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Medieval thought:
Scholasticism – the practice in the Middle Ages of applying reason to issues of faith and then
giving rational content to faith. The leading scholastic philosopher of the later Middle Ages was
St. Thomas Aquinas.
The most significant piece of Medieval literature was Dante’s Divine Comedy, which was about
man’s struggle to find salvation. The scholasticism of the Medieval period was replaced by
Humanism, which explored issues such as greed, sex, envy, nature, and reason. Renaissance
writers changed classical texts, which were pagan, and made them reflect Christian themes.
THE RENAISSANCE
Renaissance: (rebirth in French) started in the city-state of Florence, Italy (c. 1350-1550)
It was a rebirth of the ideas and works of classical Rome and Greece
The term Renaissance did not appear until the nineteenth century, when Swiss historian Jacob
Burckhardt claimed that the period was completely different from the Middle Ages. However,
this claim is incorrect because there were learning and a development of culture during the
Middle Ages
Politics
The basic political unit was the city-state
Initially there were hundreds, but many were absorbed by their neighbors
Five Italian city-states dominated the peninsula: Florence, Milan, Venice, Papal States, and
Kingdom of Naples
Northern Italy became prosperous because of the east-west and north-south trade routes
Gradually the powerful families gained control of banking, especially after the church stopped
condemning the usury (lending money for interest) in banking
The rise of a wealthy business class reduced the power of the nobility, hence many city-states
were ruled by oligarchies.
Society was very structured with the small, wealthiest elements controlling a disproportionate
amount of power – the peasants the most numerous, but they had no power.
Some rulers were called signori (despots) and they usually ruthless and very cautious – however,
some of the most ruthless were also the greatest patrons of the arts
Republic of Florence (the cradle of the Renaissance) was controlled by the Medici family who
took control when Cosimo de’Medici seized power in 1434. The wealth was created by wool
and textiles and then banking. The people accepted the Medici because they brought law, order,
and stability. Lorenzo the Magnificent continued the tradition and extended his power to the
papal court. His 13-year old son was made a cardinal. Lorenzo was also a lavish patron of the
arts.
Duchy of Milan controlled by the Sforza family
Venice was a republic led by the doge
The Papal States were the home of the pope
Naples was the most important southern city-state.
Each of these city-states was administered like a small country with diplomats and they often
were involved in wars against each other or even other countries.
Because the city-states were small they hired condottieri (mercenaries) to fight for them
In 1494 Charles VIII of France invaded Italy. He was offered some Florentine possessions by
the Medici in an attempt to save the city.
In Florence in 1494, Dominican monk Girolamo Savonarola led a revolt against the abuses of
the Medici and the papacy. Savonarola created a theocracy in Florence, but was
excommunicated by Pope Alexander VI. Gradually the people grew tired of Savonarola and he
was hanged and then burned at the stake in 1498.
In 1499 Louis XII of France, supported by Pope Alexander, invaded Italy
In 1503 Julius II became the new pope and actually led an army against the French. The Spanish
defeated the French and took control of Naples.
Milan remained under French control until 1512. Also in 1512 the Medici returned to power in
Florence and overthrew the Republic.
Italy was a battleground for powerful European countries.
Niccolo Machiavelli wrote The Prince (1513) – The “hero” of The Prince was Cesare Borgia –
the son of Pope Alexander VI
a) Best government is an effective government
b) Politics should be treated as a science
The “Father of the Renaissance” was Petrarch. Petrarch and other scholars studied the work of
the classical Greek and Roman authors, especially Cicero, for an indication on how to be better
humans. This emphasis on the individual was known as Humanism.
Classical Rome had emphasized the importance of virtue and wisdom, which became the concept
of humanitas.
As the Middle Ages closed there was a shift away from theological philosophy to more earthly
(secular) philosophy. Italian humanists were not anti-religion, they just focused more on the
individual. They searched for virtú, the quality of being a great man.
This emphasis away from the Heavenly to the Earthly was caused by an increase in education,
but also by the behavior of some popes. The worldly Renaissance popes and great patrons of the
arts:
Alexander VI (1492-1503)
Julius II (1503-1513)
Leo X (1513-1521)
With the invention of the printing press by the German Johannes Gutenberg, the number of
available texts increased dramatically.
Literature
The literature in the South reflected the new learning with its emphasis on the unlimited potential
of humans and a more secular outlook.
Giovanni Boccaccio wrote Decameron a tale set in Florence during the Black Death. The
characters deal with issues like love, pleasure, and human nature
Pico della Mirandola wrote Oration on the Dignity of Man, which deals with the potential of
the human.
Baldassare Castiglione’s The Book of the Courtier, was a blueprint on what a noble person was
expected to do in order to be considered L’oumo universal – the universal man, such as
Michelangelo. The ideal man should be educated and know Greek and Latin, he should be able
to participate in athletic events, play a musical instrument, and he should be able to entertain
women.
Lorenzo Valla’s On the False Donation of Constantine helped undermine the power of the
papacy by proving the Donation of Constantine which was supposedly written in the fourth
century, was a fake.
Renaissance Art
Florence took the lead in Renaissance art. Many of the great works of art were produced for
patrons who commissioned artists to work for them. The Medici family in Florence, the
Gonzaga family in Milan, and numerous popes all sponsored artists, many of them on an attempt
to glorify themselves.
Renaissance artists used perspective and chiaroscuro to make their work more realistic.
The first great art historian was Giorgio Vasari
The painter considered the first humanist artist was Giotto, he focused on religious themes and
subjects but the subjects had very human forms. He experimented with using shading
(chiaroscuro) to give his pictures depth.
Florentine painter Masaccio further developed the use of light and shadows and he was very
influential for other Renaissance artists. He is famous for The Holy Trinity.
Another Florentine painter was Sandro Botticelli who painted Birth of Venus, Primavera, and
The Adoration of the Magi. Botticelli was renowned for his use of vivid colors and for using
themes from classical mythical.
During the “High Renaissance” (1500-1521), which was centered in Rome, patronage shifted
from wealthy families to the Church. While the Church struggled with the problems associated
with Lutheranism the popes embarked on a propaganda campaign to re-establish the prestige of
the Church. This was the period associated with the “great” artists.
Leonardo da Vinci was a Florentine who moved to Rome before moving to the court of Francis
I of France. He was the first Italian to use oil paints. His works include the Last Supper, Mona
Lisa; and The Virgin of the Rocks. Da Vinci was multi-talented and considered a true
“Renaissance Man”.
Raphael was famous for his frescoes, which included The School of Athens, he also painted a
great many madonnas, including the Sistine Madonna.
The last of the great Italian painters was Michelangelo Buonarotti, a “universal man”, who
painted the Sistine Chapel for Pope Julius II. He also sculpted the nude David and Pieta.
In addition to Michelangelo, the Italian Renaissance also produced many noted sculptors and
architects.
Lorenzo Ghiberti created the bronze doors for the baptistery in Florentine.
Donatello sculpted the bronze nude of David, the first free-standing nude since the Romans.
Filippo Brunelleschi was the most important architect of the Italian Renaissance. He designed
several Florentine churches, but he is most famous for the octagonal dome, il duomo on the
cathedral in Florence.
Society
Women: Very few women rose to prominence during the Renaissance. Those who did were
usually the daughters of powerful and intellectual men.
In 1521 HRE Charles V and Francis I of France started fighting in Italy. As part of the
Habsburg-Valois war Charles V defeated Francis I at the Battle of Pavia in 1525.
In 1527, the mercenary army of Charles V sacked Rome. This event symbolizes end of
Renaissance in Italy.
Northern Renaissance
The Renaissance spread to northern Europe about 50 years after influencing Italy. France,
Spain, and England were being unified by New Monarchs, while the German states remained
fragmented and part of the Holy Roman Empire. However there was not the emphasis on
cultural development as in Italy because northern Europe was economically limited. When
humanism spread to northern countries it was through scholars who desired the new
learning. Northern humanists were also called Christian humanists because of their focus on
Christian morality.
Christian Humanism studied the writings of the Church Fathers and the Bible to find the best
way to live a moral and ethical life
They began to criticize the immorality of the popes, but they did not advocate separation.
However this criticism would eventually help start the Reformation.
All humanists believed the way to a better society was through education.
The most famous Christian humanist was Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam, perhaps the most
respected man in Europe. Erasmus wrote the satire In Praise of Folly, which criticized the
abuses of the church. Because he did not advocate separation and because he was so wellrespected he was able to avoid being called a heretic. However it is claimed that: “Erasmus lay
the egg that Luther hatched”
Another leading Christian humanist was Thomas More of England. More wrote Utopia, the
story of a mythical island on which people lived according to humanist ideals. More blamed the
problems in society on greed. More was such a devote believer that he was executed by Henry
VIII for refusing to compromise his religious principles.
Other northern authors included, in England, Geoffrey Chaucer, Edmund Spenser, and
William Shakespeare.
In France, they included Rabelais, who wrote Pantagruel and Gargantua. Montaigne, who
wrote Essays. The theologian Jacques Lefevre d’Etaples, who was perhaps the leading French
humanist, spent his life trying to reform the Catholic Church.
The leading Spanish humanist was Miguel de Cervantes, who wrote Don Quixote
Northern Renaissance Art
Northern Europe produced a different style of artist and artwork. The Low Countries produced
many of the leading northern artists.
Jan van Eyck was a Flemish painter, who was noted for his attention to detail and his use of
perspective. His most famous work was the picture of Giovanni Arnolfini and his
Bride. Hubert van Eyck’s masterpiece is the Ghent Altarpiece, which Hubert started and Jan
finished.
Peter Brueghel the Elder focused on landscapes and religious subjects. He is known for the
Peasants Wedding.
Hieronymous Bosch was another Flemish painter who focused on the highly symbolic. Bosch
is famous for the Garden of Earthly Delights.
In Germany Albrecht Durer was respected for his woodcuts and engravings, but he also painted
portraits including Self-portrait.
Another German painter was Hans Holbein the Younger, who was famous for his portraits of
the Tudors and his woodcuts, including the series on the Dance of Death.
The Fugger family were prominent international bankers located in Germany who patronized the
arts.
“New” Monarchs
Early modern Europe was dominated by 4 very similar and very powerful men
Henry (Tudor) VIII of England (r. 1509-1547)
Francis (Valois) I of France (r. 1515-1547)
Charles (Habsburg) V HRE (r. 1519-1556)
Suleyman the Magnificent of the Ottomans (r. 1520-1566)
But there were others who were influential
In France Louis XI “Spider King”; in England Henry VII, and in Spain Ferdinand and
Isabella all established large royal armies, developed a more efficient and effective system of
taxation, and took the traditional power away from the Church. These rulers were classed as
New Monarchs.
New Monarchs differed from previous monarchs in as much as they took the power away from
feudal lords. They offered stability, law and order, which in turn facilitated economic growth.
In France, after the Hundred Years’ War had decimated the population and ruined the economy,
Charles VII started to rebuild the country. He created the first standing army. In 1438 he issued
the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, which gave the French crown control over the appointment
of bishops and asserted the authority of the crown over the Church.
In 1453 he expelled the English from France, with the exception of Calais. He gave powerful
jobs to educated men from the middle class rather than the nobility. He improved the taxation
system through the gabelle (salt tax) and taille (land tax).
His son was Louis XI who promoted economic growth, especially in the silk trade, which in turn
increased revenue. He used the money to strengthen the army and then to eliminate
competition. Gradually he added other regions to his realm. In 1516 Francis I signed the
Concordat of Bologna with Pope Leo X, which rescinded the Pragmatic Sanction but gave the
French king the power to select bishops and consequently influence religion in France.
In England, after the Black Death, the Hundred Year’s War, and the War of the Roses the
country was economically and politically a mess. Henry Tudor won the War of the Roses in
1485 and started the Tudor dynasty as Henry VII. During the Middle Ages the king had been
forced to make concessions to powerful nobles to get financing and to get an army. Henry used
the royal council to assert his authority. Like Charles VII in France he appointed his friends to
powerful positions and excluded nobles. The most important part of the royal council was the
court of the Star Chamber.
In the Star Chamber the accused were often tortured, guilty until proven innocent, and the
sessions were in secret. But it was successful in limiting the power of the nobility.
The English did not have a standing army or large bureaucracy but used paid officials.
Henry VII built a large merchant navy, developed the wool industry to increase revenue, and
avoided costly foreign wars. When he died in 1509, England was economically and politically
stable.
In Spain, the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile the “Catholic Kings” in
1469 unified the country. They used hermandades to administer the country and limit the
nobles. The Reconquista, which ended in 1492, removed last of the Moors. The Inquisition
forced religious conformity on the Spanish and forced the many Jews to leave. Their daughter,
Joanna the Mad married Philip of Burgundy and their son was the Holy Roman Emperor
Charles V. Charles was a devout Catholic and, as the head of the massive Habsburg Empire, the
most powerful man in Europe.