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CHAPTER 2 F O U N D AT I O N S O F B E H A V I O R Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved MODELS OF BEHAVIOR (1 OF 4) • Theoretical models to investigate and understand human behavior: 1. Reductionism 2. Social models 3. Holistic models 4. Epigenetic models 5. Evolutionary models Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved MODELS OF BEHAVIOR (2 OF 4) • Reductionism • Breaking down of complex phenomena into simpler components • Example: reducing blushing to its physiological components Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved MODELS OF BEHAVIOR (3 OF 4) • Social models • Emphasis on social context when behavior is studied Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved MODELS OF BEHAVIOR (4 OF 4) • Holistic models • No single system exists in isolation • Behavior the result of a complex set of interactive systems: • molecular structure of cells, the brain and nervous system, the social world Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL MODELS • Biopsychosocial model • Three interacting variables 1. Biological 2. Psychological 3. Social and Cultural Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved FIGURE 2.2 THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL MODEL Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved EPIGENETIC MODELS (1 OF 2) • Epigenetics –the study of any process that alters gene activity without changing the DNA sequence or how external factors turn genes on and off • Lifestyle Factors Affect Your Genes: • Diet, sleep & exercise • Stress, relationships & thoughts Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved EPIGENETIC MODELS (2 OF 2) • Epigenome – controls the genes by turning their influence higher or lower • changes passed down from one generation • allows species to adapt better to the needs of the outside world Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved EPIGENETICS AND 5 THINGS THAT GROW YOUR BRAIN Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved EVOLUTIONARY MODELS (1 OF 2) • Evolutionary models – focus on behaviors that have facilitated the survival of the species, are adaptive, and shared by all humans • Stem from Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution: • Organisms evolve based on need to adapt to the environment and survive to pass on genes Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved EVOLUTIONARY MODELS (2 OF 2) • Natural selection – inherited traits help enable survival & reproduction • Ability to change involves both genetic & environmental factors Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved THE NERVOUS SYSTEM • Nervous system – vast network of wiring that allows messages to travel back & forth throughout brain & body • Comprised of tiny cells called neurons: • function is to communicate with other neurons • forms the basis for all human behavior Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved STRUCTURE OF THE NEURON • Four basic parts: 1. Dendrites – receive messages from neighboring neurons 2. Soma – cell body that contains the nucleus and processes information 3. Axon – long, microscopic cable-like structure that sends messages away from the soma to neighboring neurons 4. Axon terminals – located at the end of axon branches and contains “terminal buttons” that connect to other neurons Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved NEURON STRUCTURE Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved TYPES OF NEURONS (1 OF 2) • Three general categories: 1. Sensory neurons – run from the receptors in the senses to the brain and spinal chord 2. Motor neurons – transmit impulses from the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body (muscles, skin, and glands) 3. Interneurons – take in messages from the sensory neurons and from other interneurons Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved TYPES OF NEURONS (2 OF 2) • Mirror neurons – specialized neurons found in the brain that play an important role in social interaction • Help to understand and empathize with others Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved NEURAL TRANSMISSION (1 OF 2) • Neural Transmission • How neurons send messages to each other • Resting potential – state of a neuron when it is not sending a message: • positively and negatively charged ions line the interior and exterior of the axon Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved NEURAL TRANSMISSION (2 OF 2) • The Nerve Impulse • Resting potential • more positively charged ions on the outside give the cell a negative voltage of about -70mV • concentration of positive and negative ions create a polarized electrical state Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved THE NERVE IMPULSE (ACTION POTENTIAL) • Action potential – occurs when the neuron gets enough electrical stimulation from its neighbor • Channels in the cell membrane open • Positive ions rush into the cell • Change the voltage inside the cell from negative to positive (depolarization) • Results in a nerve impulse Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved FIGURE 2.5 (1 OF 3) ACTION POTENTIAL Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved FIGURE 2.5 (2 OF 3) ACTION POTENTIAL Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved FIGURE 2.5 (3 OF 3) ACTION POTENTIAL Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved THE NERVE IMPULSE (1 OF 2) • Nerve impulse – occurs when electrical current passes through the cell • All-or-none law – nerve impulse occurs in full and the message is sent or not at all • Refractory period – brief period in which a neuron cannot send another message: • cell repolarizes or returns to original resting voltage Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved THE NERVE IMPULSE (2 OF 2) • Communication between neurons is an electrochemical process • Synapse – point at which the terminals of one cell are closest to the dendrites or soma of a neighboring cell • Synaptic gap – small fluid-filled space between the cells through which important chemical information is shared Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved FIGURE 2.6 (1 OF 2) SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved FIGURE 2.6 (2 OF 2) SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved NEUROTRANSMITTERS • Neurotransmitters – chemical messengers stored in the synaptic terminals: • released into synaptic gap when action potential reaches end of the axon • attach onto receptor sites on dendrites of receiving cells • work in “lock & key” fashion • Examples: serotonin, dopamine, adrenalin, and endorphins Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved TABLE 2.1 NEUROTRANSMITTERS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS Neurotransmitter Functions Acetylcholine memory, arousal, movement Dopamine pleasure sensations, appetite suppression Endorphins pain relief Glutamate learning, memory enhancement Norepinephrine arousal, mood, appetite suppression Serotonin mood, sleep, appetite Gamma-aminobutryic acid (GABA) sleep, anxiety, tension Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved NEURAL TRANSMISSION (1 OF 2) 1. Excitatory neurotransmitters – stimulate receptors that increase the likelihood that a neuron will fire a message 2. Inhibitory neurotransmitters – stimulate receptors that decrease the likelihood that a neuron will fire a message Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved NEURAL TRANSMISSION (2 OF 2) • Effect of neurotransmitter depends upon: • How the receptors respond to particular neurotransmitter chemicals • Balance of excitatory and inhibitory chemicals in synapses Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved GLIAL CELLS • Glial cells – additional cells that comprise 90% of the brain • Assist neurons • Also respond to and release neurotransmitters and cause neurons to fire • Influence certain kinds of thoughts, such as imagination, creativity, and dreaming Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM (1 OF 5) 1.Central nervous system (CNS) • Comprised of brain & spinal cord • Coordinates skeletal & muscular systems for movement • Responds to sensory information from outside world • Generates emotions, stores memories, and is involved in personality Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM (2 OF 5) 2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS) • Pathway of nerve systems between the central nervous system and the muscles and organs in the body Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM (3 OF 5) • Peripheral nervous system (PNS) • Subdivisions: • Somatic nervous system – nerves with conscious control over (example: pathways to the muscles of your arm) • Autonomic nervous system – nerves that allow control of involuntary bodily functions (example: respiration, digestion, and organ secretions) Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM (4 OF 5) • Subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system: • Sympathetic nervous system • Fight-or-flight system • Increases breathing, heart rate, pupil dilation, and sweating Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM (5 OF 5) • Subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system: • Parasympathetic nervous system • Returns the body to its normal resting state • Slows breathing and heart rate Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved FIGURE 2.7 DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved FIGURE 2.8 (1 OF 3) SYMPATHETIC AND PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM Eyes Mouth Skin Palms Lungs Heart Blood Adrenal Glands Digestion Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved FIGURE 2.8 (2 OF 3) SYMPATHETIC AND PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM Sympathetic Pupils dilated, dry; far vision Dry Goose bumps Eyes Mouth Skin Sweaty Palms Passages open Lungs Increased rate Heart Maximum supply to muscles Blood Increased activity Adrenal Glands Suppressed Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Digestion FIGURE 2.8 (3 OF 3) SYMPATHETIC AND PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM Sympathetic Pupils dilated, dry; far vision Dry Goose bumps Parasympathetic Eyes Pupils constricted, moist; near vision Mouth Salivating Skin No goose bumps Sweaty Palms Dry Passages open Lungs Passages constricted Increased rate Heart Decreased rate Maximum supply to muscles Blood Maximum supply to internal organs Increased activity Adrenal Glands Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Decreased activity THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (1 OF 6) • Collection of hormone-producing glands • Responds to imbalances in body’s internal state by releasing more or less amounts of various hormone messengers Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (2 OF 6) • Pituitary gland – chief gland located in center of brain • sends hormonal messages to distant organs or tissues • releases specific hormones that travel to other endocrine glands and activates them Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (3 OF 6) • Other glands include the thyroid gland, adrenal glands, ovaries, and testicles • secrete specialized hormones directly into the bloodstream • trigger responses in distant tissues such as growth, sexual development, and metabolism Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (4 OF 6) • Effects of hormones: • Organizational role • Influence the physical development of the body Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (5 OF 6) • Effects of hormones: • Activation effect • Temporarily influence the body and behavior Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (6 OF 6) • Behavioral endocrinology – examines the relationship between hormones and behavior • Recognized bidirectional relationship between hormone release and behavioral changes Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved FIGURE 2.9 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM GLANDS Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved THE BRAIN • The brain: • controls basic bodily functions • coordinates physical movements • allows for thinking, feeling, & remembering • proportionally larger & more complex than other animals Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved STUDYING THE BRAIN (1 OF 4) • Methods of studying the brain 1. Case studies – studying people with specific behavioral or cognitive problems due to a brain injury 2. Brain stimulation – electrically stimulating parts of brain & studying corresponding changes in behavior 3. Neuroimaging – using technology to create images of brain Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved STUDYING THE BRAIN (2 OF 4) • Imaging techniques: • EEG • Measures electrical activity produced by neurons as they send messages • PET scan • Uses radioactive tracers to measures active brain’s use of glucose for energy Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved STUDYING THE BRAIN (3 OF 4) • Imaging techniques: • CT scan • Combines x-rays & computers to generate three-dimensional “slices” of the brain • MRI • Measures changes in magnetic field in the structures of the brain associated with activity to provide three-dimensional computer images Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved STUDYING THE BRAIN (4 OF 4) • Imaging techniques: • fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) – shows different levels of electrical activity in the brain while the patient is performing tasks, such as: • Reading • Meditating • looking at pictures • imagining specific behaviors Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved BRAIN IMAGING TECHNIQUES THE FOUR BASIC IMAGING TECHNIQUES DEVELOPED FOR VIEWING THE BRAIN INCLUDE (A) EEG, (B) MRI, (C) CT SCAN, AND (D) PET SCAN. Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved BRAIN STRUCTURES • Structures of the brain: • Arranged in a hierarchical fashion with more primitive structures within the brain Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved STRUCTURES OF THE HINDBRAIN (1 OF 2) • Hindbrain’s key structures: 1. Medulla – handles many “automatic” behaviors (e.g. breathing, digesting, & heart beat) 2. Cerebellum – coordinates muscle movements needed for balance, posture, & equilibrium Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved STRUCTURES OF THE HINDBRAIN (2 OF 2) • Hindbrain’s key structures: 3. Pons – allows neural signals to cross to the opposite sides of the body (example: sensory signals) • important role in consciousness, sleep, and dreaming Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved STRUCTURES OF THE MIDBRAIN (1 OF 2) • The Midbrain: • Provides connections between the lower hindbrain and higher forebrain • Important structures: • Tectum: • located in back upper part of midbrain (the “roof”) • controls auditory & visual responses • component of our basic emotional system Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved STRUCTURES OF THE MIDBRAIN (2 OF 2) • The Midbrain: • Important structures (con’t): • Reticular formation: • set of long nerve pathways located in medulla & pons that extend up into midbrain • connections make up reticular activation system (RAS) that keeps brain alert & awake • plays role in consciousness, attention, & arousal Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved STRUCTURES OF THE FOREBRAIN • Forebrain: • Forward most part of the brain • Responsible for complex and sophisticated thoughts and basic emotions • Comprised of the: • Limbic system • Cerebral cortex Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved FIGURE 2.10 BRAIN DIAGRAM Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved THE LIMBIC SYSTEM (1 OF 4) • Limbic system – involved in our basic emotions such as anger and fear, as well as impulse control, learning, memory, and addiction • The brain’s pleasure center Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved WITHIN THE LIMBIC SYSTEM • Thalamus – relay station for sensory information to the cortex • Hypothalamus – secretes hormones, helps to integrate the nervous system with the endocrine system, and regulates body systems and processes (temperature/blood pressure) Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved THE LIMBIC SYSTEM (4 OF 4) • Hippocampus – involved in spatial awareness and helping form new memories • Amygdala – involved in memory & emotional responses to possible threats, (e.g.fear) Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved FIGURE 2.11 LIMBIC SYSTEM Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved THE CEREBRAL CORTEX (1 OF 5) • Largest and most highly developed outer portion of brain • Responsible for perception, language, thought, & personality • Comprised of four lobes: Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved THE CEREBRAL CORTEX (2 OF 5) • Frontal lobes: • Located behind the forehead • Does not fully develop until 26 • Important for impulse control, problem solving and compassion. • Contains the motor cortex • important in coordinating physical movements Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved THE CEREBRAL CORTEX (3 OF 5) • Parietal lobes: • Contains the somatosensory cortex • receives sensory information from the body Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved THE CEREBRAL CORTEX (4 OF 5) • Temporal lobes: • Located near the ears • Contains structures related to language, memory, and emotion • Contains the auditory cortex that interprets sound and language • Some memory storage Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved THE CEREBRAL CORTEX (5 OF 5) • Occipital lobes: • Located in the back of the head • Contains the primary visual cortex • Receives and interprets information from the eyes via the optic nerves Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved FIGURE 2.12 LOBES OF THE BRAIN Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved BRAIN PARTS SONG BY AARON WOLF https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYwOtTMUz0c Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved THE CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES (1 OF 2) • Cerebral hemispheres – right and left halves of the brain primarily in charge of the opposite side of the body’s functioning • Lateralization – specialized brain functions controlled by one hemisphere or the other Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved THE CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES (2 OF 2) • Corpus callosum – band of fibers that allows the two hemispheres to communicate Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved NEUROPLASTICITY AND NEUROGENESIS (1 OF 2) • Neuroplasticity – ability of the brain to change in response to experience or damage • Can occur at any age • Connections between neurons can be strengthened or weakened • Results in increased or declined abilities Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved NEUROPLASTICITY AND NEUROGENESIS (2 OF 2) • Neurogenesis – ability of the brain to make new neurons • Mostly occurs in areas responsible for learning & memory • Basis of rehabilitation from brain injury Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved DEFINING CULTURE (RACE) • Race - A category of the human species sharing more or less distinctive physical traits transmitted in descent; a concept that has little scientific validity but continues to have a meaning in particular social contexts. • Enid Lee, Deborah Menkart and Margo Okazawa-Rey (eds.) • Beyond Heroes and Holidays: A Practical Guide to K-12 Anti-Racist, Multicultural Education and Staff Development Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved