes the speaker or the writer to
subject the two clauses to so-called generalising transformation is language economy. Finite
clauses transformed into corresponding non-finite clauses undergo structural changes: the finite
verb is transformed into a non-finite form (the infinitive, the gerund and the participle) or a verb
noun. These structural changes can be referred to as transpositional changes: one category is
turned into another category.
According to Blue (2002), the difference between a finite verb and a verbal (non-finite verb
form) is that a finite verb is completely inflected. Tina Blue states that verbs in English are
inflected according to five aspects: person (first, second or third); number (singular or plural);
tense (past, present, future, or any of the other tenses); mood (indicative, imperative or
subjunctive); voice (active or passive).
The non-finite verb is also called verbal, and it functions as a nominal or a modifier. Moreover, it
does not give a sense of completeness. There are three types of verbals: the participle, the gerund,
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and the infinitive. First, the structure and function of non-finite forms embedded in the matrix
clause should be examined.
2.1. Transposition of finite clauses
According to Valeika and Buitkienė (2006, 95), the change when a finite verb form can be shifted
into non-finite verb form is called an intracategorial1 transposition. The intracategorial
transposition occurs when a clause is inserted in the matrix clause in order to form a simple
sentence. Structures containing non-finite verb forms (infinitives, gerunds and participles) are
called reduced or small clauses. The main goal of the intracategorial transposition is to express
more information within the simple sentence by making the process to use other functions.
It is known that the finite verb form functions as predicate or predicative. The process expresses a
secondary predication, when the finite verb form is transferred to the non-finite verb form. The
primary predication is expresses by the finite verb form. Therefore, the syntactic functions of
finite and non-finite verbs should be analyzed.
The second transposition that should be mentioned is the intracategorial transposition of
circumstantial constituents. The following examples illustrate transposition of circumstances into
participants:
(7) They arrived in Paris on July 15.vs. July 15 found them in Paris. (Valeika and Buitkienė
2006, 96)
(8) She opened the door with a screwdriver. vs. The screwdriver opened the door. (Valeika
and Buitkienė 2006, 96)
(9) She keeps her shoes in a box. vs. The box contains ten pairs of shoes. (Valeika and
Buitkienė 2006, 96)
When the process is transposed to a participant it is called nominalization or metaphorization. As
Valeika and Buitkienė (2006, 96) assume, nominalizations that can be called grammatical
metaphors are used in the discourse of adult. Text in which is nominalization can seem very
dense and may be hard to understand. Lock (1996, 61) states that nominalization can lead to
ambiguity. Unlike adult, children do not use grammatical metaphors in their discourse. Not only
As has been explained by Valeika and Buitkienė (2006, 94), “the term intracategorial means that the form thus
obtained stays on within the sphere of the same major category, i.e. the verb”.
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processes but also attributes can be transposed into the participants. Consider the following
example:
(10)
Ann is very sociable. Her sociability helps her to find many friends.
The intercategorial transposition of non-process constituents is concerned with the transposition
of participants and circumstances into processes. Consider the examples of participant
transposition:
(11)
Steve put a saddle on the horse. vs. Steve saddled the horse.
(12)
Mary wrote her address on the postcard. vs. Mary addressed the postcard.
(13)
They put gold all over the spire. vs. They gilded the spire.
(14)
He hit the ball into a hole. vs. He holed the ball.
(15)
Peter went to school by bus. vs. Peter bussed to school.2
The following are examples of circumstance transposition:
(16)
He hit the ball into a hole. vs. He holed the ball. (Valeika and Buitkienė 2006, 99)
(17)
He lives in the country in summer. vs. He summers in the country. (Valeika and
Buitkienė 2006, 99)
2.2. Finite verb forms
(18)
She traveled a lot.
(19)
She reads many books.
(20)
He was doing his homework for half an hour.
(21)
The wedding party had been planned for a year.
(22)
How are you today?
(23)
I had a headache yesterday.
(24)
How are you feeling today?
(25)
I have left her a message.
The finite verb form is the component of verb phrase which has present (19) and past (18) tense.
According to Leech and Svartvik (1994, 400), tense is the correspondence between the verb form
and person’s concept of time (past, present and future). The past (23) and present tense (22) can
2
The examples were taken from Valeika and Buitkiene (2006, 98).
19
be combined with the progressive and perfect aspects. Aspect is the way of viewing processes as
complete (perfect aspect) (25) or in progress (progressive aspect) (24). In the given examples
(20), (21) doing and been planned are the non-finite forms of the verb functioning in finite verb
phrases: was doing and had been planned.
There is person and number concord between the subject and the finite verb in example (19).
Concord of person is clearly seen with the verb to be (I am-you are-he is).
Modal auxiliaries are regarded as finite verbs, though they do not have the agreement with the
subject (Leech and Svartvik 1994, 400).
According to Kobrina (1985, 40), finite verb forms, simple or compound, function as predicate.
They may be the first structural element of the compound predicate. A finite verb form can also
function as a link verb when it is combined with a nominal or adjectival component that
characterizes the subject. There are many link verbs such as to be, to become, to feel, to seem, etc.
There are other verbs that can function as the first element of the predicate that do not link the
subject with the nominal part of the predicate. They are called phasal and modal verbs. These
verbs fuse with the non-finite verb forms and denote the beginning, the duration of the action or
the speaker’s attitude to the action.
As Leech and Svartvik claim, verbs can represent a single action and it can be linked to other
verbs. Consider the example below:
(26)
The teacher stopped reading a book.
In this example the two verbs form a structure where the second verb depends on the first one.
The second verb is always non-finite while the first verb is often finite but it can be non-finite as
well. The first verb adds some information about the action represented by the second verb but
does not itself constitute a separate process. This structure is called a phase. In the given example
(26), the first verb provides information about the stopping point of the action, which can be
explained as time.
Verb that adds the information about the speaker’s real feelings of the action may be explained as
reality. Verbs may also add information about the effort needed to carry out the action. These
20
verbs are try, attempt, get, manage, succeed and verbs that have negative meaning such as avoid,
fail, etc. Verbs that add information about how the action is carried out, how frequent it is and
whether the action is accompanied by somebody or something are explained as denoting manner.
Verbs of this type are: hesitate, hurry, tend, happen and help. Consider:
(27)
I tend to make a lot of grammatical mistakes in an essay.
This example can be explained as I often do grammatical mistakes in an essay. As it was
mentioned, the second verb in phase structure is always non-finite. It may be the full infinitive or
infinitive with particle to, bare infinite and the verb with – ing form.
2.3. Non-finite verb forms
Non-finite verb forms are forms that have some verbal characteristics and at the same time can
function as a different word class. Grammatically, the non-finites denote a secondary action, a
process related to the process expressed by the finite verbs. The non-finite verb forms help to
expand the simple sentence and to shorten the text. They do not express the categories of person,
number and tense (Valeika and Buitkienė 2003, 104). However, the non-finite verb forms can
express time, which can be simultaneous with the time expressed by the finite verb form or prior
to the time expressed by the finite verb form. Syntactically, they possess verbal and non-verbal or
nounal features. The non-finite verb forms reveal their non-verbal features in their syntactical
functions. Like finite verb forms, they may combine with nouns functioning as direct, indirect
and prepositional objects, with adverbs and prepositional phrases functioning as adverbial
modifiers and with subordinate clauses. The structure of a non-finite verb group is similar to the
structure of any verb phrase. As it was mentioned earlier there are three basic non-finite verb
forms distinguished in English: the infinite, the gerund and the participle.
2.3.1. Infinitive
An important element in understanding verbs is the concept of infinitives. The infinite is a nonfinite verb form that names a process in a most general way. It has the verbal and the non-verbal
features. The infinitive is very versatile as it can be active and passive, perfect and progressive. It
has no person, no number, no mood and no tense. It is the head-form of the verb from which
other verb forms are derived. There are two types of infinitive in English language: the full
21
infinitive (to-infinitive) or marked which has the word “to” at the beginning and the bare
infinitive, which does not have the marker “to”. Consider:
(28)
Tom always forgets to close the door.
The infinitive has some nominal or non-verbal features. It performs all the syntactical functions
of the noun: the subject, part of the complex objective complement, the predicative, the
attributive adjunct and the circumstantial adjunct. When the infinitive functions as subject, it can
precede the predicate or follow it. The infinitive following the predicate is presented with
introductory “it” that is placed at the beginning of the sentence. Consider:
(29)
To fail the exam again will make her angry.
(30)
It will make her angry to fail the exam.
The example (30) is more often used than the example (29).
The predicate expressed by the infinitive takes the form of the 3 rd person singular. When in the
sentence with the infinitive functioning as subject the predicate takes the form of subjunctive
mood, the sentence acquires the conditional meaning. Consider:
(31)
It would be impolite not to thank him for such a beautiful flower.
(32)
He forgot to send letters.
(33)
We want to go to France.
(37) and (38) show that the infinitive can function as object.
The infinitive functioning as the predicative is used after the link verb “to be”. See the examples
below:
(34)
My dream was to play the guitar.
(35)
It is to be done as soon as possible.
(36)
To be late for lessons was to get a bad mark.
As can be seen from the example above (41), the predicative infinitive used in the sentence with
the subject infinitive denotes an action that follows the action of the subject infinitive.
The following examples illustrate the infinitive functioning as attributive adjunct:
22
(37)
What is the best thing to do?
(38)
Have you anything to eat?
(39)
She was the first to call her mother.
(40)
He was the next to come to the blackboard.
(41)
Tom was the last to come.
(42)
He was not fit enough to run a long distance.
2.3.2. Gerund
The gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun. The term verbal indicates that a
gerund, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a
state of being. Unlike the infinitive, the gerund can be modified by a noun in the genitive case.
Moreover, it can be modified by the possessive pronoun and it can be used with prepositions.
Gerunds do display a mixture of nominal and verbal properties. The gerund has two grammatical
categories: the category of voice and the category of order. See the examples below:
(43)
Working in these conditions is pleasure.
(44)
Ann regrets having said these severe words.
(45)
Thank you for being so nice to me.
(46)
After his being away for some time the crisis came.
(47)
On reaching the end of the road they saw a strange man.
(48)
I hate disturbing people.
(49)
I hate being disturbed.
The non-perfect gerund (43) denotes an action simultaneous with an action of the finite verb, or
may refer to the future. The perfect gerund (44) denotes an action prior to the action denoted by
the finite verb. The perfect gerund is fixed and indicates priority, while the non-perfect gerund is
more flexible and therefore can be modified by the context. The common gerund is usually used
after verbs of recollection, gratitude, punishment, reward, blame and reproach (Kobrina 1985,
130). The non-perfect gerund (46), (47) is used in phrases with prepositions on and after.
The active gerund (48) denotes that the action is directed from the subject. The passive gerund
(49) points out that the action is directed towards the subject.
23
According to Kobrina (1985, 132), the gerund can be modified by a noun. Like the noun, gerund
occupies some positions in a sentence that a noun ordinarily occupies. Therefore, it can function
as the subject, the object, the predicate, and the attributive adjunct.
The gerund functioning as subject stands in front position of the sentence. Let’s consider the
following example:
(50)
Swimming is a very good exercise to keep fit.
In sentences with there the gerund follows the negative pronoun no. Consider:
(51)
There is no accounting for her behaviour in the classroom.
(52)
I appreciate your coming in to my house.
(53)
I enjoy reading horror novels.
(54)
I remember posting the letters. (Kobrina 1985, 138)
(55)
I remembered to post the letters. (Kobrina 1985, 138)
The gerund functioning as an object follows a number of verbs, some of which take the gerund
only (52) and (53) and some verbs can take either the gerund or the infinitive (54) and (55).
The distinction between the infinitive and the gerund is important and worth being mentioned.
According to Valeika and Buitkienė (2003, 109), the infinitive expresses something unreal and
unfulfilled, whereas the gerund expresses something real and fulfilled.
As Kobrina (1985, 132) states, the gerund functioning as predicate can denote state or identity.
See the following examples:
(56)
Jane was against his joining us.
(57)
My favourite hobby is reading adventure stories.
When functioning as an attributive adjunct, the gerund modifies nouns. In most cases, it always
follows the preposition of. Consider:
(58)
There is a chance of finishing the task early.
Apart from the apparent reduction of the number of finite clauses, the gerund makes it possible to
introduce into a sentence a range of various shades of meaning, semantic indications and
24
nuances, and to make thus the language more flexible and capable of expressing complexity of
thought.
2.3.3. Present participle
A participle is a verbal that is used as an adjective and most often ends in -ing or -ed. There are
two types of participles: present participles and past participles.
The present participle is homonymous with the gerund. Both the present participle and the gerund
denote a process. The participle denotes a qualifying process and the gerund denotes a
substantival process. The participle has two categories: the category of voice and the category of
order.
(59)
Learning foreign languages you will learn better your native language.
(60)
Having learnt the rules of English we started upon Italian.
(61)
Translating from Lithuanian into English, he should know both languages.
(62)
Being translated into many languages, the English grammar is used in many
countries.
The present participle has two forms: the non-perfect and perfect. The non-perfect form (59)
suggests that the action denoted by the present participle is simultaneous with the action of the
finite verb. The perfect form of present participle (60) suggests that the action denoted by the
participle is prior to the action denoted by the finite verb.
The present participle active (61) denotes an action directed from the subject. The present
participle passive (62) denotes an action directed towards the subject. In (61) and (62) the subject
as the carrier of the action may coincide with the subject of the sentence.
The present participle can function as the attributive adjunct, predicate and as adverbial adjunct.
Consider:
(63)
The woman sitting near my father is my English teacher.
(64)
Being left alone he did his homework.
(65)
The novel was boring.
(66)
He felt horribly while saying this. (Kobrina 1985, 146)
25
According to Kobrina (1985, 145), when the participle is used as attributive adjunct it follows the
modified noun (63).
The present participle used as adverbial adjunct of time means a simultaneous (66) or a prior
action (64).
Kobrina (1985, 147) states that only non-perfect participle active can function as predicative (66).
2.3.4. Past participle
The past participle or the participle II is a non-finite verb form having adjectival features. The
past participle does not have its own paradigm. The main meanings of the past participle are state
and an action itself. When the past participle of transitive verbs is not part of the perfect form, it
is always passive in meaning. The passive meaning of the past participle can be of three types:
a) meaning an action directed towards the subject or the carrier of the action. Consider:
(67)
I won’t have my friend laughed at.(Kobrina 1985, 155)
b) denoting a state, which is the result of an action. Consider:
(68)
The exercise is done.
c) denoting a pure state. Consider:
(69)
He is pleased with what he has seen.
The past participle of intransitive verbs is always active in meaning.
The past participle in the sentence can stand alone or be the headword of a participial phrase. The
past participle can function as attribute, predicate and adverbial modifier. Participles are often
movable. Participles may appear almost anywhere within a sentence. The past participle can be
used in preposition or in postposition to the noun: a neatly written essay and an essay written
neatly. According to Valeika and Buitkienė (2003, 112), participles derived from transitive verbs
are mostly used as attributes. When past participle is detached its position is not fixed. Thus, it
can occur in the initial position, in the middle or at the end of the sentence. Detached attributes
are separated from the noun by a comma in written English and they may be detached by a pause
in spoken English. However, they mainly occur in literary style. Consider:
(70)
She looks tired.
26
(71)
Morning is come.
In (70) the past participle functioning as a predicate denotes a state. The (71) example illustrates
that sometimes an active participle II can function as a predicate.
The past participle may also function as adverbial adjunct.
Having presented a general view on the concept of the text, its texture, semantic and structural
features of congruent and non-congruent clauses, it should be noted for the limitation of space of
the present paper, consideration will further be given to congruent and non-congruent clauses in
dialogues based on the play “The Importance of Being Earnest” by Oscar Wilde.
27
3. CONGRUENT CLAUSES IN THE DIALOGUES OF OSCAR
WILDE’S PLAY “THE IMPORTANCE OF BEING EARNEST”
3.1. Introductory observations
This part of the present paper focuses on the use of congruent clauses. It should be observed that
congruent clauses were more frequently used in the mentioned play than non-congruent ones.
The number of congruent clauses in the play exceeded two thousand (2088). The number of noncongruent clauses embedded into the matrix clause exceeded seven hundred (778). The difference
in the frequency data between the two types of clauses is clearly illustrated below in figure 1.
Congruent and non-congruent clauses are finite clauses whose central element is the finite verb.
The finite verb form has a system based on a series of categories: tense, voice, aspect, order,
person, number and mood. In the play “The Importance of Being Earnest” the author used all the
grammatical categories that the verb form can express. This is true of both congruent and noncongruent clauses. In what follows, the use of the grammatical categories in congruent clauses
will be discussed. As already said, congruent and non-congruent clauses can be simple and
composite. In the corpus examined the basic clause was simple. Speaking about the functions, the
main syntactical function that the finite verb form performs is the function of predicate.
Clauses
2500
2000
1500
Congruent Clauses
1000
Non-Congruent Clauses
500
0
Figure 1. The number of congruent and non-congruent clauses
28
3.2. Tenses of the clauses
As Kobrina (1985, 16) states, the category of tense in English language expresses relations
between the time of the process and the time of the utterance. Kobrina and Ilyish think that there
are three tenses in English: past, present and future. Yet some doubts have been expressed about
a future tense in English. According to Ilyish (1971, 86), Jespersen does not think that a future
tense exists. Valeika (2003, 74) also considers that English language has only two tenses; shall
and will are auxiliaries of mood, not tense. Therefore, it can be stated that English has no way of
expressing future processes grammatically.
Speaking about the play of Oscar Wilde, the present tense had the highest level of occurrence, it
accounted for 1,803 cases (86.35%) out of 2088. In 285 cases, the predicate was presented in the
past tense. It is obvious that the present tense is more frequently used than the past tense as
people are participating in the process of interaction though these conversations are not occurring
in a natural environment. The speakers use the past tense only to remember that something
happened in the past. The table (Table 1) and the diagram (Figure 2) presented below will help to
see better the difference between the present and the past tenses used in the play “The Importance
of Being Earnest”.
Table1. The frequency of the occurrence of the present and the past tense forms used in the play
“The Importance of Being Earnest”
Predicate expressed in the present tense
1,803
86.35%
Predicate expressed in the past tense
285
13.64%
29
Tenses
(A General Survey of the Tenses Used)
100,00%
80,00%
60,00%
Present Tense Forms
40,00%
Past Tense Forms
20,00%
0,00%
Figure 2. The number of finite verb forms used in the present and the past tense.
As far as the present and the past tenses are concerned, it would be appropriate to have a look at
some examples of the present and the past tense used in the earlier mentioned play. The following
are the examples of congruent clauses used in the present tense:
(72)
I don’t know any one of the name of Cecily. (Wilde 1961, 284)
(73)
I adore you. (Wilde 1961, 294)
(74)
It suits you perfectly. (Wilde 1961, 294)
The verbs know and adore used in the examples (72), (73) express the present tense and refer to
the subject I showing that the process is attributed to the 1st person. In example (74) the process
expressed by the verb suits is attributed to the 3rd person singular subject It.
Let’s now consider more examples:
(75)
(…) I had lost my parents. (Wilde 1961, 298)
(76)
By the way, did you tell Gwendolen the truth (…)? (Wilde 1961, 300)
The verb had lost is used in the past tense and is attributed to the subject I that shows the doer of
the action.
The corpus examined demonstrated that the speakers had made use of two tenses: present and
past. The favourable tense form was non-progressive active.
30
3.3. The category of voice
According to Kobrina (1985, 70), the category of voice denotes the relation between the action
expressed by the verb and the person or non-person denoted by the subject. There are two voices
in English language: the active voice and the passive voice.
In the said play the most frequent was the active voice. It accounted for 93% of the finite forms.
The passive voice was used rarely in the play. Cases with the passive voice accounted for only
7%.
The contrast between the two cases found in the Oscar Wilde’s play can be clearly seen from
figure 3.
Voice
100,00%
80,00%
60,00%
40,00%
20,00%
0,00%
Active Voice
Passive Voice
Figure 3. The frequency of the active and the passive voice
After discussing the frequency of the two mentioned voices, it will be of use to consider several
examples of the active and the passive voice found in the said play. Consider:
(77)
(…) I offer you my sincere condolence. (Wilde 1961, 312)
(78)
You have done a beautiful action today, dear child. (Wilde 1961, 316)
In the given examples (77), (78) the active voice indicates that the action is directed from the
subject I and You. The subjects of the two examples show the doer of the action performed. The
object you of the active construction (77) denotes the receiver of the action.
31
Consider more examples:
(79)
It was given to him in mistake for his own. (Wilde 1961, 298)
(80)
Gwendolen is devoted to bread and butter. (Wilde 1961, 284)
The examples (79) and (80) of the passive voice demonstrate that the action is directed towards
the subject, i.e. It and Gwendolen. Here the subjects express a non-person (79) and person (80);
the subjects are the receivers of the action. The subject in the passive voice does not act; it is
affected by the action. The passive in the example (79) is formed with the help of the verb to be
(was) in the past simple tense and participle II (given). In the example (80) the passive is
composed of the auxiliary verb to be (is) in the present simple tense and participle II (devoted).
3.4. The category of aspect
The category of aspect is concerned with the process of the verb that can be durative (continuous)
and non-durative (common). In the corpus examined preference was given to the simple aspect
forms of the verb. Of the two aspective forms, the non-progressive forms had the highest level of
occurrence in the novel under discussion. The difference is illustrated in figure 4 which shows
that the number of non-progressive forms exceeds 95%. As can be seen in figure 4 below, the
lowest level of occurrence had progressive forms. They accounted for only more than 4% of the
aspective forms used in the play.
Aspect
100,00%
80,00%
60,00%
Progressive
40,00%
Non-Progressive
20,00%
0,00%
Figure 4. The frequency of the occurrence of progressive and non-progressive aspective forms
32
Consider a few examples:
(81)
I ask merely for information. (Wilde 1961, 281)
(82)
I have introduced you to every one as Earnest. (Wilde 1961, 286)
(83)
(…) they will be calling each other sister. (Wilde 1961, 301)
(84)
(…) Lord Shoreman and Mr. Worthing were dining with me (…). (Wilde 1961,
281)
3.5. The category of order
The category of order is constituted by the opposition of the perfect to non-perfect forms of the
verb (Kobrina 1985, 20). The analysis of the corpus has shown that the non-perfect forms of the
verb were more preferable. The reason for this must be not so much the complexity of the forms
as the specificity of their use: they are used to express relevant process. In the play the speakers
mostly discussed situations which lack current relevance.
Figure 5 demonstrates the frequency of the occurrence of perfect and non-perfect verb forms used
in the play. The results of the analyzed material showed that the perfect forms accounted for more
than eight percent (i.e. 8.40%) of all the tense forms used in the given play. Non-perfect verb
forms accounted for 92.60%. The perfect forms used were active non-progressive; the passive or
passive progressive forms were not common.
Order
100,00%
80,00%
Perfect Forms
60,00%
Non-Perfect Forms
40,00%
20,00%
0,00%
Figure 5. The number of perfect and non-perfect forms of the verb
33
Consider several examples:
(85)
a. Lane, you’re a perfect pessimist. (Wilde 1961, 304)
b. Your German grammar is on the table. (Wilde 1961, 305)
(86)
a. Miss Prism has just been complaining of a slight headache. (Wilde 1961, 307)
b. Thanks, I have turned round already. (Wilde 1961, 303)
The non-perfect forms of the verbs in (85a) and (85b) denote actions belonging to moments of
time in the present. The perfect forms belong either to continuous or to the common aspect as in
the given examples above (86a) and (86b). The perfect continuous form of the verb used in the
example (86a) denotes that the continuous action was taking place during a definite time
preceding the moment of speaking. The verb form in the finite clause (86b) expresses
completeness of the action.
3.6. The category of mood
There are three moods in English language: the indicative mood, the imperative mood and the
subjunctive mood. All these moods were used in the play examined. Mood shows the attitude of
the speaker towards the content of the sentence. The characters of the said play mainly used the
indicative mood. The indicative mood accounted for 78.30% of all the moods used in the said
play. The imperative mood, which is to express commands or requests (e.g. come here, let me
read, sit down, etc.), had the lowest frequency of occurrence in the play; it accounted for only
1.70%. Quite often the author used the subjunctive mood; it accounted for 20%. Consider figure
6:
Mood
80,00%
60,00%
Indicative Mood
40,00%
Subjunctive Mood
20,00%
Imperative Mood
0,00%
Figure 6. The frequency of the occurrence of the indicative and the subjunctive mood forms
34
The indicative mood indicates that the action performed is real and actually taking place.
Consider several examples:
(87)
You are absurdly careless about sending out the invitations. (Wilde 1961, 288)
(88)
(…) I have never loved any one in the world but you. (Wilde 1961, 295)
Let’s consider several examples of the subjunctive mood:
(89)
If I didn’t write them down, I should probably forget all about them. (Wilde
1961, 306)
(90)
(…) if you don’t shake hands with Ernest I will never forgive you. (Wilde 1961,
316)
(91)
And I often wish that in public, at any rate, you had been more demonstrative.
(Wilde 1961, 293)
In the example (89) past simple indicates that the hypothetical action is considered as
simultaneous with the action expressed in the main clause. The speaker in this example refers to
the past imagining what would happen if he didn’t write. In (90) the action is not performed yet
and is still possible. In the sentence (91) the non-factual past perfect had been denotes a prior
imaginary action, contradicting a real fact.
The finite clause can perform the function of the predicate.
Consider:
(92)
They are approaching. (Wilde 1961, 335)
S+V
(93)
They’re looking at us. (Wilde 1961, 335)
S + V + IOC
35
4. NON-CONGRUENT CLAUSES IN THE DIALOGUES OF OSCAR
WILDE’S PLAY “THE IMPORTANCE OF BEING EARNEST”
4.1. Introductory observations
As the grammatical forms of the predicate were examined in part 3, this part of the research is
concentrated on the grammar of the embedded non-finite clauses. English has three types of nonfinite clauses: infinitival, gerundive, and participial clauses. The infinitival clauses embedded in
the finite clauses had the highest frequency of occurrence in the play “The Importance of Being
Earnest” by Oscar Wilde; they exceeded six hundred cases (634), i.e. 81.49%. The number of
gerundive clauses accounted for 62 cases, i.e. 7.96%. The participial clauses accounted for 82
cases (i.e. 10.53%). Consider figure 7:
Non-Finite Clauses
100,00%
80,00%
Infinitival Clauses
60,00%
Gerundive Clauses
40,00%
Participial Clauses
20,00%
0,00%
Figure 7. The frequency of occurrence of the non-finite clauses
4.2. Infinitival clauses
The infinitive possesses three grammatical categories: the category of order, the category of
aspect, and the category of voice. The prevailing forms of the infinitive in the play under
discussion were simple forms: non-progressive, non-passive and non-perfect. They accounted for
more than 93%. The composite forms were also used in the play. These forms had the lowest
frequency of occurrence; they accounted for only 6.63% of the non-finites used.
36
Consider:
(94)
(…) I’ll certainly try to forget. (Wilde 1961, 283)
(95)
You always want to argue about things. (Wilde 1961, 300)
(96)
(…) He usually likes to spend his Sunday in London. (Wilde 1961, 308)
In the given examples the simple forms of the infinitive has the meaning of succession, i.e. the
actions to forget, to argue and to spend follow the action denoted by the finite verb forms such as
try, want, likes. In all these clauses the action denoted by the infinitive is hypothetical as it is not
clear whether this action will be performed in the future at all.
Consider more examples:
(97)
I had some crumpets with Lady Harbury, who seems to me to be living entirely
for pleasure now. (Wilde 1961, 291)
(98)
(…) Every visible man would like to be caught in. (Wilde 1961, 311)
(99)
He seems to have had great confidence in the opinion of his physicians. (Wilde
1961, 338)
The reason for the use of the simple forms of the infinitive is that in the process of
communication the speaker tries to be an efficient partner; he or she tries to respond to the partner
as fast as he or she can. The use of shorter constructions helps the speaker to respond fast and to
save energy.
In the literature, structures containing infinitives, gerunds and participles are called reduced or
small clauses. They derive from finite clauses and when included in the finite, or matrix, clause,
they are subjected to appropriate transformations. As already mentioned, infinitive clauses were
the most common in the play. Such being the case, it is very significant to discuss the structure of
the infinitival clauses. In the corpus examined the following types of infinitival clauses were
used:
1. infinitival clauses in which the infinitive joins with modal auxiliaries or their substitutes;
2. infinitival clauses without explicit subjects;
37
3. infinitival clauses in which the subjective component is not used in the clause but found in
the context;
4. infinitival clauses in which the infinitive its own subject;
5. infinitival clauses in which the infinitive is omitted.
The infinitival clauses, in which the infinitive joins with modal auxiliaries or their substitutes,
had the highest frequency of occurrence in the said play. They accounted for 57.41%. Consider
the following examples:
(100)
(…) I’ll have a cup of tea (…). (Wilde 1961, 290)
(101)
(…) I must admit I smoke. (Wilde 1961, 296)
In example (100) have is preceded by the modal will. It will be obvious that the process
expressed by have is attributed to the subject I. Formally such infinitival clauses can be derived
from the corresponding finite clauses: I will and I have a cup of tea. In example (101) the verb
admit follows the modal verb must. The clause is derived from the following clauses: I must + I
admit I smoke.
A better approach, however, would be to treat such clauses ((100), (101)) as transformationally
basic, i.e. as non-derived. They are modalized versions of congruent clauses: the modals are used
here to colour the process expressed in the congruent clause. The infinitive can accept any modal.
The remaining types of structures with the infinitive are small clauses proper since they present a
two-part structure, a structure having a subjective part and a verbal part. The subjective part may
be implicit:
(102)
(…) He wants to speak to you about your emigrating. (Wilde 1961, 310)
S + Pr + Inf + IOC3 + DOC
In the given example, the subject of to speak is he. This can be easily demonstrated by the
method of transformation: He wants+ He speaks to you about your emigrating = He wants to
speak to you about your emigrating. The question may arise now: should these structures be
3
The abbreviation stands for the grammatical term Indirect Objective Complement.
38
assigned to small clauses? Semantically they are similar to modalised versions of congruent
clauses. Consider:
a) He may speak to you about your emigrating.
b) He wants to speak to you about your emigrating.
The verb want can be viewed as a modal colouring of the process expressed by the infinitive to
speak. On the other hand, however, may and want differ in their valency properties: may is
followed by the infinitive only, while want can accept a small clause. Compare:
c) He may speak to you about your emigrating.
d) He wants me to speak to you about your emigrating.
As already said, the subject of the infinitival clauses may be implicit. The examples discussed
were illustrations of such clauses. There is one more pattern in which the infinitive was used
without its subject part. Consider the following example:
(103)
It is very vulgar to talk like a dentist (…). (Wilde 1961, 286)
In this clause the subject is implied. The clause used with the subject could be paraphrased as
follows: It is very vulgar for anyone to talk like a dentist. Consider the structure of the infinitival
clause:
(104)
It is very vulgar to talk like a dentist (…). (Wilde 1961, 286)
S + Cop4 + PrA + Inf + DOC5
To the pattern mentioned above also belong infinitival clauses that function as subjects of the
finite verb. Consider:
(105)
To be born (…) in a hand-bag, (…) seems to me to display a contempt for the
ordinary decencies of family life (…). (Wilde 1961, 298)
The abbreviation COP here stands for the term “copular” or “copula”. As pointed out in Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia (available from http://www. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copula.html), “a copula is a word used to link the
subject of a sentence with a predicate. The term is generally used to refer to the main copular verb in the language: in
the case of English, this is "to be". It can also be used to refer to all such verbs in the language: in that case, English
copulas include "to be", "to become", "to get", "to feel", and "to seem".
5
The abbreviation DOC here represents the grammatical term “Direct Objective Complement”.
4
39
Such subjectless infinitives were common in general statements, especially with the form of be as
the main verb. The corpus analyzed demonstrated that such infinitival structures were uncommon
in the play. More often, such infinitives were shifted to the end of the sentence and its place was
occupied by the pronoun it followed by a form of be.
When the infinitival clause was embedded into the matrix clause, the infinitive was often omitted.
Consider:
(106)
(...) That [talking about the weather] makes me so nervous. (Wilde 1961, 292)
S + V + COC6 (S + PrA)
Example (106) is the reduction of the clause: That [talking about the weather] makes me feel/be
so nervous. Here the feature of reduction is the omission of the infinitive to be or to feel.
The inclusion of non-finite forms in a congruent clause creates two levels of predicativity:
primary and secondary. Such clauses make it possible to express the information more
economically as compared to the use of the corresponding congruent clauses. The included
congruent clause loses primary predicativity, but does not lose its meaning. Metaphorically
speaking, it loses its autonomy or freedom of action, but preserves its meaning.
4.2.1. Infinitival clauses and the process types
Transformationally, non-congruent clauses derive from two underlying congruent clauses. The
clause that accepts a non-finite clause is a matrix clause. The acceptance or non-acceptance of a
non-finite clause is determined by the process type the matrix clause is based on. Accepting the
non-finite clauses, the process types are actualized, or concretized. In view of this, the non-finite
clauses can be treated as process restricters.
The examination of the examples taken from the play showed that the infinitival clauses after
mental verbs had the highest frequency of occurrence; they accounted for 11.51%. Quite common
were reduced clauses with infinitives after verbs expressing material processes; they accounted
for 2.63%. The infinitival clauses after verbs of saying were not as common as the infinitival
clauses after mental and material verbs; they accounted for only 1.89%. The infinitival clauses
6
The abbreviation COC here stands for the grammatical term “Complex Objective Complement”.
40
after verbs expressing happening, relational and existential processes were not found in the play.
Consider figure 8.
Infinitival Clauses
12,00%
10,00%
8,00%
6,00%
4,00%
2,00%
0,00%
After mental verbs
After material verbs
After verbs of saying
Figure 8. The frequency of occurrence of the infinitival clauses after verbs expressing mental,
verbal and material processes
As far as the infinitival clauses used after mental verbs are concerned, they exhibited three types:
mental verbs of perception, mental verbs of cognition and mental verbs of affection. The verbs
that expressed the processes of perception were see, sound, etc.; the processes of cognitionknow, mean, remember, suppose, hope, and the processes of affection- like, want, love, wish,
desire, etc. Consider:
(107)
(…) I know you to be a confirmed Bunburyist (…). (Wilde 1961, 289)
S + V + COC (pron + Inf + A + N)
Recipient Experiencer + Mental Process of Cognition + Phenomenon
(108)
I should extremely like to meet them. (Wilde 1961, 300)
S + V + DOC (Inf + O)
Recipient Experiencer + Mental Process of Affection + Phenomenon
(109)
(…) I want you to reform me. (Wilde 1961, 310)
S + V + COC (pron + Inf + O)
Recipient Experiencer + Menatl Process of Affection + Phenomenon
41
As already indicated, the infinitival clauses introduced into the finite clause in the play were also
accepted by verbs expressing material processes. The characters of the play used the following
material verbs: try, advise, go, take, make, begin, etc. Consider:
(110)
I’ll certainly try to forget the fact. (Wilde 1961, 283)
S + Pr + COC (Inf + O)
(111)
I would certainly advise you to do so. (Wilde 1961, 298)
S + Pr + COC (pron + Inf + Manner)
(112)
He has gone up to buy your outfit. (Wilde 1961, 310)
S + Pr + COC (Inf + O)
From the examples above, it can be state that they have similar structure. The infinitival clause is
represented by the complex objective complement consisting of the infinitive to forget and to buy
and object the fact and your outfit in (110) and (112). In (111) the complex objective complement
include the pronoun you, the infinitive to do and the adverbial of manner so.
The next type of the matrix clause that accepts infinitival clauses is a clause based on saying
processes. Theses processes (verbal processes) have only one participant that is the sayer who
conveys information to the recipient. The information provided is called the verbiage. In the play,
the verbs expressing these processes were: say, tell, ask. Consider the following examples:
(113) I haven’t asked you to dine with me anywhere to-night. (Wilde 1961, 288)
S + Pr (V) + DOC (pron) + DOC (Inf) + O + Place +Time
Sayer + Verbal Process + Recipient + Verbiage + Circumstance of Place + Circumstance of
Time
(114) I’ll tell him to come out. (Wilde 1961, 315)
S + Pr (V) + DOC (pron) + DOC (Inf)
Sayer + Verbal Process + Recipient + Verbiage
As can be seen from the examples, the sayer is the subject I, the recipient, i.e. the one who
perceives is you in (113) and him in (114), and the infinitives represent the verbiage.
42
4.2.2. Syntactic functions of the infinitival clauses
Syntactic analysis is difficult; it was initiated by traditional grammarians. Structural and
transformational-generative grammarians neglected this important area. Especially complicated is
the syntactic analysis of non-congruent clauses. Traditional grammarians treat non-finite clauses
as objective complements when they follow the verb. In this work we are mostly guided by the
principles of analysis worked out by Valeika and Buitkienė (Valeika and Buitkienė 2006, 124135). The basic criterion is the meaning peculiarities of the finite verb. If the verb is semantically
dependant, the non-finite verb is part of a syntactic unit; if the verb is independant, it constitutes a
syntactic unit by itself. Consider:
a)
Tom can walk fast → Tom can
b)
Tom likes to walk → Tom likes
c)
Tom likes walking → Tom likes
Syntactically, in the non-congruent pattern the process can perform subject, part of the predicate,
part of the complex objective complement, attributive adjunct, and adverbial adjunct functions.
The most common function of the infinitive in the play under discussion was the function of the
complex object. The infinitival clauses functioning as the notional part of the compound verbal
predicate accounted for 68.60%. The number of infinitival clauses functioning as part of the
complex objective complement accounted for 22.18%. Less common were the infinitival clauses
that performed the function of subject; they accounted for 4.57%. The least common were clauses
with infinitives functioning as adverbial adjunct (2.99%) and attributive adjunct (1.66%).
43
Syntactic Functions of the Infinitival
Clauses
70,00%
60,00%
50,00%
40,00%
30,00%
20,00%
10,00%
0,00%
Part of the
Objective
predicate Complement
Subject
Adverbial
Adjunct
Attributive
Adjunct
Figure 9. The frequency of the occurrence of the syntactic functions performed by the infinitival
clauses
The infinitival clause can be used as: a) part of compound modal verbal predicate; b) part of
compound verbal predicate; c) part of compound phasal verbal predicate; d) part of compound
nominal predicate.
Speaking about the use of infinitival clauses as compound verbal modal predicate, they follow the
most common modal verbs such as will, shall, must, need, have, would, etc. As already indicated,
cases with modal verbs accounted for 57.41% of the syntactic functions of the infinitival clauses.
Consider:
(115)
(…) you must amuse them. (Wilde 1961, 283)
(116)
I’ll reveal to you the meaning of that incomparable expression (…). (Wilde 1961,
287)
The infinitival clause was quite common after such verbs as seem, to happen, suppose, and after
phrases such as to be sure and to be certain. Consider:
(117)
(…) Cecily happens to be my aunt. (Wilde 1961, 285)
(118)
(…) Mr. Worthing is sure to be back soon. (Wilde 1961, 323)
(119)
Cecily and Gwendolen are perfectly certain to be extremely great friends.
(Wilde 1961, 301)
44
(120)
The home seems to me to be the proper sphere fro the man. (Wilde 1961, 324)
In examples presented above, the infinitival clauses function as part of a compound verbal
predicate.
The infinitival clause performing the function of part of the compound verbal phasal predicate
was used after verbs denoting different phases of the process, i.e. the beginning, the continuation
or the end. In the play examined only compound phasal predicates including the beginning phase
were found.
Consider:
(121)
(…) A man begins to neglect his domestic duties (…) (Wilde 1961, 324)
In (121) it was used after the verb begin denoting the beginning of the action neglect.
The infinitival clause also functioned as the predicative of the nominal compound predicate. The
predicatives expressed by the infinitival clause were used with adjectives or adjectivized
participles functioning as linking elements, i.e. elements expressing predicativity. Very common
were adjectives and participles expressing certain psychological states which are the results of the
action of the infinitive object. These were: glad, pleased, sorry, and delighted. Consider:
(122)
I am glad to hear it. (Wilde 1961, 296)
(123)
I am pleased to see you back. (Wilde 1961, 314)
(124)
I am delighted to have it (…) (Wilde 1961, 347)
The infinitival clause also functioned as part of the complex objective complement. Consider:
(125)
A girl (…) could hardly be expected to reside in the country. (Wilde 1961, 297)
(126)
(…) I regret to say (…). (Wilde 1961, 313)
(127)
(…) He asked me to be his wife yesterday afternoon at 5.30. (Wilde 1961, 326)
45
Let us have a look at the example of the infinitival clause functioning as subject:
(128)
To miss any more might expose us to comment on the platform. (Wilde 1962,
344).
Less common were the infinitive clauses functioning as adverbial adjuncts. Consider:
(129)
You are not quite old enough to do that. (Wilde 1961, 302)
(130)
I keep a diary in order to enter the wonderful secrets of my life. (Wilde 1961,
306)
In example (129) the infinitival clause functions as adverbial modifier of consequence. The
infinitive here denotes a process that became possible because of the degree of quality in the
words it refers to. Here the infinitive depends on the predicative adjective modified by the degree
adverb enough which follows the adjective. The position of the infinitive is fixed; it always
follows the modified words. In (130) the infinitival clause functions as adverbial modifier of
purpose. The infinitive in this example is preceded by the conjunction in order.
The infinitive also functioned as attributive adjunct. Yet, there were not many cases of such
clauses in the play examined. Consider the following examples of the infinitive performing the
function of attribute:
(131)
(…) I have a few questions to put to you, Mr. Worthing. (Wilde 1961, 295)
(132)
I’d give anything to look at it. (Wilde 1961, 319)
Example (131) illustrates the infinitival clause functioning as attributive adjunct and modifying a
noun question in the plural form. In (132) the infinitival clause performing the function of the
attributive adjunct modifies the pronoun anything.
4.3. Gerundive clauses
The next type of the non-finite clause that was used as part of a non-congruent clause was a
gerundive clause. The gerund has two forms simple and composite. The simple form is active and
non-perfect and the composite form is passive or perfect. It can be expected that clauses
containing the simple forms of the gerund are more suitable to an interaction than the composite
46
ones. And the evidence taken from the said play confirmed this: the simple forms of the gerund
accounted for more than eighty percent (i.e. 87.09%) of all the gerundive clauses. The composite
forms were not so frequent in the play; they accounted for 12.90%. To compare the frequency of
the occurrence of the gerundive clauses with the gerund used in simple form and to those used in
the composite form, see figure 10 below:
100,00%
80,00%
60,00%
Simple Forms
40,00%
Composite Forms
20,00%
0,00%
Figure 10. The frequency of the occurrence of the forms of the gerund
Consider several examples:
(133)
I haven’t the smallest intention of doing anything of the kind. (Wilde 1961, 288)
(134)
I hate waiting even five minutes for anybody. (Wilde 1961, 343)
(135)
I don’t see much fun in being christened. (Wilde 1961, 314)
Example (133) illustrates the simple form of the gerund used in the clause. In (133) the active,
non-perfect gerund expresses a posterior process and is used after the noun intention that implies
a futurity. In (134) the simple form of the gerund waiting denotes a prior process to the main verb
used in the clause. The examples (133) and (134) show that the processes are directed from the
subject I. In (135) the passive form of the gerund being christened indicates that the process is
directed towards the subject I.
47
4.3.1. Gerundive clauses and process types
Similar to the infinitival clauses, the gerundive clauses can be based on all the types of process:
material, happening, mental, saying (verbal), relational, and existential. As already indicated, the
infinitival clauses were ‘accepted’ by mental, material and verbal processes. The evidence drawn
from the corpus has demonstrated similar tendencies: the most ‘friendly’ processes were mental.
The author of the play used the gerundive embedded clauses after such mental verbs as think,
love, prefer, remember, hate, can’t bear, loathe, and mind. Consider the example below:
(136)
I can’ bear looking at things. (Wilde 1961, 302)
S + Pr + COC
Recipient Experiencer + Mental Process of Affection + Phenomenon
Less common were gerundive clauses after verbs of saying (such as tell and say), material verbs
(such as go, offer, have, prevent, dream, etc.) and existential verbs.
(137)
(..) you tell (…) about your being Ernest in town (…). (Wilde 1961, 300)
S + Pr + COC (prep + pron + G + O + Place)
Sayer + Verbal Process + Verbiage + Circumstance of Place
Example (137) illustrates a gerundive clause used after the verb of saying. The gerundive clause
follows the preposition about. Semantically, the subject you is considered as the sayer, the verb
tell represents the verbal process and the gerund is regarded as the verbiage, i.e. the information
that was conveyed.
(138)
You can’t go without meeting clever people. (Wilde 1961, 300)
S + Pr + COC (prep + G + O)
In (138) the example illustrates the gerundive clause after the material process expressed by the
verb go.
(139)
There is no good offering a large reward now (…). (Wilde 1961, 285)
In (139) the process expressed by the gerund is combined with the process of existence: there is
no good offering a large reward.
48
4.3.2. Syntactic functions of the gerundive clauses
The most common functions the clauses expressed were the function of the complex objective
complement and the function of the adverbial adjunct. The former accounted for 57.28% and the
latter for 20.35%. Less common were the functions of the subject (i.e. 11.67%), and attributive
adjunct (i.e. 10.70%). See figure 11 below:
Figure 11. The frequency of occurrence of the syntactical functions of the gerund
Consider some examples:
(140)
I suspect him of being untruthful. (Wilde 1961, 342)
(141)
(…) she may prevent us from becoming man and wife (…). (Wilde 1961, 302)
(142)
I am very fond of being looked at. (Wilde 1961, 324)
Examples (140) and (141) illustrate gerundive clauses following the verbs suspect and prevent
which take objective complements: him of and us from. In (142) the gerundive clause is an
extension of the predicative ‘am fond of’.
(143)
I can hardly read them without crying a little. (Wilde 1961, 321)
(144)
You can’t possibly ask me to go without having some dinner. (Wilde 1961, 333)
49
In (143) the gerund is used as the adverbial adjunct of manner following the preposition without.
In example (144) the gerund functions as the adverbial adjunct of condition taking the same
preposition without, as in (143).
The next function that the gerundive clauses performed in the play was the function of subject.
See the following example:
(145)
(…) eating is the only thing that consoles me. (Wilde 1961, 332)
With introductory there the subject stands in postposition of the clause. The reason for this is to
emphasize the subject. Consider the example below:
(146)
There is no use speculating on that subject. (Wilde 1961, 283)
Theoretically, the gerundive clauses can perform the function of the attributive adjunct. Consider:
(147)
You don’t think there is any chance of Gwendolen becoming like her mother
(…). (Wilde 1961, 300)
4.4. Participial clauses
A participial clause is a non-finite clause which consists of the matrix clause and the non-finite
clause. Two types of participial clause were found in the play:
a clause with the present
participle and a clause with the past participle. The most common was the past participle; it
accounted for 82.92%. The least common was the present participle which accounted for 17.07%.
To see the contrast between the participle I and the participle II consider figure 12:
50
Participial Clauses
100,00%
80,00%
Present Participle
60,00%
Past Participle
40,00%
20,00%
0,00%
Figure 12. The frequency of the occurrence of the participial clauses
The participle has two types of form: simple and composite. A simple form is non-passive, nonprogressive, and non-perfect form; a composite is a progressive, passive and perfect form. In the
text analyzed only the simple forms were found. Consider the examples:
(148)
It is excessively boring. (Wilde 1961, 283)
(149)
Continuing his disgraceful deception, he succeeded in alienating the affections of
my only reward. (Wilde 1961, 342)
The past participle does not possess morthological categories, yet it has the potential meaning of
voice, aspect and order. The basic meanings of the past participle are a state and a process itself.
Consider:
(150)
(…) memories are so curiously constituted. (Wilde 1961, 283)
(151)
I am greatly distressed (…). (Wilde 1961, 291)
51
4.4.1. Syntactic functions of the participial clauses
The present participle performed the functions of attributive adjunct, predicate and adverbial
adjunct. In the play under discussion only several examples were found of the participle
functioning as attributive adjunct:
(152)
(…) I marry a charming girl like Gwendolen (…). (Wilde 1961, 289)
(153)
I never saw a woman so altered (…). (Wilde 1961, 290)
The predicative function performed by the participles was more common in the examined play.
The participle in this position qualifies the subject. Consider:
(154)
It looks so calculating. (Wilde 1961, 343)
(155)
They [arguments] are often convincing. (Wilde 1961, 347)
On second thoughts, however, such participles present adjectivized form of the participle.
The next function that the present participle performs in the play was the function of adverbial
adjunct. Consider:
(156)
Being the eldest son you were naturally christened after your father. (Wilde 1961,
349)
In (156) being the eldest son is an adverbial modifier of reason.
The function of the attributive adjunct that the past participle performed had the highest
frequency of occurrence in the play; it accounted for 57.14%. Consider:
(157)
No married man is ever attractive except to his wife. (Wilde 1961, 312)
(158)
The three [letters] you wrote (…) are so badly spelled. (Wilde 1961, 321)
The next also very frequent function of particple II was the predicative function; it accounted for
42.85% of cases with the participial clause. In fact, such participles true participles; they present
adjectivized forms of the participle. Consider:
(159)
People (…) look shocked. (Wilde 1961, 292)
52
(160)
I am surprised at you. (Wilde 1961, 306)
In the above examples the past participles shocked and surprised denote a state.
There were several cases found of an active past participle performing this function. Consider:
(161)
(…) the thing is found. (Wilde 1961, 283)
In (162) the participle possesses the passive meaning. It denotes a state which is the result of a
process performed.
53
CONCLUSIONS
The analysis of Oscar Wilde’s play “The Importance of Being Earnest” revealed that of all the
non-finite clauses, the infinitival clauses were the most common. They accounted for 81.49% of
all the non-congruent clauses used in the play. The author used the following types of infinitival
clauses:
1. infinitival clauses in which the infinitive joins with modal auxiliaries or their substitutes;
2. infinitival clauses without explicit subjects;
3. infinitival clauses in which the subjective component is not used in the clause but found in
the context;
4. infinitival clauses in which the infinitive its own subject;
5. infinitival clauses in which the infinitive is omitted.
The results of the research demonstrated that modalized infinitives were the most common
structures in the play examined. They accounted for 57.41% of the infinitival clauses used in the
mentioned play. Speaking of the forms of the infinitive, the speakers gave preference to the
simple forms of the infinitive: non-progressive, non-passive, and non-perfect. They accounted for
more than 93%.
The corpus showed that the infinitival clauses were accepted by mental, material, and saying
processes. The infinitival clauses after mental verbs had the highest frequency of occurrence;
they accounted for 11.51%. The infinitival clauses after verbs expressing material processes
accounted for 2.63%. The infinitival clauses after verbs of saying were not very common; they
accounted for only 1.89%. The most common verbs that expressed these processes were: know,
like, want, intend, try advise, go, say, tell, and ask.
As far as the syntactic functions of the infinitival clauses are concerned, the most common was
the function of notional part of the compound verbal predicate and the function of the complex
object.
The author also used other types of non-congruent clauses: gerundive and participial clauses. The
gerundive clauses accounted for 7.96% of all the non-congruent clauses. The participial clauses
54
accounted for 10.53%. The prevailing forms of the gerund and the participle were also simple
forms.
The results of the research showed that the most common functions the gerundive clauses
expressed were the function of the complex objective complement and the function of the
adverbial adjunct. The former accounted for 57.28% and the latter for 20.35%. Similar to the
infinitival clauses, the gerundive clauses can be based on all the types of process. The evidence
drawn from the corpus has demonstrated that the most ‘friendly’ were mental processes.
55
SANTRAUKA
Šis darbas nagrinėja kongruentinių ir nekongruentinių konstrukcijų vartojimą Oskaro Vaildo
pjesėje „ Kaip svarbu būti rimtam“. Tyrimo tikslai buvo šie:
1. išanalizuoti semantinius kongruentinių sakinių bruožus;
2. išanalizuoti nekongruentinių sakinių sintaksinius bruožus;
3. ištirti skirtingų kongruentinių ir nekongruentinių sakinių dažnumą dialoguose;
4. ištirti kongruentinių sakinių galimybes priimti neasmenuojamąsias veiksmažodžio formas.
Kongruentiniai ir nekongruentiniai sakiniai Oskaro Vaildo pjesėje buvo nagrinėjami, remiantis
aprašomuoju-indukciniu bei statistinės analizės metodais.
Tyrimas parodė, kad autorius dažniausiai vartojo paprastus kongruentinius esamojo laiko
sakinius. Tyrimas taip pat parodė, kad iš visų pjesėje vartotų nekongruentinių sakinių dažniausiai
buvo vartojami sakiniai su vadinamąja paprasta bendratimi. Autorius vartojo tokius beasmenių
sakinių tipus su bendratimi:
1. sakinius su bendratimi, kai bendratis yra prijungiama prie modalinių veismažodžių ar jų
pakaitalų;
2. sakinius su bendratimi be aiškaus veiksnio;
3. sakinius su bendratimi, kuriuose nėra veiksnio, papildinio, bet kuris yra numanomas iš
konteksto;
4. sakinius su bendratimi, kuriuose veiksnio funkciją atlieka pati bendratis;
5. sakinius, kuriuose bendratis yra išleista.
Tyrimo metu paaiškėjo, kad beasmenės konstrukcijos su bendratimi sudarė 81.49%
visų
beasmenių konstrukcijų vartotų pjesėje. Dažniausiai buvo vartojami sakiniai su bendratimi,
kuriuose bendratis buvo prijungta prie modalinių veiksmažoždių. Jie sudarė 54.41%. Kalbant
apie procesus, po kurių buvo vartojama bendratis, dominavo mentaliniai bei verbaliniai procesai.
Šie procesai dažniausiai buvo išreikšti veiksmažodžiais know, like, want, intend, say, ask, tell.
Pjesėje autorius taip pat vartojo nekongruentinius sakinius su kitomis beasmeniniėmis formomis.
Rečiausiai buvo vartojami sakiniai su gerundijumi ir dalyviu. Sakiniai su gerundijumi sudarė
7.96% visų beasmenių konstrukcijų, o su dalyviu sudarė 10. 53%.
56
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