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Journal of Promotion Management, 16:331–359, 2010
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1049-6491 print / 1540-7594 online
DOI: 10.1080/10496490903294703
How Much are Health Websites Influenced by
Culture? Content Analysis of Online Diet
Programs in the United States, the United
Kingdom, and Korea
JAY (HYUNJAE) YU
Sogang University, Seoul, South Korea
KAREN WHITEHILL KING
University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
HYE JUN YOON
Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Texas, USA
This study investigates the content of diet websites in the United
States (US), United Kingdom (UK), and Korea from a cross-cultural
perspective using two cultural typologies: Hofstede’s individualismcollectivism and Hall’s low-high context. The results show a balance
of the universal features and culture specific characteristics in the
websites. Interestingly, the UK was in the middle between the US and
Korea in several features even though the UK and the US typically
had been generally included in the same cultural group in advertising studies. It was also determined that neither Hofstede’s typology
nor Hall’s high-low context is enough to explain the cultural representations found on the websites. The need for new typologies for
explaining or categorizing the cultural characteristics in advertising is suggested.
KEYWORDS advertising, content analysis, cross-cultural, diet,
health communication, individualism-collectivism, low-high context, online, promotion, websites
INTRODUCTION
“There are now more people suffering from obesity than from hunger.”
(Louise Fresco, former Assistant Director-General, Food and Agriculture Organization [FAO] of the United Nations, 2006)
Address correspondence to Jay (Hyunjae) Yu, Assistant Professor, School of Communication, Sogang University, 209 Gabriel Hall, Seoul, 121-742, South Korea. E-mail: bus89@sogang.
ac.kr
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Numerous media reports and academic studies have indicated the negative effects of obesity on people’s health (Tate, Wing, & Winett, 2001; US
Surgeon General, 2001; Blackburn, 2002; Pontiroli, Pizzocri, Paroni, & Folli
et al., 2006). The problem is widespread. According to a report from the
American Obesity Association (2006), about 127 million American adults
(64.5%) are considered to be overweight with a Body Mass Index of 25 or
more. (Body Mass Index is calculated as weight in kilograms divided by
the square of height in meters.) The same report indicates an additional 60
million adults (30.5%) are obese (with a BMI of 30 or more). The Centers
for Disease Control (CDC) has predicted that obesity will eventually replace
smoking as the number one cause of preventable death for the first time in
US history.
In this environment, many people have recently become more interested in losing weight, and the diet industry has become prominent in the
consumer market. According to a report by the FTC (2003), American dieters
annualy spend about $35 billion on diet products. In addition, about 1,000
new products enter the market every year.
Money spent on advertising for diet programs and products topped
more than $240 million in 2001—not including diet foods, beverages, or
health club memberships—a substantial increase over the $190 million spent
in 2000 (CMR/TNS, 2006), and the amount of the advertising for weightloss products increases annually (FTC, 2003). Today, many advertisers view
websites as a major advertising medium for their businesses (Tate, 2001;
Christ, 2005; Yu & King, 2005; Baek & Yu, 2007). Online advertising for diet
products, specifically, is more important now than ever because consumers
are becoming ever more dependent on the internet for obtaining diet information (Knoop, Lovich, Silverstein, & Tutty, 2003). According to the Pew
Internet & American Life Project (Pew Research Center, 2006), 49% of American internet users obtain diet or nutrition-related information through the
internet. On November 21, 2007, when the word “weight-loss” was typed
into a Google search bar, approximately 40,900,000 results were returned in
0.16 seconds.
Obesity is an epidemic not only in the US (Cho & Cheon, 2005; Walker &
Wadee, 2006), and diet websites have recently become very popular worldwide (Kim & Kang, 2002; Korean Society for Health Promotion and Disease
Prevention, 2003; Harper & Astrup, 2004) especially due to the universal rising rate of obesity and general usage of the internet (Jung, Youn, & Chang,
2005; Yu & King, 2005). Today, diet companies worldwide are meeting the
demand from consumers for services that are not available in offline advertising (Yu & King, 2005; Baek & Yu, 2007). However, websites from different
cultures tend to show a disparity in the actual content that they offer, each
reflecting the influence of a country’s specific culture (Okazaki & Rivas, 2002;
Cho & Cheon, 2005).
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The current study analyzes the content of diet websites from a crosscultural perspective. In spite of the international popularity of internet advertising, there have been few studies researching the content of diet websites
(Jung, Youn, & Chang, 2005) and even fewer studies researching website
content from a cross-cultural perspective (Okazaki & Rivas, 2002; Yu & King,
2005).
In this study, advertising appeals presented in the verbal factors (i.e.,
slogans, headlines, and copy) and visual factors (i.e., models, photos, illustrations, and animation) will be analyzed and compared among diet websites
from three different countries. In addition, the specific cultural indicators applied from Hofstede’s (1980) individualism-collectivism typology and Hall’s
(1976) high-low context typology will be investigated. In order to obtain a
sample, this study selected diet websites from the US, the UK, and Korea; all
three countries have experienced a remarkable increase both in the rate of
obesity and internet use among people in recent years (Kim & Kang, 2002;
Korean Society for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention, 2003; Walker
& Wadee, 2006).
POPULARITY OF DIET WEBSITES IN THE THREE COUNTRIES
According to a recent report from the Pew Internet & American Life Project
(2006), approximately 80% of American internet users (113 million American
adults) have searched for health or medical information online. Forty-nine
percent of internet users have searched for information about dieting, nutritional supplements, or weight control. Forty-four percent of internet users
have searched online for information about exercise/fitness. Further, the data
showed that 82% of female internet users have gone online for health information, compared with 77% of male users. Also, as people’s income and
education improve, the rate of using the internet to seek out health-related
information increases (Pew Internet & American Life Project, 2006).
The UK and Korea are also regions where diet websites have been very
popular in recent years (Papadaki & Scott, 2005). According to a report in
2007 from WeightWatchers.com, the UK is the second major market in diet
marketing after the US (Weight Watchers, 2007). There are not only UKbased diet companies online, but many US companies are also conducting
marketing among UK dieters (e.g., www.peak-nutrition.co.uk). Even though
some British researchers have warned consumers to be careful about the
deceptiveness of diet websites, the usage of diet websites has been on
the rise (Papadaki & Scott, 2005). Furthermore, effects of some online diet
programs have been proven by medical researchers (Kirk et al., 2003).
According to a recent study, the obesity rate in Korea is the fastest
growing among all Asian countries (Yoon et al., 2006). Today, about 32%
of Korean adults are categorized as obese. The study also found that female
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college students in Korea were more likely to be on a diet than female
college students from anywhere else in the world. In addition to the increase
of obesity in Korea, easy access to the internet has been another reason for
the popularity of diet websites (Baek & Yu, 2007). Korea has been a longtime
global leader in the rate of subscriptions to high-speed internet access (Wall
Street Journal, 2006). On June 25 in 2007, www.Google.co.kr return 1,850
the Korean word for “weightdiet websites by entering the word
loss.” Yu and King (2005) reported that most Korean diet websites contain
content that might have been influenced by western culture. For example,
they found frequent usage of Caucasian models and advertising messages
using the English language for foreign diet products.
CROSS-CULTURAL CONTENT ANALYSIS OF WEBSITES
To date, most cross-cultural content analyses in advertising have examined
traditional advertising media: TV ads in general (Cho, Up, Gentry, Jun, &
Kropp, 1999), magazine ads (Han & Shavitt, 1994), or newspaper ads (Paek,
Nelson, & McLeod, 2004). Other studies have focused on a particular type
of ad, such as political ads (Tak, Kaid, & Lee, 1997), beer ads (Caillat &
Mueller, 1996), or corporate ads (Cho & Cheon, 2005). Studies have also
analyzed how cultural differences relate to specific creative strategies like
sex appeal (Nelson & Paek, 2005) and celebrity endorsement (Choi, Lee,
& Kim, 2005; Paek, 2005). However, cross-cultural research that examines
websites is significantly lacking (Taylor & Miracle, 1997).
Okazaki and Rivas (2002) conducted a cross-cultural comparison of corporate websites applying traditional advertising content study techniques.
They examined information content, cultural values, and creative strategies
on multinational corporations’ product-based websites in Japan, Spain, and
the US. The results showed that cultural values were significantly different
among the three countries’ websites. Collectivistic values were not present
on Spanish and US websites, but only on Japanese websites. By contrast,
regardless of the countries and cultural differences, the level of information content (e.g., price, quality, and performance) and the use of creative
strategies tended to be similar across the countries. Based on their findings, Okazaki and Rivas argued that traditional eastern and western cultural
dimensions are, in fact, reflected in web marketing communications, but
also that universal characteristics should be applied when developing the
websites.
Cho and Cheon (2005) examined to what extent varying levels of interactivity are related to unique cultural characteristics on different western
(US and UK) and eastern countries’ (Japan and Korea) corporate websites.
Using Hofstede’s (1980) (individualism/collectivism and power distance) and
Hall’s (1976) (high/low context) cultural value frameworks, the researchers
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found that the websites from Asian cultures had more interactive functions
in terms of consumer-consumer interactivity. Therefore, the first two dimensions of interactivity (consumer-marketer, consumer-message) were found
more frequently on western countries’ websites, but the consumer-consumer
dimension was more popular on Asian countries’ websites.
Yu and King (2005) compared the advertising appeals and information
content of diet websites between the US and Korea. The results indicated that
the health/nutrition appeals (i.e., focusing on the health benefits resulting
from weight-loss activities mentioned on the website such as “I’m not worried
about type II diabetes anymore!”) were the major advertising appeals in
both countries. But they found that some visual features such as usage of
animation/caricature were more prevalent on Korean websites. The reviews
of past cross-cultural studies of websites suggest that unique features of the
internet such as interactivity and specific content may vary across cultures,
while others may also converge regardless of cultural differences.
CROSS-CULTURAL STUDIES IN ADVERTISING AMONG THE THREE
COUNTRIES
Cross-cultural studies of advertising comparing western and eastern countries have generally used the individualism/collectivism typology suggested
by Hofstede (see Table 1, 1980; and Gudykunst & Ting-Toomey, 1988; Cho
et al., 1999; Moon & Chan, 2005). Further, the typology has played a major role in creating better advertising strategies, especially for multinational
companies that want to do business in foreign markets (Yu & King, 2005).
Some advertising researchers have applied Hofstede’s (1980) typology not
only to identify cultural distinctions between eastern and western cultures,
but also to examine differences within the same culture (e.g., Nelson & Paek,
2005).
Another major typology for cultural comparison is the high/low context
distinction. According to Hall (1976), the people in low-context cultures use
language primarily to express thoughts, feelings, and ideas as directly and
logically as possible. The majority of information is conveyed in explicit
messages and self-oriented expressions (“I” or “You”). On the other hand,
TABLE 1 Hofstede’s Five Dimensions for the US, U.K and Korea
US
UK
Korea
Individualism
Power
Distance
Masculinity
Uncertainty
Avoidance
Long-term
Orientation
91
89
18
40
35
60
62
66
39
46
35
85
29
25
75
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people in high-context cultures use indirect expressions. Therefore, in many
cases, the style of expression is very subtle, and sometimes ambiguous. The
countries from low-context cultures include the US, Canada, and Northern
European countries such as the UK. Most Asian countries belong to highcontext cultures (Adler, Rosenfeld, & Proctor, 2004).
Regarding the US and Korea, there have been several studies indicating the differences across diverse aspects of advertising. For example, Han
and Shavitt (1994) found that individualistic appeals (e.g., individual benefits
and preferences, personal success, independence, and hedonism) are used
to a greater extent in American ads than in Korean ads. They also found
that collectivistic advertising appeals, such as in-group benefits, harmony,
and family integrity, are more frequently seen in Korean ads. Cutler, Javalgi,
and Lee (1995) also confirmed that Korean advertising is more likely to include celebrities, a portrayal of an international audience, and status appeals
compared to that of western countries.
However, Wolburg and Kim (1998) found that Korean advertising often
uses individualism appeals, contrary to the expectations of many researchers.
According to their findings, most sample ads from both Korean and American
cultures had product claims that emphasized individualism. A total of 88%
of the Korean ads and 93% of the American ads included claims for making
the individual more attractive, healthy, and efficient. The products advertised
included cosmetics, hair coloring, clothing, and diet programs. In weight-loss
products specifically, Korean ads mainly appealed to attractiveness, but the
American weight-loss ads predominantly emphasized health itself (Wolburg
& Kim, 1998).
Compared to the amount of studies dealing with a comparison of western and eastern countries such as the US and Korea, cross-cultural research
analyzing the features of British ads has been less popular (Cutler & Javalgi,
1992a; Toncar, 2001). Generally, several aspects of the UK have been considered to be similar to those of the US due to the shared language and
similar cultural origin (Cho & Cheon, 2005). Actually, several studies group
the UK and the US together as representative countries of the western world
(Frith & Sengupta, 1991; Cho & Cheon, 2005), which is consistent with the
suggestion from Hofstede (1980). For example, Toncar reported, through
his content analysis of primetime ads on major network channels in the US
and UK, that there were no significant differences in the proportion or the
type of ads that employ humor. Cho and Cheon also indicated that the characteristics of the corporate websites are similar between the two countries.
Visual components in the two countries’ ads have been known to have many
similarities based upon Cutler and Javalgi’s (1992b) study as well. Interestingly, British ads were more similar to that found in the US rather than that
of France. Even though France and the UK are closer geographically, the
two countries have been considered very different in many aspects (Boote,
1982; Whitelock & Chung, 1989). In addition to the content analyses, a study
Content Analysis of Online Diet Programs
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investigating people’s responses to ads has also indicated a similarity between the US and the UK. Huang (1998) found that people from the two
countries showed similar responses to ads using emotional appeals (e.g.,
happiness, love, and sadness).
However, there have been contradictory indications as well regarding
the two countries’ advertising. Nevett (1992) observed that US ads often employ hard-sell messages, while British advertising more frequently uses softsell and idiosyncratic expressions. This hard-sell/soft-sell distinction has also
been used by several other researchers as an important difference between
the two countries’ advertising (Bernstein, 1986; Garrett, 1986; Weinberger
& Spotts, 1989a). Nevett also confirmed, through the investigation of TV
ads, that there is less informational content and more intention to entertain
the viewer in UK commercials (1992). The study also examined the general
opinions of the two countries’ audiences, finding that the American audience
is less favorable to advertising than British viewers. Despite also conducting research on humor in advertising, Weinberger and Spotts (1989b) got
completely different results from those of Toncar (2001) that are explained
previously. They reported a significant difference between the two countries
in terms of humorous content in advertising. According to their study, commercials from the UK had much more humorous content than those from
the US Studies discussing cultural influences in advertising among the three
countries chosen for this study have produced varying results and implications (Paek, Nelson, & McLeod, 2004; Moon & Chan, 2005; Sung & Tinkham,
2005; Yu & King, 2005). Based upon this diversity of results from previous
studies, the current research will employ six research questions rather than
hypotheses to guide the inquiry.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Since there have been conflicting results and different suggestions from several cross-cultural studies in advertising among the three countries (Cutler
& Javalgi, 1992b; Nevett, 1992; Toncar, 2001), the researchers decided to investigate the characteristics of diet websites in an exploratory manner rather
than by setting up hypotheses.
The first research question aims to compare the three countries’ diet
websites in terms of verbal factors (slogans, headlines, and copy). Three
verbal factors were analyzed using advertising appeals and compared among
the three countries’ websites.
RQ 1: What are the differences, if any, in verbal appeals among the three
countries’ diet websites?
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J. Yu et al.
The next two questions explore the characteristics of visual factors found
on the diet websites of the three countries. Analysis will cover several characteristics of models (number of models, gender, race, role, vocation, clothing,
and pose) and non-model visual factors (pictures, animations, illustrations,
tables, and graphs) on the websites.
RQ 2: What are the differences, if any, in the characteristics of models
depicted among the three countries’ diet?
RQ 3: What are the differences, if any, in the visual characteristics (pictures, animation, illustrations, tables, and graphs) among the three countries’ diet websites?
The fourth research question deals with the other informational content
on diet websites. All menus, interactive features, and other miscellaneous information elements (e.g., privacy statements) will be analyzed and compared
among the three countries’ diet websites.
RQ 4: What are the differences, if any, among the three countries’ diet
websites in the use of informational content (menus, functions, and interactive features)?
In addition, any culture-specific indicators that could be found were
investigated. As the specific indicators reflecting cultural influences on the
three countries’ diet websites, the items from the two theoretical frameworks
were used: Hofstede’s (1980) individualistic-collectivistic distinction and lowhigh context typology by Hall (1976). Through a total of 12 indicators, the
cultural aspects being applied on the three countries’ diet websites were
examined and coded. All cultural indicators from the two theories are seen
in Table 2.
RQ 5: What differences, if any, exist among the three countries’ diet
websites in the use of collectivistic-individualistic cultural characteristics?
RQ 6: What differences, if any, exist among the three countries’ diet
websites in the use of low-high context cultural characteristics found on
the websites?
METHOD
Sampling
The sample consisted of 300 diet websites (100 per country, see examples
of websites in Figures 1, 2, and 3). The Yahoo search engine (Yahoo.com/
Yahoo.uk/Yahoo.co.kr), specific to each country, was utilized to obtain the
Content Analysis of Online Diet Programs
FIGURE 1 Example of U.S. diet website.
FIGURE 2 Example of Korean diet website.
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TABLE 2 Operationalization of Cultural Indicators
Individualism
“Enjoy being unique”: Featuring a person enjoying being unique.
“Benefits to oneself”: Addressing benefits to oneself.
“Doing something by oneself”: Featuring a person doing something by oneself.
Collectivism
“Conversation among people”: A conversation among people.
“People in harmony”: Featuring people in harmony with one another.
“Working together”: Featuring people working together.
Low Context
“Product features”: Emphasis on product features.
“Utilitarian needs”: Addressing utilitarian aspects of the product.
“Use of numbers”: Use of numbers.
High Context
“Emotion and mood”: Emphasis on emotion and mood.
“Use of metaphor”: Use of metaphor.
“Aesthetic expression”: Use of aesthetic expression.
Cho et al., 1999.
sample. When the word “weight-loss” was typed into the search bar of the
American Yahoo website (Yahoo.com), a list containing approximately 53.1
million websites were generated (accessed on Oct. 13, 2006). Among the
websites listed, the researchers selected only the first 100 for inclusion in the
sample because the websites that are ranked high have recent popularity
FIGURE 3 Example of UK diet website.
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(Yu & King, 2005; Baek & Yu, 2007). More than 90% of users click on a
result within the first three pages of search results (CMR, April 27, 2006).
However, if a website was developed just for personal use, such as a blog
or private site that tends to be accessed by an extremely limited group of
people, it was not included in the sample. Also, websites that were solely
designed for selling diet products (e.g., Catalog AjaFit.com phentermine,
www.ajafit.com/top-phentermine) were eliminated from the sample because
there was not enough information for the analysis. Those websites were
replaced with the next website from further down the list. All three searches
were conducted using the same method, the only difference being that a
which translates to “weight-loss” in English, was
Korean word
used for the Korean search. The 300 websites, 100 websites per each country,
were selected and hard copies were printed out on one single day by one
of the researchers (May 23, 2006).
Coders and Coding Scheme
Two coders were recruited for this study. Both coders were mass communication graduate students in the US who are originally from Korea and
proficient in both Korean and English. They were trained to code the advertising appeals, information content, and cultural indicators based upon the
guidelines for coding (Table 3). Several examples were used in the training
sessions in order to ensure that the coders coded from a unified perspective.
Each item for coding was thoroughly discussed among the two coders and
the authors using real examples on the sample websites. After the training
session, the two coders coded the websites independently.
As there have been only a few content analytic studies for diet websites
to date, several coding schemes from indirectly-related literature on the topic
of diet were referenced to develop the current coding scheme. The literature
referenced for developing the coding scheme included the study of advertising messages of food ads (Klassen, Wauer, & Cassel, 1991), thematic analysis
of diet product ads (Bishop, 2001), cross-cultural study of advertising appeals
(Jeon, Franke, Huhmann, & Phelps, 1999; Adler et al., 2004; Moon & Chan,
2005), category of advertising appeals for recent diet products (FTC, 2002;
Kaiser Family Foundation, 2002), and characteristics of models (Ford, Voli,
Honeycutt, & Casey, 1998).
For the criteria of analyzing informational content (menu, functions,
and interactivity), a coding scheme for DTC pharmaceutical websites was
applied (Macias & Lewis, 2003). Finally, the coding sheet for this study
consisted of four sections: (a) models (gender, number, race, pose, and
clothing); (b) non-model visual factors (photos without human models, animations, tables, and graphs); (c) verbal characteristics (advertising appeals
in slogans/headlines and copy); and (d) cross-cultural comparison (cultural
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TABLE 3 Advertising Appeals on the Weight-loss Websites
Appeals
Appearance &
Looks
Health &
Nutrition
Emotional &
Psychological
Quantitative
change
Authority
Threat
Definition
Examples of words
Trying to get attention by focusing Good (nice, great, bad, etc)
on the appearance benefits
looking/fashion/body
resulting from weight-loss
line/sexy/beautiful/slim/glamorous/
activities mentioned on the
gorgeous/handsome/hot, etc.
website. For example, “Before &
after” pictures are used very often
for this appeal. Statements
mentioning body shape, slimness,
etc. are commonly found.
Trying to get attention by focusing Low in
on the health benefits resulting
cholesterol/nutritious/disease/
from weight-loss activities
names of diseases (cancer,
mentioned on the website.
cardiovascular, diabetes, etc)/heart
problems/the symptoms of
obesity/blood pressure/energy/etc.
For example, “I’m not worried
about type II diabetes anymore!”
“Blood pressure? Excellent!”, etc.
Trying to get attention by focusing Colleagues/friends/husband/
on relationship benefits or
company/work/friendly/
emotional benefits resulting from
relationship/neighbor/gloomy/
weight-loss activities mentioned
confident/happy/guilty/fear, etc.
on the website.
For example, a working woman
testifies about the comparisons of
attitudes toward her by
colleagues or friends before
weight-loss and after; or
statements such as “I am
confident now!”, “I enjoy my life
now!”, etc.
Trying to get attention by focusing Lbs/come off/per week/won’t gain/
on the change of weight itself.
reduce body fat/up to 2
pounds/unwanted 48
inches/achieve weight loss, etc.
Mainly about a change in weight.
For example, statements such as, “I
lost 120 lbs”, “Pounds come off
slowly but steadily!” etc.
Trying to get attention by focusing Prove/research/testament/Dr’s
on evidence from research or a
recommendation/According
professional. For example,
to/Based upon research/university,
statements such as “Dr. K proved
etc.
that this diet pill has . . . “,
“According to research, most
users of this product . . . “, etc.
Illustrating undesirable
Consequence/illness/damage/failure/
consequences from certain
regret/isolation/increasing
behaviors or situations, such as
risk/health problem/diagnosis/
disease, being isolated from
names of diseases (cancer,
friends, losing boy/girl friends
cardiovascular, diabetes/high
due to serious obesity.
blood pressure).
Klassen, Wauer, & Cassel, 1991; Bishop, 2001; FTC, 2002; Kaiser Family Foundation, 2002; Adler et al.,
2004; Moon & Chan, 2005; LaTour & Rotfeld, 1997.
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indicators from individualistic-collectivistic typology and low-high context typology). Regarding the cultural characteristics on the websites, coders were
asked to answer yes/no to the questions about the presence of specific
cultural indicators such as “harmony in group,” “co-fulfillment,” or “selfreliance” based on the definitions of each cultural indicator. Coders made
a decision about the presence of cultural indicators by scanning not only
the texts (copy) of each website but also the visual components. The other
informational content on each website (menus, attributes for interactivity,
and privacy statements) were coded by the yes/no distinction as well.
The First Stage of Coding
The first stage of coding was used to check inter-coder reliability as well
as the quality of the coding sheet. Many studies have noted the absolute
importance of inter-coder reliability for content analytic research (Lombard,
Snyder-Duch, & Bracken, 2002; Yeon, Choi, & Kiousis, 2005). The size of the
sample for the pilot study was set at 40% of the total sample based on a previous study that used similar percentages (Neuendorf, 2002). Therefore, a total
of 120 (40 per each country) websites were chosen and independently coded
by the two coders. All websites from the sample were printed as hardcopies
for the analysis. Although some research has suggested coding websites using a computer monitor, the authors decided to print them because there
is no significant difference between the two methods and the hardcopies
allowed coders to code site information from the same day thereby avoiding
possible changes in the websites. This method gave them the ability go back
to the hardcopy of the website to gauge coding discrepancies.
The two coders used a preliminary draft of a coding sheet for the pilot
study. To calculate inter-coder reliability, the Program for Reliability Assessment with Multiple Coders (PRAM) was utilized. Results revealed an average
of 76% (0.7625) agreement (global) as inter-coder reliability. However, some
variables attained poor agreement between the two coders. The authors and
coders decided to pursue higher inter-coder reliability as recommended by
previous research (Neuendorf, 2002). Approximately four hours of the second training session was conducted and some minor changes were made to
the coding sheet. Finally, coders achieved acceptable inter-coder reliability
(87% global agreement, 0.8775). After the pilot test, the two coders coded the
rest of the websites (180 websites per coder) in the sample independently.
The First Page
The first page of each website was considered for the analysis. As noted
by previous studies, the first page of a website serves as a type of front
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TABLE 4 Appeals of Verbal Factors (Slogans, Headlines, Copy)
Appearance & looks
Health & nutrition
Emotion &
Psychology
Quantitative change
Authority
Threat
US
U.K
KOR
X2
df
P-Value
35%
96%
71%
50%
94%
48%
65%
84%
51%
18.00
10.44
12.73
2
2
2
P ≤ .01
P ≤ .01
P ≤ .01
35%
59%
10%
20%
25%
4%
30%
32%
16
5.74
27.18
8.00
2
2
2
n.s
P ≤ .01
P ≤ .05
Base: (300); n.s = not significant.
gate (Ha & James, 1998; Bucy, Lang, Potter, & Grabe, 1999). Generally, a
website’s front page should get people’s attention and motivate them to stay.
Therefore, companies usually try to include the most important information
they want to communicate to consumers on this page (Yu & King, 2005). If
a website does not capture people’s attention on the front page, there is a
decreased likelihood of consumers remaining there (Chan-Olmsted & Park,
2000). In cases where websites used the first page solely for catching the eye
of the consumer (e.g., visual catcher using a flash technique or a greeting),
the next page was chosen for the analysis.
RESULTS
Verbal Appeals (RQ 1)
Most of the websites contained more than one appeal. The health and nutrition appeal was found most often on all the websites and was used on
almost all the websites from the US and the UK (96% and 94%). As shown
on Table 4, emotional and psychological as well as authority appeals were
also found frequently on US websites (71% and 59%) and at significantly
higher levels than on the websites for the other two countries. Appearance
appeals were significantly more likely to be found on Korean websites (59%)
than on US websites. While threat appeals were not commonly used on the
weight-loss websites, they were more commonly found on Korean websites
(16%) than on US (10%) or UK sites (4%).
Human Model Characteristics (RQ 2)
Human models were present on most of the diet websites in each of the
countries. There were no significant differences (p ≤ .05) found between
the number of websites containing human models and the country of origin
(US = 77%, Korea = 69%, UK = 65%).
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Content Analysis of Online Diet Programs
TABLE 5 Model Characteristics
Model presence
Male
Female
White model
Black model
Asian model
Model alone
Model group
Model’s Role
Spokesperson
Participant
Demonstrator
Engage in activity
Non-activity image
Model’s Vocation
Celebrity
Famous athlete
Medical specialist
Diet specialist
Average people
Model’s clothing
Sports wear
Casual wear
Medical attire
Formal clothing
Nude
US
UK
KOREA
X2
df
P-Value
77%
37%
71%
72%
12%
1%
71%
27%
65%
33%
61%
61%
5%
0
62%
29%
69%
30%
60%
26%
0
57%
63%
22%
3.57
16.34
35.42
63.90
18.40
136.67
25.84
25.11
2
16
20
18
6
20
20
20
p
p
p
p
n.s
n.s
≤ .05
≤ .01
≤ .01
≤ .05
n.s
n.s
25%
6%
23%
21%
43%
13%
5%
20%
16%
46%
34%
16%
25%
13%
38%
24.97
20.71
11.61
19.22
14.47
14
14
12
14
18
p ≤ .05
n.s
n.s
n.s
n.s
5%
15%
5%
16%
66%
1%
0
2%
5%
61%
19%
0
16%
8%
54%
25.80
2.00
19.32
11.07
22.14
12
2
8
8
20
p ≤ .05
n.s
p ≤ .05
n.s
n.s
30%
53%
5%
10%
2%
28%
38%
0
9%
4%
39%
40%
13%
13%
4%
18.78
26.94
17.11
12.79
2.69
18
20
8
8
4
n.s
n.s
p ≤ .05
n.s
n.s
Base: (211/ Websites with Human Model); n.s = not significant.
Female models were used about twice as often as male models in all
three countries and models were depicted most often alone rather than in
groups (see Table 5). Not surprisingly, there were differences found between
the websites in terms of race of the models depicted. US and UK websites
depicted white models most often whereas Korean websites included Asian
models most frequently. However, many Korean websites also showed white
models (26%).
There were few significant differences in the roles of models on the
websites between the three countries (p ≤ .05). The most common role
of the models was “posing non-active image” across the three countries’
websites (43% of US, 46% of UK, and 38% of Korean). There was a significant
difference in frequency of using spokespersons on the websites by country
(p ≤ .05). Models were spokespersons/endorsers most frequently on Korean
websites (34%). A demonstrator model (e.g., a before-and-after picture) was
similarly popular among all three countries’ websites (23% of US, 20% of UK,
and 25% of Korean).
In terms of the vocation depicted of the models, “average people” were
shown most often by a wide margin (66% of US, 61% of UK, and 54% of
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J. Yu et al.
Korean). Celebrities were found significantly (p ≤ .05) more frequently on
Korean websites (19%). Famous athletes were not popular on any of the
websites; only one case was shown on an US website. Medical specialists
(a medical doctor or a nurse with a uniform/lab coat) were shown more
frequently on Korean websites (16%) (p ≤ .05). Casual wear was the most
common clothing worn by human models overall (53% of US, 38% of UK,
and 40% of Korean) followed by sportswear (30% of US, 28% of UK, and
39% of Korean). Medical attire (e.g., gowns) was shown significantly more
on Korean websites (13%) (p ≤ .05). Nudity was rarely shown on any of the
websites.
Visual Characteristics (RQ 3)
Photos were the most common visuals on the three countries’ websites;
however, they were most common on US and Korean websites. Photos that
depicted health/nutrition were most common (US = 45%, UK = 29% and
Korean = 30%), but they were more likely to be found on US websites. Most
photos categorized as health/nutrition appeal were photos of food or other
food supplements. In Korean websites, the appearance/looks appeal (e.g.,
a photo of a mannequin wearing a bikini swimsuit) was more frequently
found (27%, p ≤ .01) (see Table 6).
Illustrations were found more frequently on Korean websites (30%, p ≤
.05). Also, animation was another item indicating the significant difference
between Korea (48%) and the two western countries (p ≤ .01). Only six
websites in the US and seven websites in the UK used animation. Korean
websites were also more likely to include photos, illustrations, and animation emphasizing appearance. For example, several Korean websites had
animated drawings of women emphasizing a slim body. Tables and graphs
were scarcely seen on the weight-loss websites overall.
Information Content (RQ 4)
Several significant differences were found between the websites for the three
countries in the information content of menus and functions on the diet websites. US websites had nutrition information (54%), and privacy statements
(52%) with over half of all the websites containing at least some of these
items.
Korean websites were the most likely to contain opportunities to access
information in a second language (67%). Information about specific diseases
possibly caused by obesity was mentioned in about one fourth of the sample
on both the US and Korean websites (25% and 24%, respectively). However,
the UK websites scarcely included information about diseases (7%).
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Content Analysis of Online Diet Programs
TABLE 6 Visual Characteristics
Photo present
Appearance
Health & nutrition
Emotion
Quantitative
Authority
Threat
Illustration present
Appearance
Health & nutrition
Emotion
Quantitative
Authority
Threat
Animation present
Appearance
Health & nutrition
Emotion
Quantitative
Authority
Threat
Table present
Graph present
US
UK
KOREA
X2
df
P-Value
60%
5%
45%
2%
9%
5%
1%
16%
1%
9%
1%
4%
2%
0
6%
2%
3%
0
0
0
0
2%
4%
49%
17%
29%
6%
12%
0
0
12%
4%
6%
1%
2%
2%
0
7%
4%
0
1%
0
0
0
1%
1%
69%
27%
30%
6%
11%
2%
0
30%
6%
7%
4%
7%
1%
0
48%
37%
7%
9%
4%
0
0
0
1%
8.31
17.75
7.09
2.39
0.49
5.55
2.00
11.45
3.58
.068
3.06
3.05
0.40
—
70.91
62.92
7.65
15.10
8.10
—
—
4.04
3.06
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
—
2
2
2
2
2
—
—
4
2
p ≤ .05
p ≤ .01
p ≤ .05
n.s
n.s
n.s
n.s
p ≤ .01
n.s
n.s
n.s
n.s
n.s
n.s
p ≤ .01
p ≤ 01
p ≤ .05
p ≤ .01
p ≤ .05
n.s
n.s
n.s
n.s
Base (300); n.s. = not significant.
Information about medical specialists was mentioned more often on
the menus of Korean websites (22%). Information about eating habits (e.g.,
“Please be awake for at least 3 hours after having a meal!”) appeared at a
similar rate on the US and Korean websites (43% and 39%, respectively),
but on only 17% of the UK websites. It is interesting to note that information about dieting for a specific part of the body (e.g., thigh, neck, leg, or
arm) was mentioned most frequently on Korean websites (28%) (p ≤ .01).
Exercise-related information was seen at a similar frequency on all three
countries’ websites (35% of US, 34% of UK, and 31% of Korean). An exercise
machine was mentioned on 11% of UK websites, but only 1 website provided information about an exercise machine on the US websites (p ≤ .01)
(Table 7).
Interactivity applied on diet websites was also investigated. Requests for
logging-in or subscribing to a particular website were found most frequently
on Korean (87%) websites than on the other two countries’ websites (56%
of US and 45% of Korean) (p ≤ .01). Menus for chatting among the users or
establishing a community were more frequently found on Korean websites
(55%). The functions for exchanging messages, or Q&A among customers
were seen on 80 Korean websites (p <.01). However, a newsletter was the
typical method for consumer-company communication on the US websites
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J. Yu et al.
TABLE 7 Information Content (Menus and Functions)
Weight-loss camp
Second language
Scientific data
Short time
demonstration
Disease from obesity
Medical professional
Health insurance
Recipe
Eating habits
Nutrition
Part of body
Exercise
Drugs
Supplements
Exercise machines
Registration (Log-in)
Chat or community
Message boards (Q&A)
Newsletter
Search engine
Hyperlinks to other sites
Consulting/medical
specialists
Consulting/diet
specialists
Privacy statement
US
UK
KOREA
X2
df
P-Value
0
1%
8%
27%
0
3%
6%
24%
7%
67%
2%
24%
16.29
156.02
3.69
0.32
4
2
2
2
p ≤ .01
p ≤ .01
n.s
n.s
25%
17%
1%
59%
43%
54%
3%
35%
16%
28%
1%
56%
41%
51%
22%
29%
45%
9%
7%
3%
1%
36%
17%
32%
4%
34%
19%
20%
11%
45%
20%
40%
12%
26%
37%
3%
24%
22%
1%
39%
39%
38%
28%
31%
12%
27%
5%
87%
55%
80%
1%
16%
11%
23%
13.48
16.11
0.00
12.65
17.73
10.66
38.87
0.39
3.95
2.02
9.47
40.54
26.17
34.84
21.41
5.12
29.54
20.44
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
4
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
p ≤ .01
p ≤ .01
n.s
p ≤ .01
p ≤ .01
p ≤ .01
p ≤ .01
n.s
n.s
n.s
p ≤ .01
p ≤ .01
p ≤ .01
p ≤ .01
p ≤ 01
—
p ≤ .01
p ≤ .01
33%
16%
63%
48.41
2
p ≤.01
52%
21%
38%
20.67
2
p ≤ .01
Base: 300; n.s: not significant.
(22%) (p ≤. 01). A search function and a hyperlink to other related websites
were both common on the US and the UK websites (Table 7). Consulting with
medical specialists/diet professionals was more popular on Korean websites
(23%) (p ≤ .01). The privacy statement was a very popular element on the
US websites (52%), compared to the other countries’ websites (p ≤ .01).
Cultural Characteristics (RQ 5, RQ 6)
Individualistic/collectivistic characteristics represented on the websites were
examined by six cultural indicators (Table 8). The indicator “benefits to
oneself,” which is regarding the satisfaction for oneself (e.g., “This formula is
exactly for you!”) was used on the US websites more frequently (83%) than
on the other two countries’ websites (70% of UK and 51% of Korean) (p ≤
.01). Also, the indicator of “doing something by oneself” (e.g., “taming your
primal appetite!,” “shape your abs. . .thighs. . .body!”) was shown on the US
websites more frequently (94%) than other countries’ websites (82% of UK
websites and 66% of Korean) (p ≤ .01).
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Content Analysis of Online Diet Programs
TABLE 8 Cultural Characteristics (Individualism-Collectivism)
Indicators/Individualism
Enjoy being unique
Benefits to oneself
Doing something by oneself
Indicators/Collectivism
Conversation among people
People in harmony
Working together
BASE = (300)
US
UK
KOREA
P-Value
39%
83%
94%
28%
70%
82%
44%
51%
66%
n.s.
p < .01
p < .01
56%
12%
4%
68%
27%
3%
54%
48%
32%
n.s.
p < .01
p < .01
Among the collectivistic indicators, the “conversation among people”
was found in a very similar rate among the three countries’ websites (56%
of US, 68% of UK, and 54% of Korean). The indicator of “people in harmony” was found more frequently on Korean websites (p ≤. 01) than other
countries’ websites with about half of the Korean websites (48%) containing expressions or scenes related to harmony. “Working together,” including
expressions or scenes indicating cooperation among people for a diet, appeared more often on Korean websites (32%), almost ten times as often as
on the other two countries’ websites (4% = US and 3% = UK) (p ≤. 01).
The low-context features can be found on Table 9. Product features
(e.g., “A sustained release, Ephedra—Free product that finally works!”) were
used on the US and Korean websites (44% and 37%, respectively) at a similar
rate; the UK websites were less likely to use product/service features on their
websites (22%, p ≤ 01). “Utilitarian needs” (e.g., “Slim Patch, peel off the
pounds each time you peel off the patch!”) were more common on the US
websites (47%) than on the websites of the UK and Korea (27% and 38%,
respectively; p ≤. 05). Using numbers was more common on both the US
and Korean websites (18% and 20%, respectively) than the UK websites (7%)
(p <.05).
TABLE 9 Cultural Characteristics (Low-High Context)
Indicators/Low Context
Product features
Utilitarian needs
Use of numbers
Indicators/High Context
Emotion and mood
Use of metaphor
Aesthetic expression
BASE = (300)
US
UK
KOREA
P-Value
44%
47%
18%
22%
27%
7%
37%
38%
20%
p ≤ .01
p ≤ .05
p ≤ .05
55%
53%
82%
75%
70%
93%
61%
60%
80%
p ≤ .05
p ≤ .05
p ≤ .05
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J. Yu et al.
The items for measuring high-context characteristics were “emotion and
mood,” “use of metaphor,” and “aesthetic expression.” Emotion and mood
(e.g., “Get ready for change!, Transform your mood from crappy to happy!”)
was found on the UK websites more frequently (78%) than the other two
countries’ websites (55% of US and 61% of Korean) (p ≤ .05). The use of
metaphor (e.g., “Post Holiday Scale Giving you the Blues?”) was less common
on the US websites (53%) than the UK and Korean websites (75% and 61%,
respectively; p ≤. 05). Aesthetic expressions (e.g., “The magic answer to
obesity problems”) were found on the UK websites more often (93%) than
the other countries’ websites (82% = US and 80% = Korean)
DISCUSSION
Health Appeal versus Appearance Appeal
The results in this study showed that the health/nutrition appeal was commonly used across the three countries’ diet websites, while several differences between the Asian country and the western countries were also found.
As an example of differences, the appearance/looks appeal was in many aspects on Korean diet websites (e.g., slogan/headlines, copy, and visual factors). Regarding some items (e.g., characteristics of photos and animations on
the websites), the appearance/looks appeals were found significantly more
often on Korean diet websites than the other countries’ websites.
A recent phenomenon in Korean society, namely the obsession with
thinner bodies among young Korean females (Choi, 2004), may be affecting
the frequency of the appearance/looks appeals on Korean diet websites.
Among young Korean women, there has been a growing obsession with
diet (Yoon et al., 2006). Even though they may be of average weight for
Koreans, many young women in Korea want to be skinnier, whatever the
cost. Research has pointed out that such misconceptions about beauty have
made young Korean women try to abnormally lose weight by spending a lot
of time and money on this endeavor (Kim, 1999).
This obsession with outward appearance among Korean females is
linked to another surprising record: the highest rate of plastic surgery procedures in the world, approximately 17% of all women (Chosun Ilbo, 2005).
Also, according to a report from the BBC (2005), about 50% of Korean
women in their twenties have undergone cosmetic surgery. The findings of
this study support the fact that, although concern about appearance/looks
is likely to be common among people of all three countries, the obsessive
desire to be beautiful may be more prevalent for Korean consumers recently than those in other two countries. This perception not only results in
the popular usage of appearance appeal in advertising, but also results in
several problems, such as eating disorders, among young Korean females
(Hankyoreh Daily, 2006). Furthermore, many deceptive ads may be taking
Content Analysis of Online Diet Programs
351
advantage of this abnormal perception among young female consumers. The
coders in this study found that there were many unreasonable ad messages
luring consumers such as “Get a perfect body in a month!” or “Lose 50 lbs
in a week!”
The dominant advertising appeal of the US and UK diet websites was
health/nutrition. The frequent usage of a health/nutrition appeal could be
linked to the major agenda related to obesity and dieting established recently
by the media in the two countries. There are numerous studies and media
reports addressing the danger to national health from being obese in both
countries (De Caires, 2002; Fujioka, 2002; Papadaki & Scott, 2005). For example, obesity has been frequently reported to have a positive correlation with
cardiovascular problems, type II diabetes, osteoarthritis, and certain cancers
(breast, ovarian, prostrate, and colon) in the US (Tate, Jackvony, & Wing,
2003). According to a report from the US Surgeon General (2001), approximately 300,000 deaths per year in the US result from obesity. Numerous
reports have also discussed health concerns originating from obesity in the
UK (Tackling obesity in England, 2001; BBC News, 2006; United Press International, 2006). The Guardian (Giddens, 2006) reported that Britain has the
highest rate of obesity in Europe, and the health problems the epidemic of
obesity can bring are formidable in the society.
This dominant agenda in the two western societies might be affecting
the advertising messages on diet websites. Several diet websites use quotes
from the media warning the danger of being obese alongside their diet
solutions (e.g., healthrecipes.com, weight-loss-tips-free.com). US and the UK
diet websites are applying health/nutrition appeals very often to persuade
their consumers. According to Fujioka (2002), many western websites try
to make the audience see being overweight as a disease to be cured by
the companies’ products or services. Under this intention, the two countries’
websites are marketing several “drug” products for losing weight rather than
activity-related programs. Also, they provide healthy recipes and nutritional
information more often compared to Korean websites. In fact, a recent study
points to thematic shifts in health/nutrition appeals in US TV ads for diet
products (Bishop, 2001). The authors noted that the use of a health/nutrition
theme has been a very significant framing issue when making claims in diet
ads over the past decade. The many reports detailing the dangerous effects of
obesity have played an important role in this thematic change (Bishop, 2001).
Cultural Distinctions among the Countries were Vague
Regarding the individualistic-collectivistic paradigm, despite some significant
differences in a few indicators, the results generally did not show many
significant cultural differences between a website from a western country
and a website from an Asian country. Differing from the results of several
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J. Yu et al.
cross-cultural studies analyzing the advertising of two different cultures (Han
& Shavitt, 1994; Cho et al., 1999; Choi et al., 2005; Paek, 2005), similarities
were found in diverse parts of the websites, ranging from verbal factors to
visual factors.
Few studies have indicated similar characteristics in advertising between
Asian countries and the western world, reporting the same results as that
of this study. According to Wolburg and Kim (1998), the Korean ads they
analyzed were actually in favor of individualism, as most sample ads from
both cultures had product claims emphasizing individualistic characteristics.
A total of 88% of the Korean ads and 93% of the US ads contained claims
for making the individual more attractive, healthy, or efficient.
Regarding the similarities in ads among different cultures, Levitt (1983)
already suggested the concept of “homogenization” for marketing communications in a global market. Levitt suggested standardization of marketing
on a global scale mentioning that travel and transport would be the primary
facilitators of this situation as an analysis of trends and expectations before
the debut of internet. Therefore, it is highly possible that the internet has
caused a more rapid expansion of globalization. The internet is the most effective and powerful medium in history for the facilitation of people having
the same experience (Samiee, 1998). Through the internet, people in many
countries can have the same experience at anytime, anywhere.
As another possible background for the similarities of several aspects
on diet websites across the countries, the influences of western society on
other cultures in the world can be discussed. In Korea, English is the most
frequently used second language, and diverse multi-national franchises exist
throughout the country (Ulgado & Lee, 1998). Also, the development of
satellite TV has allowed people greater access to western lifestyles very easily.
Korean people can watch western programs in their homes 24 hours a day.
In addition to western programs, exposure to western advertising plays an
important role in standardization. Many international brands air commercials
made for the global market. Furthermore, it is very common to find western
models and scenery in ads for Korean products. Under these circumstances,
it is highly possible that standardization of many cultural aspects is occurring.
Communication strategies are decided by companies after analyzing
market trends and the minds of target audiences. Frequent exposure to western cultural elements can influence the attitudes and trends of the marketing
environment. Similarities in advertising appeals are likely a reflection of the
situations indicated previously.
The US and the UK: A Shared Language, but Advertising Differences
Based upon several examples of cross-cultural advertising research using
high-low context (Cho et al., 1999; Paek, 2005), it was expected that the
websites of the UK, one of the western countries, would show more
Content Analysis of Online Diet Programs
353
low-context characteristics than Korean websites. However, in this study,
the UK diet websites showed the highest frequency in all three indicators for
high-context. Furthermore, the indicators of “usage of emotion/mood” and
“metaphor or aesthetic expression” were more frequently found on British
sites than on the other two countries’ websites. Despite having been generally referred to as a western country, the UK has shown several characteristics
relating to a high-context culture. Therefore, internet advertising strategies in
the UK are different from the US based upon the results of this study, even
though both countries have been categorized as part of the western world
historically.
There have been a small number of studies indicating the differences
between the UK and the US in the amount of information contained in
ads (Nevett, 1992); use of soft sell type of ad messages (Bernstein, 1986;
Garrett, 1986; Weinberger & Spotts, 1989a); level of intention to entertain
the viewers (Nevett, 1992); general attitudes toward advertising (Nevett);
and use of humorous appeals in advertising (Weinberger & Spotts, 1989b).
Therefore, based on the results of this present study, another difference could
be added to the literature. The UK weight-loss advertising on the internet
contains more high-context cultural features than US ads, such as usage of
emotion and mood, and metaphor and aesthetic expression.
Consequently, the results of this study are not identical with the notions
of Hall’s high-low context typology (1976) even though it has been considered and used as a significant theoretical framework for cross-cultural advertising research, along with Hofstede’s individualism-collectivism typology
(1980). Actually, Hall’s description of high-context culture is virtually indistinguishable from Hofstede’s collectivist dimension, so that the two typologies
have been used simultaneously as explanatory frameworks in several studies (Gudykunst & Ting-Toomey, 1988; Taylor & Miracle 1997). Therefore,
it could be said that the two major cultural typologies, low-high context
typology and individualistic-collectivistic typology, may not be enough to
explain the results of this study. The need for new typologies for explaining
or categorizing the cultural characteristics presented in advertising can be indicated. Actually, some researchers have pointed out that the applicability of
the two traditionally popular typologies need to be re-evaluated (Fernandex,
Carlson, Stepina, & Nicholson, 1997; Cho et al., 1999; Moon & Chan, 2005;
Yu & King, 2005) because of their validity and generalizability (La Ferle &
Lee, 2002; Moon & Chan, 2005). This study provides another reason why a
new typology is needed for cross-cultural studies in advertising.
LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH
As in all research, there are some limitations to the current study. The first
was the choice to analyze only a part of each website. Even though the
first page has a lot of content, this made the analysis somewhat incomplete.
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J. Yu et al.
Some sites used the first page only as an introduction. There were mission
statements, photos of the owner, and/or brief guides. All other content was
accessible only through additional clicking. Another limitation involves the
coding of the advertising appeals. Coding was based primarily on looking for
certain keywords. Coders were limited to looking for those specific words
that meant or represented one of the appeals. This presents an issue of
interpretation on the part of coders. Even if a word represents one appeal
in one context, it is possible for that same word to be used with a different
connotation in another context.
The assumptions and analysis of this research are all derived from the
most current websites of the three countries. A future longitudinal analysis
of content would allow an understanding of the change in consumers’ needs
and companies’ ad appeals, as well as the marketing environment of the
time among the three different cultures. Also, additional variables should
be studied. While the sample was being coded, some interesting variables
were found which were not accounted for. For example, an appeal to price
was seen on many sites. Comparisons of the price of some products were
used frequently. Marketing/advertising partners can also be coded to understand how diet businesses and other related businesses help each other
through their ads. There were banner ads for Subway and TGI Friday’s on
the Atkins Diet website. In sum, other possible directions for future research
remain. This pilot study has focused on the content of and appeals used by
diet websites. Future work incorporating some measurement of actual consumer responses or motivations would serve as an excellent complement
to, and expansion of, knowledge regarding this increasingly popular online
destination.
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