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CHAPTER 2
F O U N D AT I O N S O F B E H A V I O R
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MODELS OF BEHAVIOR (1 OF 4)
• Theoretical models to investigate and understand
human behavior:
1.
Reductionism
2.
Social models
3.
Holistic models
4.
Epigenetic models
5.
Evolutionary models
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MODELS OF BEHAVIOR (2 OF 4)
• Reductionism
• Breaking down of
complex phenomena
into simpler
components
• Example: reducing
blushing to its
physiological
components
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MODELS OF BEHAVIOR (3 OF 4)
• Social models
• Emphasis on social context when behavior is studied
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MODELS OF BEHAVIOR (4 OF 4)
• Holistic models
• No single system exists in isolation
• Behavior the result of a complex set of interactive systems:
• molecular structure of cells, the brain and nervous system, the social
world
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BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL MODELS
• Biopsychosocial model
• Three interacting variables
1.
Biological
2.
Psychological
3.
Social and Cultural
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FIGURE 2.2
THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL MODEL
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EPIGENETIC MODELS (1 OF 2)
• Epigenetics –the study of any process that alters
gene activity without changing the DNA sequence
or how external factors turn genes on and off
• Lifestyle Factors Affect Your Genes:
• Diet, sleep & exercise
• Stress, relationships & thoughts
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EPIGENETIC MODELS (2 OF 2)
• Epigenome – controls the genes by turning their
influence higher or lower
• changes passed down from one generation
• allows species to adapt better to the needs of the outside world
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EPIGENETICS AND 5 THINGS THAT
GROW YOUR BRAIN
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EVOLUTIONARY MODELS (1 OF 2)
• Evolutionary models – focus on behaviors that have
facilitated the survival of the species, are adaptive, and
shared by all humans
• Stem from Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution:
• Organisms evolve based on need to adapt to the environment
and survive to pass on genes
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EVOLUTIONARY MODELS (2 OF 2)
• Natural selection – inherited traits help enable survival
& reproduction
• Ability to change involves both genetic & environmental factors
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THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Nervous system – vast network of wiring that allows
messages to travel back & forth throughout brain & body
• Comprised of tiny cells called neurons:
• function is to communicate with other neurons
• forms the basis for all human behavior
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STRUCTURE OF THE NEURON
• Four basic parts:
1.
Dendrites – receive messages from neighboring neurons
2.
Soma – cell body that contains the nucleus and processes
information
3.
Axon – long, microscopic cable-like structure that sends
messages away from the soma to neighboring neurons
4.
Axon terminals – located at the end of axon branches and
contains “terminal buttons” that connect to other neurons
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NEURON STRUCTURE
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TYPES OF NEURONS (1 OF 2)
• Three general categories:
1.
Sensory neurons – run from the receptors in the senses to
the brain and spinal chord
2.
Motor neurons – transmit impulses from the brain and spinal
cord to other parts of the body (muscles, skin, and glands)
3. Interneurons – take in messages from the sensory neurons
and from other interneurons
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TYPES OF NEURONS (2 OF 2)
• Mirror neurons – specialized neurons found in the brain
that play an important role in social interaction
• Help to understand and empathize with others
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NEURAL TRANSMISSION (1 OF 2)
• Neural Transmission
• How neurons send messages to each other
• Resting potential – state of a neuron when it is not sending a
message:
• positively and negatively charged ions line the interior and exterior of
the axon
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NEURAL TRANSMISSION (2 OF 2)
• The Nerve Impulse
• Resting potential
• more positively charged ions on the outside give the cell a negative
voltage of about -70mV
• concentration of positive and negative ions create a polarized
electrical state
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THE NERVE IMPULSE (ACTION
POTENTIAL)
• Action potential – occurs when the neuron gets enough
electrical stimulation from its neighbor
• Channels in the cell membrane open
• Positive ions rush into the cell
• Change the voltage inside the cell from negative to positive
(depolarization)
• Results in a nerve impulse
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FIGURE 2.5 (1 OF 3)
ACTION POTENTIAL
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FIGURE 2.5 (2 OF 3)
ACTION POTENTIAL
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FIGURE 2.5 (3 OF 3)
ACTION POTENTIAL
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THE NERVE IMPULSE (1 OF 2)
• Nerve impulse – occurs when electrical current passes
through the cell
• All-or-none law – nerve impulse occurs in full and the
message is sent or not at all
• Refractory period – brief period in which a neuron
cannot send another message:
• cell repolarizes or returns to original resting voltage
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THE NERVE IMPULSE (2 OF 2)
• Communication between neurons is an electrochemical
process
• Synapse – point at which the terminals of one cell are
closest to the dendrites or soma of a neighboring cell
• Synaptic gap – small fluid-filled space between the cells
through which important chemical information is shared
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FIGURE 2.6 (1 OF 2)
SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION
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FIGURE 2.6 (2 OF 2)
SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION
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NEUROTRANSMITTERS
• Neurotransmitters – chemical messengers stored in the
synaptic terminals:
• released into synaptic gap when action potential reaches end of
the axon
• attach onto receptor sites on dendrites of receiving cells
• work in “lock & key” fashion
• Examples: serotonin, dopamine, adrenalin, and endorphins
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TABLE 2.1
NEUROTRANSMITTERS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
Neurotransmitter
Functions
Acetylcholine
memory, arousal, movement
Dopamine
pleasure sensations, appetite
suppression
Endorphins
pain relief
Glutamate
learning, memory enhancement
Norepinephrine
arousal, mood, appetite suppression
Serotonin
mood, sleep, appetite
Gamma-aminobutryic acid
(GABA)
sleep, anxiety, tension
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NEURAL TRANSMISSION (1 OF 2)
1. Excitatory neurotransmitters – stimulate receptors
that increase the likelihood that a neuron will fire a
message
2. Inhibitory neurotransmitters – stimulate receptors
that decrease the likelihood that a neuron will fire a
message
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NEURAL TRANSMISSION (2 OF 2)
• Effect of neurotransmitter depends upon:
• How the receptors respond to particular neurotransmitter
chemicals
• Balance of excitatory and inhibitory chemicals in synapses
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GLIAL CELLS
• Glial cells – additional cells that comprise 90% of the
brain
• Assist neurons
• Also respond to and release neurotransmitters and cause
neurons to fire
• Influence certain kinds of thoughts, such as imagination,
creativity, and dreaming
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DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
(1 OF 5)
1.Central nervous system (CNS)
• Comprised of brain & spinal cord
• Coordinates skeletal & muscular systems for movement
• Responds to sensory information from outside world
• Generates emotions, stores memories, and is involved in
personality
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DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
(2 OF 5)
2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
• Pathway of nerve systems between the central nervous system
and the muscles and organs in the body
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DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
(3 OF 5)
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
• Subdivisions:
• Somatic nervous system – nerves with conscious control over
(example: pathways to the muscles of your arm)
• Autonomic nervous system – nerves that allow control of
involuntary bodily functions (example: respiration, digestion, and
organ secretions)
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DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
(4 OF 5)
• Subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system:
• Sympathetic nervous system
• Fight-or-flight system
• Increases breathing, heart rate, pupil dilation, and sweating
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DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
(5 OF 5)
• Subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system:
• Parasympathetic nervous system
• Returns the body to its normal resting state
• Slows breathing and heart rate
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FIGURE 2.7
DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
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FIGURE 2.8 (1 OF 3)
SYMPATHETIC AND PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM
Eyes
Mouth
Skin
Palms
Lungs
Heart
Blood
Adrenal Glands
Digestion
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FIGURE 2.8 (2 OF 3)
SYMPATHETIC AND PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM
Sympathetic
Pupils dilated, dry; far
vision
Dry
Goose bumps
Eyes
Mouth
Skin
Sweaty
Palms
Passages open
Lungs
Increased rate
Heart
Maximum supply to
muscles
Blood
Increased activity Adrenal Glands
Suppressed
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Digestion
FIGURE 2.8 (3 OF 3)
SYMPATHETIC AND PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM
Sympathetic
Pupils dilated,
dry; far vision
Dry
Goose bumps
Parasympathetic
Eyes
Pupils
constricted,
moist; near vision
Mouth
Salivating
Skin
No goose
bumps
Sweaty
Palms
Dry
Passages open
Lungs
Passages
constricted
Increased rate
Heart
Decreased
rate
Maximum supply
to muscles
Blood
Maximum supply
to internal
organs
Increased
activity
Adrenal Glands
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Decreased
activity
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (1 OF 6)
• Collection of hormone-producing glands
• Responds to imbalances in body’s internal state by
releasing more or less amounts of various hormone
messengers
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THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (2 OF 6)
• Pituitary gland – chief gland located in center of brain
• sends hormonal messages to distant organs or tissues
• releases specific hormones that travel to other endocrine glands
and activates them
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THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (3 OF 6)
• Other glands include the thyroid gland, adrenal glands,
ovaries, and testicles
• secrete specialized hormones directly into the bloodstream
• trigger responses in distant tissues such as growth, sexual
development, and metabolism
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THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (4 OF 6)
• Effects of hormones:
• Organizational role
• Influence the physical development of the body
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THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (5 OF 6)
• Effects of hormones:
• Activation effect
• Temporarily influence the body and behavior
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THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (6 OF 6)
• Behavioral endocrinology – examines the relationship
between hormones and behavior
• Recognized bidirectional relationship between hormone release
and behavioral changes
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FIGURE 2.9
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM GLANDS
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THE BRAIN
• The brain:
• controls basic bodily functions
• coordinates physical movements
• allows for thinking, feeling, & remembering
• proportionally larger & more complex than other animals
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STUDYING THE BRAIN (1 OF 4)
• Methods of studying the brain
1.
Case studies – studying people with specific behavioral or
cognitive problems due to a brain injury
2.
Brain stimulation – electrically stimulating parts of brain &
studying corresponding changes in behavior
3.
Neuroimaging – using technology to create images of brain
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STUDYING THE BRAIN (2 OF 4)
• Imaging techniques:
• EEG
• Measures electrical activity produced by neurons as they send
messages
• PET scan
• Uses radioactive tracers to measures active brain’s use of glucose for
energy
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STUDYING THE BRAIN (3 OF 4)
• Imaging techniques:
• CT scan
• Combines x-rays & computers to generate three-dimensional “slices”
of the brain
• MRI
• Measures changes in magnetic field in the structures of the brain
associated with activity to provide three-dimensional computer images
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STUDYING THE BRAIN (4 OF 4)
• Imaging techniques:
• fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) – shows different
levels of electrical activity in the brain while the patient is
performing tasks, such as:
• Reading
• Meditating
• looking at pictures
• imagining specific behaviors
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BRAIN IMAGING TECHNIQUES
THE FOUR BASIC IMAGING TECHNIQUES DEVELOPED FOR VIEWING
THE BRAIN INCLUDE (A) EEG, (B) MRI, (C) CT SCAN, AND (D) PET
SCAN.
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BRAIN STRUCTURES
• Structures of the brain:
• Arranged in a hierarchical fashion with more primitive structures
within the brain
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STRUCTURES OF THE HINDBRAIN
(1 OF 2)
• Hindbrain’s key structures:
1.
Medulla – handles many “automatic” behaviors (e.g.
breathing, digesting, & heart beat)
2.
Cerebellum – coordinates muscle movements needed for
balance, posture, & equilibrium
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STRUCTURES OF THE HINDBRAIN
(2 OF 2)
• Hindbrain’s key structures:
3.
Pons – allows neural signals to cross to the opposite sides of
the body (example: sensory signals)
• important role in consciousness, sleep, and dreaming
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STRUCTURES OF THE MIDBRAIN
(1 OF 2)
• The Midbrain:
• Provides connections between the lower hindbrain and higher
forebrain
• Important structures:
• Tectum:
• located in back upper part of midbrain (the “roof”)
• controls auditory & visual responses
• component of our basic emotional system
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STRUCTURES OF THE MIDBRAIN
(2 OF 2)
• The Midbrain:
• Important structures (con’t):
• Reticular formation:
• set of long nerve pathways located in medulla & pons that extend up into
midbrain
• connections make up reticular activation system (RAS) that keeps brain
alert & awake
• plays role in consciousness, attention, & arousal
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STRUCTURES OF THE FOREBRAIN
• Forebrain:
• Forward most part of the brain
• Responsible for complex and sophisticated thoughts and basic
emotions
• Comprised of the:
• Limbic system
• Cerebral cortex
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FIGURE 2.10
BRAIN DIAGRAM
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THE LIMBIC SYSTEM (1 OF 4)
• Limbic system – involved in our basic emotions such as
anger and fear, as well as impulse control, learning,
memory, and addiction
• The brain’s pleasure center
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WITHIN THE LIMBIC SYSTEM
• Thalamus – relay station for sensory information to the
cortex
• Hypothalamus – secretes hormones, helps to integrate
the nervous system with the endocrine system, and
regulates body systems and processes
(temperature/blood pressure)
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THE LIMBIC SYSTEM (4 OF 4)
• Hippocampus – involved in spatial awareness and
helping form new memories
• Amygdala – involved in memory & emotional responses
to possible threats, (e.g.fear)
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FIGURE 2.11
LIMBIC SYSTEM
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THE CEREBRAL CORTEX (1 OF 5)
• Largest and most highly developed outer portion of
brain
• Responsible for perception, language, thought, &
personality
• Comprised of four lobes:
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THE CEREBRAL CORTEX (2 OF 5)
• Frontal lobes:
• Located behind the forehead
• Does not fully develop until 26
• Important for impulse control, problem solving and compassion.
• Contains the motor cortex
• important in coordinating physical movements
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THE CEREBRAL CORTEX (3 OF 5)
• Parietal lobes:
• Contains the somatosensory cortex
• receives sensory information from the body
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THE CEREBRAL CORTEX (4 OF 5)
• Temporal lobes:
• Located near the ears
• Contains structures related to language, memory, and emotion
• Contains the auditory cortex that interprets sound and language
• Some memory storage
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THE CEREBRAL CORTEX (5 OF 5)
• Occipital lobes:
• Located in the back of the head
• Contains the primary visual cortex
• Receives and interprets information from the eyes via the optic
nerves
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FIGURE 2.12
LOBES OF THE BRAIN
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BRAIN PARTS SONG BY AARON WOLF
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYwOtTMUz0c
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THE CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES (1 OF 2)
• Cerebral hemispheres – right and left halves of the
brain primarily in charge of the opposite side of the
body’s functioning
• Lateralization – specialized brain functions controlled by
one hemisphere or the other
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THE CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES (2 OF 2)
• Corpus callosum – band of fibers that allows the two
hemispheres to communicate
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NEUROPLASTICITY AND
NEUROGENESIS (1 OF 2)
• Neuroplasticity – ability of the brain to change in
response to experience or damage
• Can occur at any age
• Connections between neurons can be strengthened or weakened
• Results in increased or declined abilities
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NEUROPLASTICITY AND NEUROGENESIS
(2 OF 2)
• Neurogenesis – ability of the brain to make new
neurons
• Mostly occurs in areas responsible for learning & memory
• Basis of rehabilitation from brain injury
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DEFINING CULTURE (RACE)
• Race - A category of the human species sharing
more or less distinctive physical traits transmitted in
descent; a concept that has little scientific validity
but continues to have a meaning in particular
social contexts.
• Enid Lee, Deborah Menkart and Margo Okazawa-Rey (eds.)
• Beyond Heroes and Holidays: A Practical Guide to K-12 Anti-Racist, Multicultural
Education and Staff Development
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