Download Lesson #8: CAPITALIZATION RULES

Lesson #1: Pronoun Case
A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. The function of a pronoun in a sentence is
shown by the case form of the pronoun. Different uses demand different forms. For instance, a
pronoun which acts as a subject is in the nominative case; a pronoun which acts as an object is in
the objective case; and a pronoun which possesses something is in the possessive case The personal
pronouns are divided into these three cases. At present, we will concentrate only on the use of
pronouns in the nominative and objective cases.
Listed below are the pronouns in the nominative and objective cases. It is necessary to
MEMORIZE the pronouns belonging to each of these cases.
Nominative
I
you
he, she, it
1st person singular
2nd person singular
3rd person singular
1st person plural
2nd person plural
3rd person plural
Objective
me
you
him, her, it
we
you
they
us
you
them
who
whoever
whom
whomever
Uses of the Nominative Case
1.
Pronouns as Subjects
A pronoun subject is in the nominative case. When the subject of a sentence consists of a
single pronoun, you are not likely to use the wrong form. When the subject consists of more than
one pronoun or of a noun and a pronoun, however, errors in the pronoun form are more likely. To
decide on the correct form of the pronoun to use in a compound subject, try each subject separately
with the verb.
Examples: Quentin and (I, me) played in the backgammon tournament.
(Quentin played; I played, not me played.)
Inez and (she, her) run a plant-watering service.
(Inez runs; she runs, not her runs.)
2.
Pronouns as Predicate Nominatives
A predicate (nominative) pronoun is in the nominative case. A predicate pronoun follows
some form of the linking verb be and renames the person or thing that is in the Subject.
Examples:
I slid think it was he.
It might have been they who were riding in the parade float.
Uses of Objective Case
1. Pronouns as Direct Objects and Indirect Objects
A pronoun used as a direct or an indirect object is in the objective case. When a verb has a
compound object, it is sometimes difficult to choose the correct form of the pronoun. To decide
which case of the pronoun to use, try each object with the verb separately.
Direct Object:
The party invitation included Janet and (he, him).
(included Janet; included him. not included he)
Indirect Object:
Our neighbor gave Helen and (I, me) instructions on how to care
for his orchids, (gave Helen; gave me, not gave I)
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2. Pronouns as Objects of the Preposition
A Pronoun used as the object of a preposition is in the objective case.
Examples:
I went to the Italian festival with Joe and (he, him).
(with Joe; with him, not with he)
Note: In informal speech you may occasionally hear between you and I; such use is
incorrect. Only objective-case pronouns should be used as objects of prepositions. Thus the
correct form would be between you and me.
Use of Who, Whom, Whoever, and Whomever
Students quite often misuse these four pronouns. Simply remember that who and whoever
are in the nominative case and can be used as subjects or predicate nominatives and that whom and
whomever are in the objective case and can be used only as objects. Helpful hint: if he fits the
sentence, use who: if him fits the sentence, use whom.
Examples:
Who will go with me? (Who is the subject of the sentence.)
Whom do you trust? (Whom is the direct object.)
Use of Appositives
Often an appositive will follow a pronoun. The appositive should not affect your choice of
pronoun case.
Examples:
We girls thought he was a funny comedian, (girls is an appositive)
An appositive is in the same case as the word with which it is in apposition.
Examples:
Two freshmen, Abe and he, made the best speeches. (Abe and he is an appositive to
freshmen, the subject of the sentence. Since the subject of a verb is nominative, the
appositive is also nominative, hence, he is correct.)
The truant officer was chasing two boys» Abe and him. (Abe and him are
appositives to boys which is the direct object of was chasing, hence him (appositive
to direct object) is correct.
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PRONOUN EXERCISES
Directions: Circle the correct pronoun to use in each of the following sentences. In the blank before
each sentence, indicate how the pronoun is used in the sentence by using the following
abbreviations:
S= subject
DO= direct object
PN = predicate nominative
IO = indirect object
OP= object of preposition
________ 1. Steve and (she, her) are going steady.
________ 2. The Olsons invited Peter and (I, me) to supper.
________ 3. (He, Him) and (I, me) made the second team.
________ 4. Everyone but Liz and (I, me) got the joke.
________ 5. Between you and (I, me) I can't stand Benny.
________ 6. Why didn't Gordon and (she, her) give you and (I, me) their tickets?
________ 7. Neither (he, him) nor (she, her) likes flying.
________ 8. Harry and (I, me) started running toward the garage.
________ 9. Rob and (I, me) gave our copies to Larry and (she, her).
________10. For Ron and (I, me) she had brought two hand-woven ponchos.
________11. During the study period Bert and (I, me) had a chance to compare notes.
________12. They told both (he, him) and (I, me) the test results.
________13. Perhaps neither the Millers nor (they, them) will be living on this block next year.
________14. Didn't anyone but Ricky and (she, her) arrive on time?
________15. The sophomores refused to enter the hall after the seniors and (we, us) juniors.
________16. We shall have to do without Suzy and (he, him).
________17. If it wasn't (he/ him) who told on us, it must have been (she, her).
________18. The best chess players at our school now are Ross and (I, me).
_______ 19.
(Who, Whom) has taken Mr. Collin's position as principal?
_______ 20. Both Fred and (I, me) winced when we saw the snake coming toward us.
_______ 21.
You go ahead, and (we, us) girls will follow later.
_______ 22. (Who, Whom) did you ask to the Winter Ball?
_______ 23. The teacher told (us, we) students about the new university requirements.
_______ 24. (Who, Whom) did you see in the market?
_______ 25. (Who, Whom) objected to the President's policy on aid to Nicaragua?
_______ 26. After all, it was (we, us) girls who implemented the plans to raise money for the
junior class.
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_______ 27.
Most of (we, us) seniors ostracized sophomores and freshmen.
_______ 28. Why must (we, us) always be accused of being maudlin?
_______ 29. (We, Us) men need a respite from this time-consuming project.
_______ 30. To Jack and (she, her) bills were mundane details of life.
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Lesson #2: PRONOUN-ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT
An antecedent is the word that a pronoun refers to or replaces in a sentence. A pronoun
must agree with its antecedent in number, gender, and person.
I. Agreement in Number
A. Rule: Use a singular pronoun to refer to a singular antecedent. Use a plural pronoun to refer to a
plural antecedent.
SINGULAR
I, me, my, mine
You, your, yours
he, him, his
it, its
PLURAL
we, us, our, ours
you. your. yours
they, them. their, theirs
SINGULAR EXAMPLE:
PLURAL EXAMPLE:
ANT. _________________________
After Jennifer got up, she fixed her breakfast.
The boys set their book bags under a tree.
B. Rule: Use a plural pronoun to refer to two or more singular antecedents joined by and
EXAMPLE: Roger and Barbara are painting their house. They have almost finished.
C. Rule: Use a singular pronoun to refer to two or more singular antecedents joined by o r or nor
EXAMPLE: Neither Bob nor Matt finished ins composition on time.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AS ANTECEDENTS

The following indefinite pronouns are usually singular in meaning. Use singular
pronouns to refer to them when they are antecedents.
anybody
each
everyone
neither
nothing
somebody
anyone
either
everything
nobody
one
someone
anything
everybody
much
no one
other
something
EXAMPLE: Neither of the girls had stopped to change her clothes.
EXAMPLE: If anyone objects, tell him to see Mrs. Foster.
NOTE: Occasionally their use in a sentence makes the singular indefinite pronouns everyone and
everybody clearly plural in meaning. In such a special case, you should use a plural pronoun to
refer to everyone or everybody as an antecedent, so that your sentence will be logical.
EXAMPLE: When everyone heard the score, they cheered.

Some indefinite pronouns, such as several both few and many are plural in meaning. Use
plural pronouns to refer to them when they are antecedents.
EXAMPLE: Nathan and Sandra have been working hard; both have met their deadlines.

The following indefinite pronouns can be either singular or plural: some, all, any, none,
most.
EXAMPLE: Some of the money is missing.
Some of the dimes are missing.
Has any of the evidence been presented.
Have any of my friends called?
Most of the book was interesting.
All of the fruit looks ripe.
All of the cherries look ripe.
None of the evidence points to his innocence
None of our students were involved.
Most of the books were interesting.
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II. Agreement in Gender
A. Rule: Use a pronoun that agrees in gender with its antecedent.
EXAMPLE: Mark drove his parents to the airport.
Mrs. Packard cried when she saw the broken antique vase.
The desk was interesting because of its secret drawers.
When the gender of an antecedent is unclear, the pronoun should show that it could be
either masculine or feminine. You can often use his or her for that purpose.
EXAMPLE: Someone dropped his or her notebook.
It is sometimes awkward to use two pronouns to refer to the same antecedent. If possible, reword
the sentence to make the antecedent and all words that refer to it plural.
AWKWARD:
BETTER:
A teacher should maintain good rapport with his or her students.
Teachers should maintain good rapport with their students.
III. Agreement in Person
A. Rule: Use a pronoun that agrees in person with its antecedent. This means that the pronoun you
(second person) should not be used to refer to an antecedent in the third person.
CORRECT
If a student (third person) wants to drop a course, he (third person) has to get
his counselor's permission.
INCORRECT: If a student (third person) wants to drop a course, you (second person) have
to get his counselor's permission.
Note: When the indefinite pronoun one is an antecedent, use third person singular pronouns to
refer to it.
EXAMPLE: When one accepts leadership, he or she must be prepared for criticism. (not
they must be prepared or you must be prepared.)
One of the trolleys is off its track.
IV. Vague Pronoun Reference
Every pronoun should be clear in its meaning. When multiple antecedents are possible, or
when no antecedent is found, a writing error called vague reference occurs.
EXAMPLE: Both Mary and Marge bought the record; she likes it very much.
(In this sentence, the pronoun she might refer to Mary or Marge, but the
reader is unsure.)
Correction of vague reference requires the use of a noun, the restructuring of the sentence, or both.
CORRECTION 1: Both Mary and Marge bought the record; Mary liked ft very much.
CORRECTION 2: Although both Mary and Marge bought the record, only Marge enjoyed it once she got it home.
Vague reference can also be created when pronouns like that, this, those, these are used without a
clear antecedent.
EXAMPLE:
Jim was forever sitting indoors and reading science fiction stories; this
greatly bothered his mother.
(Does the sitting indoors bother Jim's mother? Does the reading of
science fiction bother Jim's mother? Or do both bother bar?)
CORRECTION: Jim's habit of sitting indoors and reading science fiction bothered his
mother.
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PRONOUN-ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT
Directions: For each of the following sentences do the following: (1) circle the correct pronoun; (2)
draw an arrow from the circled pronoun to its antecedent.
1.
Several always raise (his or her, their) hands.
2.
If one decides to go on a trip, (they, you, he or she) should make plans well in advance.
3.
Everyone should do (his or her, their) best to keep the campus clean.
4.
The old car parked in front of the hotel had an unusual ornament on (his, her, its) hood.
5.
Neither of the young women could recall (her, their) expenses.
6.
Some of the cheerleaders practiced (her, their) cheerleading routines.
7.
Each of them needs to start thinking about (his or her, their) career now.
8.
Both of the magazines feature the new President on (its. their) covers.
9.
Rick and Walter were sent to the dean to discuss (his, their) altercation.
10. Few passed (his or her, their) physical fitness tests.
11. Each diver should bring (his or her, their) aqualung.
12. Can either Jessica or Lori bring (her, their) tape recorder?
13. If any senior wants an extra copy, (he, they) can get one from Mr. Hill.
14. It is stupid and unfair to judge a person by (his or her, their) looks.
15. One of the bottles has a crack in (its, their) bottom.
16. A person who never expresses (his, their) opinion could never be a dissenter.
17. One of the boys in the crowd is waving to (his, their) favorite singer.
18. The instructor spoke directly to the workshop participants (itself, themselves).
19. A bellicose person would be willing to tight for (his, your, their) rights.
20. For the injuries (she, they) received in the automobile accident, neither Mrs. Green nor her
daughter demanded retribution.
21. Once a friend makes a promise (he or she, they) should keep it.
22. All of the members of the club have offered (his or her, their) suggestions.
23. Could either of the women quiet (her, their) screaming infant?
24. Somebody has left (his, their ) watch in the boys' locker room.
25…None of the students are looking forward to (his or her, their) vacation
VAGUE REFERENCE. Correct the vague reference errors by rewriting each sentence.
26.
If Harvey or Mike goes around looking for trouble, he will find it.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
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27.
Between Mike and Chris there was no contest; he was definitely the best singer.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
28.
Mother Theresa has helped the homeless and dying throughout the world, and this has
earned her the Nobel Peace Prize.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
29.
The bicycle repair shop fully guarantees its work. That alone is worth the price.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
30.
Madelyn ran cold water over the bum, which was surely the right thing to do.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
31.
Although Stacey received many wedding presents, that was clearly her favorite.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
GENERAL REVIEW Circle the correct pronoun. In the blank indicate its part in the
Sentence: S. subject; P.N. predicate nominative; D.O. direct
object; I.0., indirect object; O.P. object of the preposition.
________ 1. The dance committee, Blake, Rita, and (I. me) met in Room 222.
________ 2. The Johnsons and (we, us) are going in their car.
________ 3. But it wasn't (I, me) who dented your fender.
________ 4. The playbill said the star is (who, whom)?
________ 5. What makes you think it was (he, him) who called?
________ 6. Jerry is always tagging after Chris and (I, me).
________ 7. My mother won't let me invite either Pat or (she, her).
________ 8. Give the dog to (I, me), please.
________ 9. Between you and (I, me) I wish we could leave.
________ 10. Our instructor gave our first period class and (we, us) different assignments.
PROOFREADING. The following paragraph contains errors in the use of pronouns. Underline
each pronoun that needs correcting in the original version. Then rewrite the paragraph, making the
necessary corrections. Underline the corrected pronoun in the revised version.
All high school juniors whom take the Scholastic Aptitude Test should be sure to
report their scores to his or her own high school as well as to the colleges to which he or she
will apply. If a student doesn’t know to whom to send the scores, it can be sent to the
school's secretary.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
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Lesson #3: Compound Sentence or Coordination
One way to combine sentences is by coordination. Coordination is joining two independent clauses
of equal importance. The result is a compound sentence. There are three ways to form a compound
sentence.
I.
II.
III.
Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction.
Use a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb.
Use a semicolon alone.
I. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
The coordinating conjunctions are and, but, or, nor, so, for, and yet. Study the following
sentences carefully - note how the coordinating conjunction expresses the relationship between the
two ideas.
1.
I cleared the table, and Jane washed the dishes.
(The second idea seems equivalent to the first.)
2.
I'd like to help you, but I have no money.
(The second idea contrasts with the first idea. But often tells the reader or listener that the
first idea is being reconsidered or perhaps rejected.)
3.
You're the logical choice, for you were always our star performer in track.
(The second idea offers an explanation for the first idea. For gives heavy emphasis to the
idea in the second clause.)
4.
You may go, or you may stay here.
(The second idea is a choice or alternative.)
5.
She never had many dose friends, nor had she sought to confide in anyone.
(Nor adds another statement in the negative to the first negative statement.)
6. She may seem silly and flighty, yet every now and then she says something very sensible.
(Yet qualifies the first idea with the second but does not convey the note of rejection implied
in but.) .
List the seven coordinating conjunctions used in compound sentences.
_______ _________ ________
_______
_______
______
________
Observe the punctuation of the compound sentences with a coordinating conjunction.
7.
Many class members wanted sweaters, but few could afford them.
8.
He braked the car for the light had fumed red.
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Exercise 1. From the list of conjunctions combine the following pairs of sentences into one
compound sentence. Also, punctuate the sentence correctly and change capital letters to lower case
where needed.
coordinating conjunctions
conjunctive adverbs:
and
however
consequently
but
nevertheless instead
or
moreover
thus
nor
therefore
for
furthermore
yet
otherwise
so
still
1. The famous movie star Albert Contreras used to live in the next apartment. _________________
He was my older brother's best friend.
2. He and my brother Clyde were inseparable all through elementary school and high school.
_____________ They have gone their separate ways now.
3. Clyde had no interest in Joining Albert in the pursuit of a career on stage. ________________
Clyde went to the university and got a degree in computer science.
4. After high school, their lives took sharply divergent paths. _________________ They gradually
lost contact with each other.
5. I think my brother should try to contact Albert. _______________They may never make contact
again.
6. It would seem that Albert was destined to be a performer. ______________ He did not make
the decision to become a performer until the last year of high school.
7. Albert was always a practical person. _____________ He gave himself seven years in which to
succeed in his profession.
8. He would be an established actor in seven years. ______________ He would return to school
to study mechanical drawing, another interest of his.
9. Albert became moderately successful in only five years. _____________ By the time seven
years had passed, he was one of the best known actors on stage.
10. Clyde had always wanted to see Albert perform on Broadway.
Clyde had yet to even go to New York.
At this time,
Exercise 2.
Punctuate correctly the following compound sentences:
1.
The first settlers in America liked recreation however they found little time for active play
2.
Upon his arrival at Jamestown, Sir Thomas Dale expected to find the colonies patiently
awaiting either starvation or the arrival of a ship instead he found them playing at bowls.
3.
The Massachusetts General Court ruled against dancing at weddings but this custom
continued.
4.
Fishing in Puritan England had religious approval and even stem old Cotton Mather enjoyed
this sport.
5.
Farmers in backwoods Virginia in the late 1700s banded together and engaged in the
exciting sport of hunting wild horses but the small planters of the tidewater area often led a
more lonely life.
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6.
Cricket and "bat and ball" were common sports in Massachusetts in the late 1600s and the
game of football was reported in 1686.
7.
A favorite amusement of farmers in both North and South was the shooting match at the
local tavern moreover some landlords with an eye to trade would put up prizes for
marksmanship.
8.
One landlord won three cows another landlord won a new rifle.
Exercise 3.
Create your own compound sentences using the conjunction given in parenthesis. Punctuate the
sentence correctly.
1.
(but) _____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2.
(for) _____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
3.
(however) _________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4.
(furthermore) ______________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5.
(therefore) ________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Exercise 4.
Usage review. Circle the correct pronoun.
1.
The catchers, (he, him) and Marcus, will be the co-captains,
2.
Candice and (she, her) will loll on the bed for hours talking about life.
3.
A few of the contestants needed to calm (his or her, their) nerves.
4.
Each of the men drives (his, their) children to school.
5.
Both legislators represent (his or her, their) districts well.
6.
Both of the students claimed (his or her, their) understanding(s) of the word aggrandize was
enhanced when (he or she, they) checked the etymology of the word.
7.
It was (he, him) who looked so emaciated when he was released from the prisoners' camp in
Vietnam.
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Lesson #4: Subordination
As discussed in the previous lesson (Compounding), coordination is the combining of sentences
expressing ideas of equal importance. An example of coordination is the following:
I looked for “The Scarlet Ibis” in my old high school anthology, but I was unable to find it.
Subordination is the combining of sentences expressing ideas of unequal importance.
Subordinated clauses are also sometimes called dependent clauses. In this lesson, two ways of
subordinating a sentence will be discussed. First, you can subordinate a sentence by converting into
an adverb clause. As an example, combine the following two sentences:
1. Candace was suffering from ennui.
2. She signed up for an adventure-packed safari in Kenya.
Combined they read:
Because Candace was suffering from ennui, she signed up for an adventurepacked safari in Kenya. (The first sentence has been subordinated. It has been converted into a
subordinate clause. This particular clause is an adverb clause.) OR Candace signed up for an
adventure-packed safari in Kenya because she was suffering from ennui. (The first sentence is
still subordinated, but note that it takes the second position and requires no comma.)
Main and Subordinate Ideas: There is no clear-cut rule as to which of the two given sentences
(clauses) should be subordinated. The idea which you (the writer) feel is more important should be
placed in the main clause. The idea of lesser importance should be subordinated. Note, for
example, the following sentences:
1. Margo vacillated about the correct answer to the last problem on the test.
2. She answered it correctly.
If we wish to show that the first sentence is less important than the second,
we can place a subordinating conjunction (in this case, the word although) in front of it and
combine it with the second or more important idea.
Although Margo vacillated about the correct answer to the last problem on the
test, she answered it correctly. This sentence focuses attention on the idea in the main or
independent clause (she answered it correctly) and plays down the idea in the subordinate clause
(although Margo vacillated about the correct…)
Practice in subordinating by Using Adverb Clauses
[Remember, adverb clauses are introduced by subordinate conjunctions (or words that subordinate
while join).]
Subordinate adverb clauses are also called dependent adverb clauses and are introduced by
subordinating conjunctions. The most common subordinating conjunctions are:
1. after
2. although
3. as
4. as if
5. as long as
6. because
7. before
8. if
9. in order that
10. since
11. so that
12. than
13. though
14. unless
15. until
16. when
17. whenever
18. wherever
19. while
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Subordinating conjunctions can express time, cause, result, or condition.
The relationship between a subordinating adverb clause and a main clause needs to be
clear. Clarity comes by selecting coordinating conjunctions which express the
relationship exactly; in other words, by using the right subordination conjunction.
Exercise 1. Fill in the blank with an appropriate subordinating conjunction, then
underline the adverb clause.
1.
the evidence presented by the prosecutor was extremely tenuous, the jury
found the defendant not guilty.
2.
the sun had gone down, the temperature dropped.
3. Mr. Jones’ lapidary interest developed
he retired.
4.
the senator has been found guilty of malfeasance in office, he
could be sentences to ten years in prison.
5.
the rain was sporadic, we did not consider it to be a serious threat
to our plans for the Stanford-Berkeley football game.
6.
the chemistry student was trying to very careful, a few drops of
the caustic substance he was using made holes in his shirt.
7. The horses stampeded
the Indians attacked.
8. The plane took off
the bandits reached the airstrip.
9. The doctor administered antibiotics
arise.
no
complications
might
10. No one will come to the show
the advertising improves.
Exercise 2. Combine the sentences m each group into one sentence, subordinating one
sentence by using a subordinate adverb clause. Be careful to select a suitable
subordinating conjunction. If you put the subordinate clause first, you will need to
separate it from the main clause with a comma.
1.
Mark Twain was a young man. He was a Mississippi River pilot.
2.
Do not touch that three-leafed plant. It is poison ivy.
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3.
Harvey and Tom put up the tent. Bill collected firewood.
4.
He drove steadily all night. He wanted to get to Salt Lake City by morning.
5.
Shakespeare's plays are popular today. They were written 250 years ago.
6.
The game was over. No cheerleader could speak above a whisper.
7.
Albert Einstein was one of the world's greatest scientists. He was famous for his
modesty.
8.
She cleaned the house thoroughly. You could not find a speck of dust anywhere.
9.
The tryouts for the fall play were over. There were still four parts to be filled.
10.
You can swim. You are not permitted to take out a canoe.
Practice in Subordinating by Using Adjective Clauses
Dependent adjective clauses are introduced by the relative pronouns who, whose, whom,
that, which, what and follow a noun or pronoun.
Note that where in some cases can be a relative pronoun.
Exercise 3. Combine the following pairs of sentences into one good sentence/
subordinating one idea in an adjective clause. (Remember that the idea
which you feel is less important is subordinated.) Underline the adjective
clause.
1. An angry crowd had gathered before the jail. It was barred and shuttered.
2.
Alice had seen the dress in the window. It was advertised in the newspaper.
3. The old glassworker shaped the molten ball into a beautiful vase. He had heated it
red-hot in the furnace.
4. Across the road lay a gigantic tree. The hurricane had blown it down.
5. He is a Californian artist. Charles Wysocki is a painter of Early American life with a
wide mixture of influences.
6. Rhododendrons are beautiful plants. They like an add soil.
7. Many secrets were known to the ancient world. These secrets are still unknown to us.
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8. He visited Stonehenge. The ancient druids worshipped there.
9. Julius Caesar was a Roman dictator. He was killed by Brutus and other conspirators.
10. On his journey he saw an Italian villa. It was over two thousand years old.
Punctuation of adjective clauses: If the adjective clause is essential to the meaning of
the sentence, do not use commas. If the adjective clause is not essential to the meaning of
the sentence do use commas.
Example 1. The book that I ordered has finally arrived. (No commas -"that I ordered"
makes clear which book has arrived.)
Example 2. Mabel, who lives next door, is a physical therapist. (Use commas; "who lives
next door" is extra information not necessary to clarify the sentence.
Punctuate the following sentences containing adjective clauses.
11.
Donate the books which I've set on the kitchen table.
12.
The piggyback which is very easy to propagate is my favorite house plant.
13.
We bought the house that is located near the corner of California Ave. and Highway 9.
14.
Mrs. McCann who drives a blue Cadillac just arrived home.
15.
Bill Clinton whose favorite political song was "Don’t Stop Thinking About
Tomorrow” won consecutive presidential terms.
16.
William Golding who wrote The Lord of the Flies received the Nobel Prize for his
literature.
17.
The bicycle that he really wanted was too big for him to handle.
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Lesson #5: COMMONLY CONFUSED VERBS
Because the meanings and spellings of the two verbs in each of the following
pairs are so close, they can cause confusion. Learn to use lie, and lay, rise and raise, and
sit and set correctly.
LIE and LAY
Lie and lay are two different words and have two different meanings. Here are
their principal parts
Present
lie
lay
Present Participle
(is) lying
(is) laying
Past
lay
laid
Past Participle
(have) lain
(have) laid
•Lie, an intransitive verb, means “to rest in a flat position.” This verb never has a
direct object.
The island of Guam lies in the middle of the Pacific Ocean.
Many sunken ships are lying on the floor of the ocean.
•The transitive verb lay means “to place.” it takes a direct object (except when it
is in the passive voice). (Active Voice: Workers laid the foundation of the Empire State
Building in 1930.)
RISE and RAISE
Rise and raise are two different words and have two different meanings. Here are
their principal parts.
Present
rise
raise
Present Participle
(is) rising
(is) raising
Past
rose
raised
Past Participle
(have) risen
(have) raised
•The intransitive verb rise means “to go upward.” It never has a direct object.
Deep-sea divers rise slowly to the surface to prevent the bends.
The bread will not rise because there is no yeast in it.
•The transitive verb raise means “to lift” or “to make something go up.” This verb
can have a direct object (except when it is in the passive voice).
The neighbors are raising money for the family whose house burned.
SIT and SET
Sit and set are two different words and have two different meanings. Here are
their principal parts.
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Present
sit
set

Present Participle
(is) sitting
Past
sat
(is) setting
set
Past Participle
(have) sat
(have) set
The intransitive verb sit means "to occupy a seat." It does not take a direct object.
A strange dog was sitting on the porch.
We will sit just behind the dugout at the baseball game.

The transitive verb set means "to place.” It usually takes a direct object.
With great relief, the movers set the piano on the floor.
Someone had set a large carton on the kitchen table.
COMMONLY MISUSED VERB FORMS
Exercise 1. Select the correct word to complete each sentence.
LIE/LAY
1. Mother always nags me about lying/laying around the pool.
2. Where did you lie/lay the keys to the car?
3. Because Jan had laid/lain in the sun for four hours, she was bright red and blistered.
4. Jack lay/laid the package on the Kitchen table before answering the phone.
5. Typically Frank lies/lays in bed until his mother calls him at 7:30 a.m.
6. Laying/lying around the house all summer is boring.
7. The book had lain/laid on the shelf all year without being checked out.
8. Lie/lay down and go to sleep!" yelled the camp counselor.
9. Laying/lying test booklets at every other desk, the test proctor evenly scattered the
students about the library.
10. After having lain/laid about all morning, I was eager for an afternoon activity.
SIT/SET
11. Please sit/set the flowers on the dining room table.
12. Jim had been sitting/setting at the bus station for an hour when we finally arrived.
13. Sit/set down and talk; I haven't seen you in a day," urged my good friend Julie.
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14. Sitting/setting the table is a nightly task in our house.
15. How long has this meat been sitting/setting in the refrigerator?
RISE/RAISE
16. Yesterday I had raised/risen at 5:33 a.m. sharp to see the sunrise.
17. Raise/rise your left hand if you have not finished the test.
18. The sun rises/raises about 5:15 these mornings.
19. "Raise/rise the chair a little higher so I can vacuum under it," mother directed.
20. Rising/raising to state an opposing opinion, the legislator demanded to be noticed.
Exercise 2. Circle the correct verb.
1. If you are sick, you should lie/lay down.
2. Please lie/lay the basket on the counter.
3. The hens are lying/laying eggs again.
4. They arc lying/laying in the sunshine.,
5. Last week he lay/laid in the hammock every evening.
6. The children have lain/laid in bed long enough.
7. Before she left, she lay/laid the books in the chair.
8. The masons have laid/lain three rows of bricks so far.
9. You'll get a bad bum if you
in the sun any longer
10. He plunked himself down in the chair where I had
11. I
my new hat.
awake for hours last night, trying to decide.
12. Sally remembered to
her gloves beside her in the booth.
13. The first scene was
in Spain.
14. Who left those skates
on the stairs?
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15. The cat usually
in that comer and purrs.
16. He had just
down when the doorbell rang.
17. A wreath had been
on the grave by the president.
18. As soon as he
his head on the pillow, he fell asleep.
19. Someone had
a leaky pen on the letter.
20. He does nothing but
on the beach and sleep.
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Lesson#6: USAGE NOTES
The following is a list of words or phrases that students frequently use incorrectly in their
writing. Careful study of the correct forms will enable you to eliminate incorrect usage
from your writing. Below is a list for review. Each of these usage problems has been
covered in English 9, 10, or 11.
a lot, a lot A lot means "a greater number or amount" and is always two words. Avoid
using it except in informal usage. Alot is not a word.
affect, effect Affect is a verb meaning either "to influence” or "to pretend.” Effect as a
verb means “to accomplish" or "to produce as a result." As a noun, effect
means "result".
The drought affected this season's harvest of melons.
The child affected a grown-up manner as she hobbled around in high heels.
We hope to effect a permanent change in pay scales.
What effect can one vote have? (noun)
all right, alright
All right means "satisfactory," "unhurt,” "correct,” or "yes, very
well." Alright is an incorrect spelling. Do not use it
Danny tell from his tricycle, but he is all right.
all together, altogether
All together means "in a group" or "collectively."
Altogether means "completely" or "entirely.”
The cast rehearsed all together the night before the play.
Her visit was altogether unexpected, (entirely)
bad, badly Bad is always an adjective, and badly is always an adverb. Use bad after
linking verbs.
Did we come to visit at a bad time? [adjective]
That old record sounds very bad. [adjective]
Our team played badly and lost the match. [adverb]
fewer, less
Use fewer to refer to things that you can count individually. Use less to
refer to quantities that you cannot count. Use less to refer also to amounts
of time, money, or distance when the amount is a single quantity.
We saw fewer robins this spring than we did last year.
There was less confusion about the schedule this month.
He has less than two miles to go to complete the marathon.
good, well Always use good as an adjective. Well can be an adverb meaning "ably,
capably" or a predicate adjective meaning "satisfactory" or "in good
health."
The opposite of feeling sick is feeling well.
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Linda is a good piano player. [adjective]
Linda plays the piano well. [adverb]
Esperanza is not feeling well today. [predicate adjective]
it's, its.
it's is a contraction for it is, it's is a possessive pronoun meaning
“belonging to it.”
their, they're, there Their is a possessive pronoun meaning “belonging to them.”
They're is a contraction for “they are.” There, like here, refers to a
place.
to, too
To is a preposition used to introduce prepositional phrases: to the beach,
to me.
To is also the sign of the infinitive: to be. Too is an adverb
meaning "overly" or “also.”
Your, you're Your is a possessive pronoun meaning "belonging to you." You're is a
contraction meaning “you are.”
COMMON USAGE PROBLEMS. The following list of words and phrases frequently
appear in student writing. Determine which ones you use incorrectly, then study the
correct usage.
accept, except Accept is a verb that means "to agree” or "to receive." Except is a
preposition that means "leaving out" or "but.”
Our organization will gladly accept your donation.
All of my cousins have dark hair except Bill.
allusion, illusion An allusion is a reference to something, An illusion is a false idea or
faulty interpretation of the facts.
The book makes vague allusions to the Kennedy family.
The dog has the illusion that he is a person.
among, between Between expresses the joining or separation of two people or things,
Among refers to a group of three or more people or things.
We had a lively discussion among the four of us.
There are no secrets between him and me.
amount, number Amount is used to indicate a total sum of things. It is usually used to
refer to items that cannot be counted. Number is used to refer to
items that can be counted.
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The dairy processes a large amount of cheese.
The farmer harvested a large number of pumpkins.
different from, different than In most situations different from is better usage than
different than. However, there are some situations in which than
must be used to avoid awkward expression.
Life in a small town is different from life in a large city.
emigrate, immigrate To emigrate is to leave one's homeland. To immigrate is to enter
a country in order to settle there.
Thousands of people emigrated from Eastern Europe.
Immigration officials require newcomers to present entry visas.
further, farther; furthest, farthest
hanged, hung
Farther is used for comparisons of distance
and further for any other comparisons.
My house is farther from school than yours.
[distance]
Further research is necessary if a cure is to be
found. [extent]
Criminals are hanged. Things are hung on walls, hooks, or
elsewhere.
Nathan Hale, an American soldier in the Revolution, was hanged
by the British as a spy.
A framed medal, commemorating heroism in the Vietnam War,
hung on the wall.
imply, infer A speaker or writer suggests or implies something. The reader, listener, or
observer comes to a conclusion or infers something on the basis of what is
heard.
The editor implied that all teen-agers are irresponsible and selfish.
What can you infer from the evidence she presented?
is where, is when
Incorrect
Correct
The use of where or when in a definition is non-standard unless the
definition refers to a time or place.
A slalom is where you ski over a zigzag, downhill course.
A slalom is a ski race over a zigzag, downhill course.
kind of, sort of
Do not use these terms to mean "somewhat" or "rather."
Hal seemed somewhat surprised to hear that he had made the team. [not
kind of or sort of]
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might of
Do not use this term. Use might have.
He might have been angry. ( not might of been)
passed, past Passed is the past tense of the verb to pass. Past can be a noun, an
adjective, an
adverb, or a preposition.
Michael passed our farm without stopping. [verb]
I often think fondly about the past. [noun]
For the past week, I've been prompt. [adjective]
The horses neighed as we drove past. [adverb]
Go past the school, and turn left. [preposition]
percent, percentage Percent is correctly used only when preceded by a number. When
there is no preceding number, percentage is the correct word to use.
About fifty percent of the Students attended the play.
Only a small percentage of the cast members had performed before.
perfect, unique Do not use more, most, less, or least with perfect or unique. Both
perfect and unique refer to qualities that do not vary in degree. A
thing is either perfect or not; it is unique or not. You should also
not use comparative / forms of fatal, dead, round, and empty.
reason is because, reason is that
Reason is because is redundant. Use reason
is that or simply because.
Incorrect
Correct
Correct
The reason for thunder is because lighting makes gases expand rapidly.
The reason for thunder is that lightning makes gases expand rapidly.
Thunder occurs because lightning makes gases expand rapidly.
supposed to, used to Be sure to spell supposed and used with a d. Both are past
participles.
The rain was supposed to begin this morning, [not suppose]
Are you used to the new puppy yet? (not use]
The Candottis used to live there, [not use]
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EXERCISES ON USAGE
Directions:
Read each of the following sentences carefully. If there is no usage
problem, write C for correct in the blank. If the sentence has a
usage problem, write I for incorrect, then correct the problem.
_____ 1.
Many
(A lot of) students are looking forward to summer
vacation.
Everything should be in it’s proper place.
_____ 2.
The shape of this pot is more perfect than any pot I've made.
_____ 3.
Huckleberry Finn contains many Biblical allusions.
_____ 4.
The affects of radiation are not completely known.
_____ 5.
During the 1692 hysteria of Salem, nineteen "witches” were hanged.
_____ 6.
The weather affected our tempers.
_____ 7.
This exercise is sort of difficult.
_____ 8.
My house is two blocks further down the street.
_____ 9.
At Saratoga High School it's mandatory to complete four years of English.
_____ 10.
I am suppose to be home tonight for my sister's birthday.
_____ 11.
Is it alright to use our notes?
_____ 12.
The bag of candy was divided between the children in the class.
_____ 13.
The little boy's smile created an allusion of innocence.
_____ 14.
When I mentioned my grade on the Seawolf test. John inferred I had not read the
book.
_____ 15.
The reason I was at the airport meeting my grandmother was because my
grandfather had just died, and I was going to his funeral.
_____ 16.
Every student enrolled in driver's education passed his driving test on the
first try.
_____ 17.
Yodeling is where you use a falsetto voice.
Example:
I
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_____ 18.
Most people don’t want to except their weaknesses.
_____ 19.
The custodian delivered a large amount of boxes to the xerox room.
_____ 20.
Debbie hung the pictures crookedly.
_____ 21.
I could buy only this large amount of detergent.
______22.
Less students will be attending Saratoga High School next year.
______23.
I was sort of tired when I did that assignment.
______24.
Fecklessness is when you are careless or irresponsible
______25.
The percent of Saratoga students who continue their education after high
school graduation is very high.
______26.
From these three direct quotes, I inferred that Parris, a character in The
Crucible, is a character who feels very insecure in his position as reverend.
________27. Training for the football team is different than training for the swim team.
________26. We traveled altogether in an air-conditioned tourist bus.
________29. I past my paper to the person sitting behind me.
________30. Why would you consider immigrating to another country?
Directions: Write a sentence correctly using each of the following terms.
31. immigrate ____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
32. percentage ___________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
33. unique _______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
34. further _______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
35. between _____________________________________________________________
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Lesson #7: CAPITALIZATION RULES
Animals
USE CAPITALS: Smokey the Bear, Champion, Mickey Mouse, Crackers
DONT USE CAPITALS: a famous bear, a champion collie, a mouse, our parrot
Brand Names
USE CAPITALS: Chevrolet Camaro, Jell-O, Pepsi-Cola
DON’T USE CAPITALS: a Chevrolet sedan, a gelatin dessert, two glasses of cola
Buildings
USE CAPITALS: The Hunt Hotel, atop the Prudential Building, the National
Gallery of Art at McCormick Place
*check to determine whether the article the is part of the name
DON'T USE CAPITALS: a downtown hold, atop a tall building, an art museum,
at exhibition center
Business
USE CAPITALS: Sears, Roebuck, and Co.; Maynard, O'Connor, and Smith, Inc.
DON'T USE CAPITALS: a general merchandising film, a law firm
Compass Terms and Street Names
RULE: Capitalize when a definite location or person is indicated. Do not
capitalize when a direction is indicated. Capitalize when referring to a
specific street, and in a hyphenated street number, the second word
begins with a small letter.
USE CAPITALS: a specialty of the South, moved to the North, thinks like an
Easterner, the climate in the Midwest, a Southern accent, Coleman Avenue,
Forty-second Street
DONT USE CAPITALS: drove south two blocks, a northern breeze, the east
window, turned west at the stoplight, the second street
on the left
Correspondence
RULE: Capitalize only the first word in a salutation or closing.
USE CAPITALS: Dear Madam: Sincerely yours, Yours very truly
DON’T USE CAPITALS: My dear Miss Wiggins: Yours sincerely.
Days, Months, Seasons
USE CAPITALS: a Friday in June, next December, the Fourth of July, Christmas
Eve, Yom Kippur
DON’T USE CAPITALS: a day in summer, next winter, the first of the month, on
the eve of graduation, a religious holiday
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Family Relationships
RULE:
Capitalize a word showing family relationship when used with a
person's name but not when preceded by a possessive (unless it is
pan of the name). Words of family relationship are usually, but not
always, capitalized when used in place of a person's name.
USE CAPITALS:
Uncle Manuel: Cousin Pam; my Aunt Mary; someone told
Mother
DON'T USE CAPITALS:
your mother, Judy's sister
Historical Events, Periods, and Documents
USE CAPITALS:
Civil War, Middle Ages, Bill of Rights, Dust Bowl
Nationalities, Races, Religions
RULE: Capitalize the names of nationalities, races, and religions. Capitalize the
specific places of worship and names of specific religious works.
USE CAPITALS:
Semitic, Caucasian, Roman Catholic. Baptist. Australian,
African American; Temple Emanu-El St. John the Divine, the Jama Masjid, the
Book of Mormon, the Book of Job, the Old Testament, thanked Our Lord, God,
the Bible
DON'T USE CAPITALS:
religions, a synagogue, a cathedral, a mosque,
church members a sacred book; for Ra, one of the gods
Political Terms
RULE: When referring to a specific political party, capitalize. If referring to a
political ideology, do not capitalize.
USE CAPITALS:
Whig, the Democratic platform, a Republican convention, a
Socialist
DON’T USE CAPITALS: a former political party, the democratic method, a
republican form of government a socialistic proposal
Proper Adjectives
USE CAPITALS: Euclidean geometry, a Benedictine abbey. Mephistophelian
intrigue, Danish pastry, French fries
DON’T USE CAPITALS: plane geometry, a cloistered abbey, devilish intrigue
Note: When a proper adjective no longer suggests its origin, it is treated as a simple
adjective and is not capitalized: bowie knife, damask rose
27
Quotations
USE CAPITALS: Then he asked, "Who is next?"
DON'T USE CAPITALS: “Who," be asked, "is next?" (because is next is not its own
sentence, you cannot capitalize is)
School Terms
RULE:
Capitalize names of languages or specific numbered courses (remember,
English is a language)
USE CAPITALS: beat Taft High School, enjoyed History 211 and Music 101, took
Russian and French, English class failed American Writers II, for the Astronomy
Club, going to the Senior Picnic
USE CAPITALS: beat a rival high school, enjoyed world history and music, took
algebra and botany, studied American writers, a club for astronomy buffs
Ships, Trains, and Planes
USE CAPITALS: R.H.S. Queen Elizabeth II, the Empire Builder, Vostok VI, the
Spirit of St. Louis
DONT USE CAPITALS: an ocean liner, a passenger train, a Russian
spacecraft, a famous airplane
Title of Person
RULE:
Capitalize a tide used alone or following a person's name only if it refers
to a high government official or someone else to whom you wish to show respect.
USE CAPITALS: Dr. Jana Williams, Superintendent Ranii; Senator Feinstein
consulted the President; Captain Taylor Professor Mahoney; Principal Anderson;
Arnold Schwarznegger, Governor of California
USE CAPITALS: Bill Simmons is president of the Science Club; Mr. Anderson,
principal of our school; knows the professor; the work of a senator; John Keating,
superintendent of schools; Charlene Valdez, president of our class
Title of Publications, Etc.
RULE:
Capitalize the first word and all important words in titles of books,
periodicals, poems, stories, articles, documents, movies, paintings and other works of
art. [The important words are the first and last words and all other words except the
articles (a, an, the) and conjunctions and prepositions of fewer than five letters.]
EXAMPLES:
"Where I Go," "And Life Goes On," Pulp Fiction, “The Fall of the
House of Usher," A Prayer for Owen Meany, Golfing with the pros
28
Abbreviations
USE CAPITALS: Mr. Miller, Ms. (married and unmarried women), MS
(manuscript), OK
USE CAPITALS: "May I help you, mister?"; vs. (versus); etc. (etcetera); e.g.
(example gratia [for example])
29
Capitalization Exercise
Directions:
Some of the following sentences contain no errors in capitalization; others contain
capitals where small letters should be used, or small letters where capitals should be used.
Correct all errors of these two kinds. Write the correction above the error.
1.
An episcopal cathedral now stands at the corner of twenty-second Street and
Adams boulevard, where we used to see Western movies every saturday afternoon
in the sunset theater.
2.
I inserted an ironic question, "where has this unbelievable Friendship been
exhibited?"
3.
Melville's early novels, such as omoo and typee, are faithful accounts of the
islanders of the south pacific, their lives and their gods; Later works, like moby
dick, take all Humanity as their subject and deal not with gods but with god.
4.
A large high school offers more courses than a small one; in my school, I could
not take chemistry.
5.
In the House of representatives, a committee will determine whether the united
states information agency duplicates or competes with private services such as the
associated press and the united press.
6.
Recently I read once again me first two books of the bible-genesis and exodus.
7.
At breakfast this morning, Sheila announced, "as far as I'm concerned, eating
oatmeal every morning is a custom that should have been dropped in the stone
age."
8.
The seat of douglas county, nebraska, is the City of Omaha. A railroad center and
one of the busiest ports on the Missouri river, omaha has moved into a
commanding position in the Cattle Industry of the West.
9.
10.
In the party were aunt Marjorie, uncle Garvin, and an aunt of Fred's.
A visitor to Europe has a wide choice of transportation: he can cross the atlantic
ocean in a few hours by jet plane, travel in luxury on a ship like the queen Mary,
or save money by taking one of the slow scandinavian freighters.
11.
Every fall, the members of mr. o'connor's class in Physics II study a unit on
atomic energy.
30
12.
I can understand what Mr. Rooney is saying in his article, "how we should fix our
economy," because I've thought along similar lines for a long time.
13.
Matthew became the new editor of the school newspaper. He knows the
publishing rules and writes well himself.
14.
Grandma Moses, full name Anna Mary Robertson Moses, is my favorite artist.
15.
She has planned an excursion to the East in the Spring,
16.
While ranking below Middlemarch in critical esteem, The Catcher in the Rye has
a secure place in the high school english curriculum.
17.
Considering that most young people are sedentary, it's not surprising that Comic
books and video games fill their lives.
The army officer arrived on campus but was quickly escorted off the liberal
college campus.
18.
19.
The famous german clock which was installed in the tower of the City hall eighty
years ago still chimes at eight o'clock.
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