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Aspect Lecture 15 What is the meaning of aspect? Aspect concerns the manner in which the verbal action is experienced or regarded. The grammatical category of Aspect is indicated in the morphology of the verbs but it characterizes the whole sentence. Aspect refers to how an event or action is to be viewed with respect to time, rather than to its actual location in time. We can illustrate this using the following examples: [1] David fell in love on his eighteenth birthday. in the past, especially on his 18th birthday [2] David has fallen in love. in the past, but quite recently; PERFECTIVE ASPECT [3] David is falling in love. still in progress; PROGRESSIVE ASPECT Therefore, this category is based on the following functional oppositions of forms: marked for aspect ↔ unmarked for aspect perfect progressive ↔ non-perfect ↔ non-progressive Comrie (1976) makes difference b/n „perfective‟ and „perfect‟ The term „perfective‟ contrasts with „imperfective‟ and denotes a situation viewed in its entirety, without regard to internal temporal constituency. The term „perfect‟ refers to past situation which has present relevance, for instance, the present result of a past event (e.g. His arm has been broken). The aspectual meanings involve the semantic features of state/non-state, durative/non-durative. states vs. events & processes states are static, they continue as before unless changed events and processes are dynamic, they require a continual input of energy otherwise they come to an end events are viewed as a complete whole (perfectively) processes are viewed in progress, from within (imperfectly) Lyons (1977) - phase Durative situations (states and processes), unlike events, have a beginning and an end. They have indefinitely many temporal phases. States vs. processes States are homogeneous and unchanging throughout their successive phases. Processes are not. Comrie (1976) Perfectivity views a situation as a single whole, without distinction of the various separate phases that make up that situation. The imperfective pays essential attention to the internal phases of the situation. Perfective presents a situation as a single whole indicates that an earlier action or state has relevance at a later reference point, or point of orientation. perfective aspect + present tense (“Present Perfect”), the reference point is identical with the speech moment (e.g. John has bought a new car). perfective aspect + past tense (“Past Perfect”), the reference point is earlier than the speech moment (e.g. John had bought a new car when I met him last week). With dynamic verbs the following differences are found Past Simple Present Perfect Focuses on the past action: Focuses on the present John bought a new car last relevance (result) of the past week (he may or may not have action: John has bought a sold it since then). new car (the car is still in his possession). Refers to a period that Refers to a period of time terminated before the that includes the speech speech moment: John Smith moment: John Smith has wrote four novels (before he written four novels (he may died/in the 60s etc.); Did you write more); Have you seen see the Picasso exhibition? the Picasso exhibition? (it is (when you were in Paris, etc.) still open) It follows that only the Past can co-occur with definite past time expressions (adverbials) such as last week/month/year, in the 60s, before he died, etc. both the Past and the Past perfect can co-occur with adverbials expressing duration: cf. John lived in Paris for 20 years. John has lived in Paris for 20 years. The Progressive Aspect An event can be presented in different ways: as unfolding in time (i.e. marked for progressive aspect) or as completed (i.e. not marked for progressive aspect). Markers for progressive aspect? It shouldn‟t be confused with the use of -ing forms in non-finite clauses or as modifiers. The distinction b/n a progressive and nonprogressive (or simple) verb form Simple verb form Progressive verb form Characteristic and Observable & changeable permanent properties of human behaviour and persons and things properties of things George is polite. George is being polite. Lily plays the piano. Lily is playing the piano. The roof leaks. The roof is leaking. Completeness Incompleteness John opened the door. John is opening the door. Aspect always includes tense In [2] David has fallen in love and [3] David is falling in love Aspect is combined with the Present tense, but it could also appear with the Past tense: David had fallen in love -- Perfective Aspect, Past Tense David was falling in love -- Progressive Aspect, Past Tense The perfective auxiliary + verb + -ed, the progressive auxiliary + verb + -ing Perfective Aspect Present Tense has fallen Progressive Aspect is falling Past Tense was falling had fallen While aspect always includes tense, tense can occur without aspect (David falls in love, David fell in love). Aspectual verbs Aspect can describe the beginning, incompletion and continuation of an action, its repetitiveness, its termination, etc. Apart from the 2 aspects grammaticalized in English: progressive aspect (incomplete, ongoing action) and perfective aspect (completed action in the past with present relevance) there are other aspects Other aspects can be expressed by catenative verbs: - repeated action (He kept coming back), - the beginning of an action (She started writing / They began to eat / We should really get going), - or the end of an action (She stopped writing). The following factors modify the meaning of the progressive aspect: types of verbs; tense and perfective aspect; accompanying adverbials; other features of the total context. They will be discussed in detail in relation to progressive forms.