Download Crisis in the Classical World

The Era of Interregional Unity (300 CE – 1500CE)
Section 1 Crisis in the Classical World
Early in the first millennium C.E., a series of crises shook the classical
civilizations of China, Rome, and India. The Han, Roman, and Gupta
empires had flourished for hundreds of years. They had dominated their
separate worlds and produced great cultural achievements. By 550 C.E.,
however, they had all collapsed and new civilizations rose in their place
The Han Decline The first to fail was the Han Empire. The Han dynasty
had ruled China for four hundred years. It created a system of strong,
centralized rule and expanded China’s borders. Agriculture, trade, and
commerce grew. It was a time of peace and increased prosperity.
In 220 C.E., however, the Han dynasty fell. The causes of that collapse
were complex and went back many years. Political factors played an
important part. Internal struggles for control weakened the empire and made
it less possible to deal with other issues
The Art Archive / Galerie Ananda
Louvre des Antiquaires / Gianni Dagli
Orti ]
These painted terracotta warriors date
from the Han dynasty period.
Other factors played a role, too. One key factor was pressure on China’s
borders by nomadic tribes from Central Asia. These tribes had long
threatened northern China. Faced with this constant danger, China spent
heavily on military defense. Much of the cost was financed by higher taxes
on Chinese peasants. Unable to pay their taxes, many peasants had to sell
their land to wealthy landowners. The gap between rich and poor grew, and
peasant revolts broke out. In addition, deadly diseases such as smallpox—
brought to China along the Silk Road from other parts of the world—
sparked epidemics that ravaged the population.
All these factors caused instability in China and weakened the Han
dynasty. Regional warlords began to challenge Han power. Bandits
roamed the land. In 220, the last Han emperor gave up the throne. China broke
into warring kingdoms for nearly four centuries.
Epidemic: A widespread occurrence of
a disease
The Fall of Rome Two centuries later, the Roman Empire collapsed. Rome
suffered from many of the same problems that troubled the Han, including
attacks from nomadic tribes. Like the Han, Rome declined over a period of
many years.
Political problems were one factor. Rome never developed a reliable system for
choosing its leaders. By the 200s C.E., most Roman emperors were generals
Source: TCI, adapted by Erik Andracek
watch a short video on the
collapse of the Roman Empire
who seized power by force. They depended on their soldiers for support, and
few stayed in power for long. Twenty-six emperors ruled Rome in the last half
of the third century. All but one was killed or committed suicide.
Other problems were economic and social in nature. To support the empire and
its defense, Rome raised taxes to levels that were too high for most poor
farmers to bear. Many left their farms and fled to the cities.But there were not
enough jobs to support these migrants.
Poverty and social problems increased. Diseases also swept across the empire,
killing as much as one fourth of the population. Farming and trade suffered,
and tax revenues plummeted. The price of food and other goods shot up. This
inflation fueled anger and social unrest.
The Roman Empire’s enormous size had always
made it difficult to govern. To solve this
problem, the emperor Diocletian split the empire
into eastern and western halves. In 324, Emperor
Constantine transferred the capital to the eastern
city of Byzantium, which became
Constantinople.
In the meantime, Germanic tribes continued to
attack the western empire. Invaders entered
Rome and sacked the city twice, once in 410 and
again in 455. Rome was teetering on the brink of
collapse. In 476, a Germanic leader overthrew
the last western emperor. The eastern empire,
later known as the Byzantine Empire, survived
for another thousand years. But it never regained
the strength or glory of the Roman Empire at its height.
The End of Gupta Rule The Gupta Empire was the third classical
civilization to fall. The Gupta kings ruled northern India for more than two
centuries, beginning around 320 C.E. Although they created a strong central
government, they gave local rulers a good deal of autonomy.During the
Gupta era, the economy prospered and Indian civilization entered a golden
age.
Compared with the fall of the Han dynasty and imperial Rome, the reason for
the Gupta collapse was simple: foreign invasion. For years, a nomadic group
known as the White Huns had threatened India from the northwest.
Source: TCI, adapted by Erik Andracek
Autonomy: A right to self-govern
By 550, the White Huns succeeded in conquering India and the Gupta age was
over. Except for a brief period in the 600s, under King Harsha, India was
divided into small kingdoms for the next six centuries.
Civilizations on the Rise The collapse of classical empires had a significant
impact across much of Afro-Eurasia. For centuries, large portions of North
Africa, Europe, and Asia had enjoyed peace and stability under imperial rule.
The security those empires provided helped promote trade and the exchange of
ideas across the continents. Now that system had collapsed. Other strong states
survived, however and new empires eventually emerged.
One of the strongest surviving states was the Sassanian Empire of Persia.The
Sassanians, who ruled from 226 to 651 C.E., controlled a large territory that
extended from the Roman Empire in the west to Gupta India in the east.
Chinese power and influence was not revived until the Tang Dynasty in 618.
They ruled for 300 years and were followed by another great dynasty, the Song
(soong), which ruled for another three centuries. Under the Tang and Song,
China enjoyed a long period of prosperity and cultural achievement.
In Western Europe, the fall of Rome led to a long period of decline, often
referred to as the Dark Ages. Cities crumbled. The economy shrank and the
population fell. But new political structures gradually emerged, and order
began to return. Around 800 C.E., a powerful leader named Charlemagne
united parts of central and western Europe in a kingdom known as the Holy
Roman Empire. By 1000, farming and trade were on the rise, and the
population began to grow. In Eastern Europe, the Byzantine Empire (formerly
part of the Roman Empire) continued to thrive and expand and spread Eastern
Orthodox Christianity.
In southwest Asia the new world religion of Islam began. The religion would
go on to form a large empire in the region and spread the religion of Islam.
The Islamic Empire also greatly increased trade in Afro-Eurasia
States and empires also developed in Africa. In East Africa, the kingdom of
Axum built a prosperous trading empire that ruled the coast and highlands of
what is now Ethiopia between 100 and 600 C.E. In southern Africa, the
kingdom of Zimbabwe grew rich by trading in gold and other products. And in
West Africa, the kingdoms of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai also gained wealth
and power through the gold trade.
Source: TCI, adapted by Erik Andracek
Eastern Orthodox Christianity: The
Christian beliefs and practices that
originated in the Byzantine Empire. Their
beliefs are a result of disagreements with
the Roman Catholic Church, popular in
Western Europe. The Orthodox and
Roman Catholic beliefs formally split apart
in 1045 CE.
Section 2 – Patterns of Inter-Regional unity
For more than five millennia the population of
Afroeurasia had grown steadily. Larger and
more complex societies such as the Han
Chinese and Roman Empire were created.
When those empires collapsed around 300 to
400 CE the ancient world came to an end. Over
the next 1200 many elements of the modern
world first came into view. In this section we
examine some of the patterns and themes of this
era.
Population Growth This era began with a
sharp population decline that lasted from the
third to the sixth centuries CE. The population decline affected large areas of
Afro-Eurasia. Historians do not entirely understand why the population
decreased but there are a few factors that likely affected it. The climate became
drier and agriculture decreased. Another factor was the outbreak of infectious
diseases. These changes left large empires like Roman and the Han dynasty
weaker and open to invasions by pastoral nomadic peoples.
By the sixth century CE, however, the overall population of AfroEurasia started to rise again. But this time it kept going up for
more than 700 years. By around 1250 CE global population
reached about 235 million. The early 1300’s, a change in the
climate and the Black Death caused a decline in population. That
decline was only temporary and world population started to go
back up again. By 1500 world population had surpassed all
previous levels, reaching 400 million
Why did the population continue to grow during this era? The
population continued to grow for many of the same reason it
increased in previous eras. Civilizations continued to develop
new technologies and farming methods that made agriculture
more productive. Increased trade and exchange across AfroEurasia also led to population growth.
Trade Networks Afro-Eurasia experienced a general trend of
economic growth from about 700 to 1500. Most of that economic
growth came as a result of increased trade throughout the people
of Afro-Eurasia.
Source: TCI, adapted by Erik Andracek
© North Wind Picture Archives / Alamy
This medieval European illustration shows merchants
transporting merchandise on the Silk Road, the major
land route between Europe and Asia. The use of
camels, as shown here, made overland travel through
desert regions easier.
The largest trade network connected the various parts of Asia with each other
and with Africa and the Mediterranean. The Silk Road was the major land
route in this network. It carried an enormous amount of trade over the
centuries, particularly during the time of the Han and Mongol empires.
Sea routes were also important to trade across Afro-Eurasia. The Indian Ocean
became a central hub for sea trade routes across Afro-Eurasia. Trade centers,
like Malacca in Malaysia, became major trade centers of Afro-Eurasia.
Merchants there would trade items from all over Afro-Eurasia.
Other smaller trade networks became connected to larger trade networks
throughout Afro-Eurasia. Furs, lumber, glass and slaves were traded from
Europe. Kingdoms south of the Saharan desert also became linked to the larger
trade networks of Afro-Eurasia. Arab traders were able to cross the large
Sahara Desert to trade for salt and gold with the African kingdoms of Ghana,
Mali, and Songhai.
Trade also contributed to increased urbanization. More and bigger cities began
to appear in all parts of Afro-Eurasia. By 1500, more humans lived in cities
than ever before.
World Religions The spread and influence of world religions continued to
expand during this era. The new world religion of Islam also made an
appearance during this era. Islam is an Abrahamic religion that began on the
Arabian Peninsula around 610 CE. Within 150 years, a Muslim dynasty was
Source: TCI, adapted by Erik Andracek
Locate the trade city of
Malacca
created that stretched across North Africa, into Europe, across Southwest Asia
and
In many cases, the religions interacted peacefully. In the Muslim world, for
example, Jews, Christians, and Muslims often lived side by side, with little
conflict. Religious tensions and conflicts did develop, however. Muslims
showed little tolerance for Hinduism, with its belief in many gods. When
Muslim conquerors invaded India, they tried to convert Hindus to Islam.
Tensions also developed between the two branches of the Christian faith:
Roman Catholicism and Orthodox Christianity. In 1054, the two churches split
officially.
The biggest conflicts, however, occurred between Christian and Muslim
armies. In 1095, the Catholic Church launched the Crusades in an effort to
oust Muslims from the holy lands of the Eastern Mediterranean. Christian
armies also sought to retake Spain from the Muslims. By 1250, they had
recaptured most of the Iberian Peninsula.
Crusades: A series of wars launched by the
Catholic Church. The goal of these wars
was to retake site holy to Christianity that
had been taken control of by the Muslim
Empire.
Exchanging Knowledge Ideas and technologies also continue to move
through trade networks. It would be impossible to list all the ideas
spread during this era. But such a list would include writing systems
and discoveries in math, astronomy, and medicine. It would also
include technologies in such areas as irrigation, navigation, printing,
and papermaking.
The system of Arabic numerals is one example. The Muslims adopted
this system from India and later passed it along to Europe. Arabic
numerals were much more practical than the Roman numerals used in
Europe at the time. Based on the decimal system, they allowed for the
development of modern math.
Environmental Factors The growth of exchange networks also had
environmental effects, including the spread of disease. Populations
suffered from devastating plagues that were transmitted along trade
routes. Deadly diseases like smallpox, measles, and the bubonic plague
helped cause the collapse of the Han, Roman, and Mongolian empires.
As networks expanded, so did the danger of infectious disease.
Source: TCI, adapted by Erik Andracek
© Photo Researchers / Alamy
The growth of trade networks increased
the spread of disease. For example, the
bubonic plague spread along trade routes
across Eurasia, devastating many different
societies as it went.
Section 3 – The Byzantine
Empire
The first example of the new
interregional unity that existed that you
will read about is the Byzantine Empire.
The Byzantine Empire was a new empire
that grew after the collapse of the
classical world. This great empire lay in
two continents, Europe and Asia. It
lasted from about 500 to 1453 C.E.,
when it was conquered by the Ottoman
Turks. The empire served as a a
connecting point between the regions of
Asia, the Middle-East, Europe and
Africa.
At first, the Byzantine Empire was the
continuation of the Roman Empire in the
east. In 330 C.E., the Roman emperor Constantine moved his capital from
Rome to the city of Byzantium. This city was an old Greek trading colony on
the eastern edge of Europe. Constantine called his capital New Rome, but it
soon became known as Constantinople, which is Greek for “Constantine’s
City.”
Later, control of the huge original empire was divided between two
emperors—one based in Rome and one based in Constantinople. After the fall
of Rome, the eastern empire continued for another 1,000 years. We call this the
Byzantine Empire, after Byzantium, the original name of its capital city.
The Capital of Constantinople Constantine chose the city of Constantinople
as the new Roman capital for a few reasons. One reason was that the site was
easy to defend. It was surrounded on three sides by water. The city was also a
natural crossroads for trade. It was not long for Constantinople to become the
richest part of the Roman Empire.
A Unique Culture After the fall of Rome, the Byzantine Empire was
regarded as the heir to Roman power and tradition. Constantinople was known
as “New Rome” because its emperors were Roman and spoke Latin.
Over time, the Byzantine Empire looked less like Rome and created a unique
culture. Their Greek heritage was stressed and the Greek language replaced
Latin. Christianity also developed a distinct form known as Eastern
Orthodoxy that was unique from Catholicism practiced in Europe. Because of
Source: TCI, adapted by Erik Andracek
Heritage: valued objects and qualities such
as cultural traditions, unspoiled countryside,
and historic buildings that have been
passed down from previous generations.
the Empire’s close proximity to Persia, the empire’s culture exhibited
influences of Persia. This mixture of Greek, Roman and Persian cultures
created a distinct Byzantine civilization. Between 500 and 1200 CE, this
civilization was one of the most advanced in the world and had a higher
standard of living than Western Europe.
Christianity in the Byzantine Empire To the Byzantines,
Christianity was more than a religion. It was the very foundation of their
empire. When Constantine built his new capital, he intended it to be the
religious center of the empire, as well as the seat of government.
Constantine himself tried to settle religious disputes by assembling a
council of Christian leaders.
Over time, the Byzantine Church separated from the Church in Rome
and became known as the Eastern Orthodox Church. The word
orthodox means “in agreement with right belief.” The leaders of the
medieval Eastern Orthodox Church thought that their church was based
on a set of beliefs that they could trace back to Jesus Christ and to the
work of Christian leaders in early Christian councils.
A feature of Eastern Orthodox churches is
an image of Christ the Pantocrator, like
this one, watching over Orthodox
worshippers from the dome above.
The Role of the Eastern Orthodox Church in the Empire Religion
and government were more closely linked in the Byzantine Empire than
in the west. The Byzantines viewed the emperor not just as the head of
the government but as the living representative of God and Jesus Christ. This
meant that church and state were combined into one all-powerful body.
The state religion also united people in a common belief. The Eastern Orthodox
Church played a central role in daily life. Most people attended church
regularly. Religious sacraments gave shape to every stage of the journey from
birth to death. Monasteries and convents cared for the poor and the sick. These
institutions were supported by wealthy people and became quite powerful.
Let’s look at some of the practices of Eastern Orthodoxy.
Church Hierarchy Both Roman and Eastern Orthodox clergy were
organized into a hierarchy. In Rome, the leader of the Church was the
Patriarch of Rome, also called the Pope. The Pope had final say in all matters
of the Catholic Church
In Byzantine times, the emperor had supreme authority in the Church. He
selected the patriarch of Constantinople, who ranked just below him in matters
of religion. Unlike in the Roman Catholic Church, the patriarch of
Constantinople was not the leader of the Eastern Orthodox Church.
Architecture and Art Christian faith inspired magnificent architecture and
artwork in the Byzantine Empire. With its square base and high dome, the
Source: TCI, adapted by Erik Andracek
cathedral Hagia Sophia served as a model for
many Orthodox churches. The architecture of the
church also reflects Orthodox views. The simple
base represents the earthly world. Upon it rests the
“dome of heaven.” Rich decorations on the inside
were meant to remind worshippers of what it
would be like to enter God’s kingdom.
Building on the Greek love of art, the Orthodox
Church used many images in its services and
prayers. Byzantine artists created beautiful icons,
which were usually painted on small wooden panels.
Artists also fashioned sacred images as mosaics and
painted them in murals.
Hagia Sophia was built between the years 532 and 537. Its
architectural features inspired the design of many later
Orthodox churches.
Many Byzantines believed that sacred pictures brought them closer to God. But
later, icons also became a source of violent disagreement.
Conflict Between East and West Medieval Europe and the Byzantine Empire
were united in a single faith, Christianity. Over the centuries, however,
cultural, political, and religious differences brought the two parts of the old
Roman Empire into conflict.
Perhaps most important was the conflict that developed between the churches
of east and west. After the fall of Rome, popes gradually emerged as powerful
figures in Western Europe. The popes claimed supreme religious authority over
all Christians. The emperors and patriarchs of the east did not claim that power.
Take a virtual tour of
the Hagia Sophia
Other differences added to the conflict. Let’s look at three major disagreements
and how they led to a split in the Christian Church.
Iconoclasm The first major disagreement concerned religious icons. Many
Christians in medieval times used images of Jesus, Mary, and the saints in
worship and prayer. Some Christians in the east, however, believed that people
were wrongly worshipping the icons as if they were divine. In 730 C.E.,
Byzantine emperor Leo III banned the use of religious images in all Christian
churches and homes.
This policy of iconoclasm (“icon smashing”) led to the destruction of much
religious art. Throughout Christian lands, people cried out in protest. In Rome,
Roman Church leaders were angry because Leo’s order applied to parts of
Italy that were under Byzantine control. Pope Gregory III even
excommunicated the emperor.
Source: TCI, adapted by Erik Andracek
Excommunicate: to officially exclude
from the Catholic Church
The Crowning of a Holy Roman Emperor Another major disagreement
occurred in 800 C.E. At the time, Empress Irene was the ruler of the Byzantine
Empire. Because she was a woman, Pope Leo III did not view her as true or
strong enough to govern. He wanted the protection of a strong leader to help
defend the Church in the west.
Instead, Leo decided to crown Charlemagne, the king of the Franks, as Holy
Roman emperor. The pope’s action outraged the Byzantines, who felt that their
empress was the rightful ruler of the remains of the Roman Empire.
The Final Break Matters between east and west came to a head in 1054. The
patriarch of Constantinople, Cerularius, wanted to reassert Byzantine control of
the Church. He closed all churches that worshipped with western rites. Pope
Leo IX was furious. He sent Cardinal Humbert to Constantinople. The cardinal
marched up to the altar of Hagia Sophia. In front of everyone, he laid down a
bull (a proclamation by the pope) excommunicating Cerularius.
Cerularius responded by excommunicating the cardinal. This was only a
symbolic act, for the patriarch did not have that power. But it showed that the
split, or schism, between east and west was complete. Despite future attempts
to heal the division, the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic
Church were now separate churches.
Rites: religious acts
Schism: a split or division between
strongly opposed groups caused by a
difference of opinion or beliefs. It can
also specifically refer to the separation
of the Christian Church into the Roman
Catholic Church and the Eastern
Orthodox Church.
Bettmann/Corbis
The division between the Eastern Orthodox and
Roman Catholic churches lasted until 1964. In that
year, Patriarch Athenagoras (left) and Pope Paul VI
(right) met in Jerusalem and made a formal
statement that undid the excommunications of
1054.
Source: TCI, adapted by Erik Andracek