Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Journal of Promotion Management, 16:331–359, 2010 Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 1049-6491 print / 1540-7594 online DOI: 10.1080/10496490903294703 How Much are Health Websites Influenced by Culture? Content Analysis of Online Diet Programs in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Korea JAY (HYUNJAE) YU Sogang University, Seoul, South Korea KAREN WHITEHILL KING University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA HYE JUN YOON Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Texas, USA This study investigates the content of diet websites in the United States (US), United Kingdom (UK), and Korea from a cross-cultural perspective using two cultural typologies: Hofstede’s individualismcollectivism and Hall’s low-high context. The results show a balance of the universal features and culture specific characteristics in the websites. Interestingly, the UK was in the middle between the US and Korea in several features even though the UK and the US typically had been generally included in the same cultural group in advertising studies. It was also determined that neither Hofstede’s typology nor Hall’s high-low context is enough to explain the cultural representations found on the websites. The need for new typologies for explaining or categorizing the cultural characteristics in advertising is suggested. KEYWORDS advertising, content analysis, cross-cultural, diet, health communication, individualism-collectivism, low-high context, online, promotion, websites INTRODUCTION “There are now more people suffering from obesity than from hunger.” (Louise Fresco, former Assistant Director-General, Food and Agriculture Organization [FAO] of the United Nations, 2006) Address correspondence to Jay (Hyunjae) Yu, Assistant Professor, School of Communication, Sogang University, 209 Gabriel Hall, Seoul, 121-742, South Korea. E-mail: bus89@sogang. ac.kr 331 332 J. Yu et al. Numerous media reports and academic studies have indicated the negative effects of obesity on people’s health (Tate, Wing, & Winett, 2001; US Surgeon General, 2001; Blackburn, 2002; Pontiroli, Pizzocri, Paroni, & Folli et al., 2006). The problem is widespread. According to a report from the American Obesity Association (2006), about 127 million American adults (64.5%) are considered to be overweight with a Body Mass Index of 25 or more. (Body Mass Index is calculated as weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in meters.) The same report indicates an additional 60 million adults (30.5%) are obese (with a BMI of 30 or more). The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) has predicted that obesity will eventually replace smoking as the number one cause of preventable death for the first time in US history. In this environment, many people have recently become more interested in losing weight, and the diet industry has become prominent in the consumer market. According to a report by the FTC (2003), American dieters annualy spend about $35 billion on diet products. In addition, about 1,000 new products enter the market every year. Money spent on advertising for diet programs and products topped more than $240 million in 2001—not including diet foods, beverages, or health club memberships—a substantial increase over the $190 million spent in 2000 (CMR/TNS, 2006), and the amount of the advertising for weightloss products increases annually (FTC, 2003). Today, many advertisers view websites as a major advertising medium for their businesses (Tate, 2001; Christ, 2005; Yu & King, 2005; Baek & Yu, 2007). Online advertising for diet products, specifically, is more important now than ever because consumers are becoming ever more dependent on the internet for obtaining diet information (Knoop, Lovich, Silverstein, & Tutty, 2003). According to the Pew Internet & American Life Project (Pew Research Center, 2006), 49% of American internet users obtain diet or nutrition-related information through the internet. On November 21, 2007, when the word “weight-loss” was typed into a Google search bar, approximately 40,900,000 results were returned in 0.16 seconds. Obesity is an epidemic not only in the US (Cho & Cheon, 2005; Walker & Wadee, 2006), and diet websites have recently become very popular worldwide (Kim & Kang, 2002; Korean Society for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention, 2003; Harper & Astrup, 2004) especially due to the universal rising rate of obesity and general usage of the internet (Jung, Youn, & Chang, 2005; Yu & King, 2005). Today, diet companies worldwide are meeting the demand from consumers for services that are not available in offline advertising (Yu & King, 2005; Baek & Yu, 2007). However, websites from different cultures tend to show a disparity in the actual content that they offer, each reflecting the influence of a country’s specific culture (Okazaki & Rivas, 2002; Cho & Cheon, 2005). Content Analysis of Online Diet Programs 333 The current study analyzes the content of diet websites from a crosscultural perspective. In spite of the international popularity of internet advertising, there have been few studies researching the content of diet websites (Jung, Youn, & Chang, 2005) and even fewer studies researching website content from a cross-cultural perspective (Okazaki & Rivas, 2002; Yu & King, 2005). In this study, advertising appeals presented in the verbal factors (i.e., slogans, headlines, and copy) and visual factors (i.e., models, photos, illustrations, and animation) will be analyzed and compared among diet websites from three different countries. In addition, the specific cultural indicators applied from Hofstede’s (1980) individualism-collectivism typology and Hall’s (1976) high-low context typology will be investigated. In order to obtain a sample, this study selected diet websites from the US, the UK, and Korea; all three countries have experienced a remarkable increase both in the rate of obesity and internet use among people in recent years (Kim & Kang, 2002; Korean Society for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention, 2003; Walker & Wadee, 2006). POPULARITY OF DIET WEBSITES IN THE THREE COUNTRIES According to a recent report from the Pew Internet & American Life Project (2006), approximately 80% of American internet users (113 million American adults) have searched for health or medical information online. Forty-nine percent of internet users have searched for information about dieting, nutritional supplements, or weight control. Forty-four percent of internet users have searched online for information about exercise/fitness. Further, the data showed that 82% of female internet users have gone online for health information, compared with 77% of male users. Also, as people’s income and education improve, the rate of using the internet to seek out health-related information increases (Pew Internet & American Life Project, 2006). The UK and Korea are also regions where diet websites have been very popular in recent years (Papadaki & Scott, 2005). According to a report in 2007 from WeightWatchers.com, the UK is the second major market in diet marketing after the US (Weight Watchers, 2007). There are not only UKbased diet companies online, but many US companies are also conducting marketing among UK dieters (e.g., www.peak-nutrition.co.uk). Even though some British researchers have warned consumers to be careful about the deceptiveness of diet websites, the usage of diet websites has been on the rise (Papadaki & Scott, 2005). Furthermore, effects of some online diet programs have been proven by medical researchers (Kirk et al., 2003). According to a recent study, the obesity rate in Korea is the fastest growing among all Asian countries (Yoon et al., 2006). Today, about 32% of Korean adults are categorized as obese. The study also found that female 334 J. Yu et al. college students in Korea were more likely to be on a diet than female college students from anywhere else in the world. In addition to the increase of obesity in Korea, easy access to the internet has been another reason for the popularity of diet websites (Baek & Yu, 2007). Korea has been a longtime global leader in the rate of subscriptions to high-speed internet access (Wall Street Journal, 2006). On June 25 in 2007, www.Google.co.kr return 1,850 the Korean word for “weightdiet websites by entering the word loss.” Yu and King (2005) reported that most Korean diet websites contain content that might have been influenced by western culture. For example, they found frequent usage of Caucasian models and advertising messages using the English language for foreign diet products. CROSS-CULTURAL CONTENT ANALYSIS OF WEBSITES To date, most cross-cultural content analyses in advertising have examined traditional advertising media: TV ads in general (Cho, Up, Gentry, Jun, & Kropp, 1999), magazine ads (Han & Shavitt, 1994), or newspaper ads (Paek, Nelson, & McLeod, 2004). Other studies have focused on a particular type of ad, such as political ads (Tak, Kaid, & Lee, 1997), beer ads (Caillat & Mueller, 1996), or corporate ads (Cho & Cheon, 2005). Studies have also analyzed how cultural differences relate to specific creative strategies like sex appeal (Nelson & Paek, 2005) and celebrity endorsement (Choi, Lee, & Kim, 2005; Paek, 2005). However, cross-cultural research that examines websites is significantly lacking (Taylor & Miracle, 1997). Okazaki and Rivas (2002) conducted a cross-cultural comparison of corporate websites applying traditional advertising content study techniques. They examined information content, cultural values, and creative strategies on multinational corporations’ product-based websites in Japan, Spain, and the US. The results showed that cultural values were significantly different among the three countries’ websites. Collectivistic values were not present on Spanish and US websites, but only on Japanese websites. By contrast, regardless of the countries and cultural differences, the level of information content (e.g., price, quality, and performance) and the use of creative strategies tended to be similar across the countries. Based on their findings, Okazaki and Rivas argued that traditional eastern and western cultural dimensions are, in fact, reflected in web marketing communications, but also that universal characteristics should be applied when developing the websites. Cho and Cheon (2005) examined to what extent varying levels of interactivity are related to unique cultural characteristics on different western (US and UK) and eastern countries’ (Japan and Korea) corporate websites. Using Hofstede’s (1980) (individualism/collectivism and power distance) and Hall’s (1976) (high/low context) cultural value frameworks, the researchers 335 Content Analysis of Online Diet Programs found that the websites from Asian cultures had more interactive functions in terms of consumer-consumer interactivity. Therefore, the first two dimensions of interactivity (consumer-marketer, consumer-message) were found more frequently on western countries’ websites, but the consumer-consumer dimension was more popular on Asian countries’ websites. Yu and King (2005) compared the advertising appeals and information content of diet websites between the US and Korea. The results indicated that the health/nutrition appeals (i.e., focusing on the health benefits resulting from weight-loss activities mentioned on the website such as “I’m not worried about type II diabetes anymore!”) were the major advertising appeals in both countries. But they found that some visual features such as usage of animation/caricature were more prevalent on Korean websites. The reviews of past cross-cultural studies of websites suggest that unique features of the internet such as interactivity and specific content may vary across cultures, while others may also converge regardless of cultural differences. CROSS-CULTURAL STUDIES IN ADVERTISING AMONG THE THREE COUNTRIES Cross-cultural studies of advertising comparing western and eastern countries have generally used the individualism/collectivism typology suggested by Hofstede (see Table 1, 1980; and Gudykunst & Ting-Toomey, 1988; Cho et al., 1999; Moon & Chan, 2005). Further, the typology has played a major role in creating better advertising strategies, especially for multinational companies that want to do business in foreign markets (Yu & King, 2005). Some advertising researchers have applied Hofstede’s (1980) typology not only to identify cultural distinctions between eastern and western cultures, but also to examine differences within the same culture (e.g., Nelson & Paek, 2005). Another major typology for cultural comparison is the high/low context distinction. According to Hall (1976), the people in low-context cultures use language primarily to express thoughts, feelings, and ideas as directly and logically as possible. The majority of information is conveyed in explicit messages and self-oriented expressions (“I” or “You”). On the other hand, TABLE 1 Hofstede’s Five Dimensions for the US, U.K and Korea US UK Korea Individualism Power Distance Masculinity Uncertainty Avoidance Long-term Orientation 91 89 18 40 35 60 62 66 39 46 35 85 29 25 75 336 J. Yu et al. people in high-context cultures use indirect expressions. Therefore, in many cases, the style of expression is very subtle, and sometimes ambiguous. The countries from low-context cultures include the US, Canada, and Northern European countries such as the UK. Most Asian countries belong to highcontext cultures (Adler, Rosenfeld, & Proctor, 2004). Regarding the US and Korea, there have been several studies indicating the differences across diverse aspects of advertising. For example, Han and Shavitt (1994) found that individualistic appeals (e.g., individual benefits and preferences, personal success, independence, and hedonism) are used to a greater extent in American ads than in Korean ads. They also found that collectivistic advertising appeals, such as in-group benefits, harmony, and family integrity, are more frequently seen in Korean ads. Cutler, Javalgi, and Lee (1995) also confirmed that Korean advertising is more likely to include celebrities, a portrayal of an international audience, and status appeals compared to that of western countries. However, Wolburg and Kim (1998) found that Korean advertising often uses individualism appeals, contrary to the expectations of many researchers. According to their findings, most sample ads from both Korean and American cultures had product claims that emphasized individualism. A total of 88% of the Korean ads and 93% of the American ads included claims for making the individual more attractive, healthy, and efficient. The products advertised included cosmetics, hair coloring, clothing, and diet programs. In weight-loss products specifically, Korean ads mainly appealed to attractiveness, but the American weight-loss ads predominantly emphasized health itself (Wolburg & Kim, 1998). Compared to the amount of studies dealing with a comparison of western and eastern countries such as the US and Korea, cross-cultural research analyzing the features of British ads has been less popular (Cutler & Javalgi, 1992a; Toncar, 2001). Generally, several aspects of the UK have been considered to be similar to those of the US due to the shared language and similar cultural origin (Cho & Cheon, 2005). Actually, several studies group the UK and the US together as representative countries of the western world (Frith & Sengupta, 1991; Cho & Cheon, 2005), which is consistent with the suggestion from Hofstede (1980). For example, Toncar reported, through his content analysis of primetime ads on major network channels in the US and UK, that there were no significant differences in the proportion or the type of ads that employ humor. Cho and Cheon also indicated that the characteristics of the corporate websites are similar between the two countries. Visual components in the two countries’ ads have been known to have many similarities based upon Cutler and Javalgi’s (1992b) study as well. Interestingly, British ads were more similar to that found in the US rather than that of France. Even though France and the UK are closer geographically, the two countries have been considered very different in many aspects (Boote, 1982; Whitelock & Chung, 1989). In addition to the content analyses, a study Content Analysis of Online Diet Programs 337 investigating people’s responses to ads has also indicated a similarity between the US and the UK. Huang (1998) found that people from the two countries showed similar responses to ads using emotional appeals (e.g., happiness, love, and sadness). However, there have been contradictory indications as well regarding the two countries’ advertising. Nevett (1992) observed that US ads often employ hard-sell messages, while British advertising more frequently uses softsell and idiosyncratic expressions. This hard-sell/soft-sell distinction has also been used by several other researchers as an important difference between the two countries’ advertising (Bernstein, 1986; Garrett, 1986; Weinberger & Spotts, 1989a). Nevett also confirmed, through the investigation of TV ads, that there is less informational content and more intention to entertain the viewer in UK commercials (1992). The study also examined the general opinions of the two countries’ audiences, finding that the American audience is less favorable to advertising than British viewers. Despite also conducting research on humor in advertising, Weinberger and Spotts (1989b) got completely different results from those of Toncar (2001) that are explained previously. They reported a significant difference between the two countries in terms of humorous content in advertising. According to their study, commercials from the UK had much more humorous content than those from the US Studies discussing cultural influences in advertising among the three countries chosen for this study have produced varying results and implications (Paek, Nelson, & McLeod, 2004; Moon & Chan, 2005; Sung & Tinkham, 2005; Yu & King, 2005). Based upon this diversity of results from previous studies, the current research will employ six research questions rather than hypotheses to guide the inquiry. RESEARCH QUESTIONS Since there have been conflicting results and different suggestions from several cross-cultural studies in advertising among the three countries (Cutler & Javalgi, 1992b; Nevett, 1992; Toncar, 2001), the researchers decided to investigate the characteristics of diet websites in an exploratory manner rather than by setting up hypotheses. The first research question aims to compare the three countries’ diet websites in terms of verbal factors (slogans, headlines, and copy). Three verbal factors were analyzed using advertising appeals and compared among the three countries’ websites. RQ 1: What are the differences, if any, in verbal appeals among the three countries’ diet websites? 338 J. Yu et al. The next two questions explore the characteristics of visual factors found on the diet websites of the three countries. Analysis will cover several characteristics of models (number of models, gender, race, role, vocation, clothing, and pose) and non-model visual factors (pictures, animations, illustrations, tables, and graphs) on the websites. RQ 2: What are the differences, if any, in the characteristics of models depicted among the three countries’ diet? RQ 3: What are the differences, if any, in the visual characteristics (pictures, animation, illustrations, tables, and graphs) among the three countries’ diet websites? The fourth research question deals with the other informational content on diet websites. All menus, interactive features, and other miscellaneous information elements (e.g., privacy statements) will be analyzed and compared among the three countries’ diet websites. RQ 4: What are the differences, if any, among the three countries’ diet websites in the use of informational content (menus, functions, and interactive features)? In addition, any culture-specific indicators that could be found were investigated. As the specific indicators reflecting cultural influences on the three countries’ diet websites, the items from the two theoretical frameworks were used: Hofstede’s (1980) individualistic-collectivistic distinction and lowhigh context typology by Hall (1976). Through a total of 12 indicators, the cultural aspects being applied on the three countries’ diet websites were examined and coded. All cultural indicators from the two theories are seen in Table 2. RQ 5: What differences, if any, exist among the three countries’ diet websites in the use of collectivistic-individualistic cultural characteristics? RQ 6: What differences, if any, exist among the three countries’ diet websites in the use of low-high context cultural characteristics found on the websites? METHOD Sampling The sample consisted of 300 diet websites (100 per country, see examples of websites in Figures 1, 2, and 3). The Yahoo search engine (Yahoo.com/ Yahoo.uk/Yahoo.co.kr), specific to each country, was utilized to obtain the Content Analysis of Online Diet Programs FIGURE 1 Example of U.S. diet website. FIGURE 2 Example of Korean diet website. 339 340 J. Yu et al. TABLE 2 Operationalization of Cultural Indicators Individualism “Enjoy being unique”: Featuring a person enjoying being unique. “Benefits to oneself”: Addressing benefits to oneself. “Doing something by oneself”: Featuring a person doing something by oneself. Collectivism “Conversation among people”: A conversation among people. “People in harmony”: Featuring people in harmony with one another. “Working together”: Featuring people working together. Low Context “Product features”: Emphasis on product features. “Utilitarian needs”: Addressing utilitarian aspects of the product. “Use of numbers”: Use of numbers. High Context “Emotion and mood”: Emphasis on emotion and mood. “Use of metaphor”: Use of metaphor. “Aesthetic expression”: Use of aesthetic expression. Cho et al., 1999. sample. When the word “weight-loss” was typed into the search bar of the American Yahoo website (Yahoo.com), a list containing approximately 53.1 million websites were generated (accessed on Oct. 13, 2006). Among the websites listed, the researchers selected only the first 100 for inclusion in the sample because the websites that are ranked high have recent popularity FIGURE 3 Example of UK diet website. Content Analysis of Online Diet Programs 341 (Yu & King, 2005; Baek & Yu, 2007). More than 90% of users click on a result within the first three pages of search results (CMR, April 27, 2006). However, if a website was developed just for personal use, such as a blog or private site that tends to be accessed by an extremely limited group of people, it was not included in the sample. Also, websites that were solely designed for selling diet products (e.g., Catalog AjaFit.com phentermine, www.ajafit.com/top-phentermine) were eliminated from the sample because there was not enough information for the analysis. Those websites were replaced with the next website from further down the list. All three searches were conducted using the same method, the only difference being that a which translates to “weight-loss” in English, was Korean word used for the Korean search. The 300 websites, 100 websites per each country, were selected and hard copies were printed out on one single day by one of the researchers (May 23, 2006). Coders and Coding Scheme Two coders were recruited for this study. Both coders were mass communication graduate students in the US who are originally from Korea and proficient in both Korean and English. They were trained to code the advertising appeals, information content, and cultural indicators based upon the guidelines for coding (Table 3). Several examples were used in the training sessions in order to ensure that the coders coded from a unified perspective. Each item for coding was thoroughly discussed among the two coders and the authors using real examples on the sample websites. After the training session, the two coders coded the websites independently. As there have been only a few content analytic studies for diet websites to date, several coding schemes from indirectly-related literature on the topic of diet were referenced to develop the current coding scheme. The literature referenced for developing the coding scheme included the study of advertising messages of food ads (Klassen, Wauer, & Cassel, 1991), thematic analysis of diet product ads (Bishop, 2001), cross-cultural study of advertising appeals (Jeon, Franke, Huhmann, & Phelps, 1999; Adler et al., 2004; Moon & Chan, 2005), category of advertising appeals for recent diet products (FTC, 2002; Kaiser Family Foundation, 2002), and characteristics of models (Ford, Voli, Honeycutt, & Casey, 1998). For the criteria of analyzing informational content (menu, functions, and interactivity), a coding scheme for DTC pharmaceutical websites was applied (Macias & Lewis, 2003). Finally, the coding sheet for this study consisted of four sections: (a) models (gender, number, race, pose, and clothing); (b) non-model visual factors (photos without human models, animations, tables, and graphs); (c) verbal characteristics (advertising appeals in slogans/headlines and copy); and (d) cross-cultural comparison (cultural 342 J. Yu et al. TABLE 3 Advertising Appeals on the Weight-loss Websites Appeals Appearance & Looks Health & Nutrition Emotional & Psychological Quantitative change Authority Threat Definition Examples of words Trying to get attention by focusing Good (nice, great, bad, etc) on the appearance benefits looking/fashion/body resulting from weight-loss line/sexy/beautiful/slim/glamorous/ activities mentioned on the gorgeous/handsome/hot, etc. website. For example, “Before & after” pictures are used very often for this appeal. Statements mentioning body shape, slimness, etc. are commonly found. Trying to get attention by focusing Low in on the health benefits resulting cholesterol/nutritious/disease/ from weight-loss activities names of diseases (cancer, mentioned on the website. cardiovascular, diabetes, etc)/heart problems/the symptoms of obesity/blood pressure/energy/etc. For example, “I’m not worried about type II diabetes anymore!” “Blood pressure? Excellent!”, etc. Trying to get attention by focusing Colleagues/friends/husband/ on relationship benefits or company/work/friendly/ emotional benefits resulting from relationship/neighbor/gloomy/ weight-loss activities mentioned confident/happy/guilty/fear, etc. on the website. For example, a working woman testifies about the comparisons of attitudes toward her by colleagues or friends before weight-loss and after; or statements such as “I am confident now!”, “I enjoy my life now!”, etc. Trying to get attention by focusing Lbs/come off/per week/won’t gain/ on the change of weight itself. reduce body fat/up to 2 pounds/unwanted 48 inches/achieve weight loss, etc. Mainly about a change in weight. For example, statements such as, “I lost 120 lbs”, “Pounds come off slowly but steadily!” etc. Trying to get attention by focusing Prove/research/testament/Dr’s on evidence from research or a recommendation/According professional. For example, to/Based upon research/university, statements such as “Dr. K proved etc. that this diet pill has . . . “, “According to research, most users of this product . . . “, etc. Illustrating undesirable Consequence/illness/damage/failure/ consequences from certain regret/isolation/increasing behaviors or situations, such as risk/health problem/diagnosis/ disease, being isolated from names of diseases (cancer, friends, losing boy/girl friends cardiovascular, diabetes/high due to serious obesity. blood pressure). Klassen, Wauer, & Cassel, 1991; Bishop, 2001; FTC, 2002; Kaiser Family Foundation, 2002; Adler et al., 2004; Moon & Chan, 2005; LaTour & Rotfeld, 1997. Content Analysis of Online Diet Programs 343 indicators from individualistic-collectivistic typology and low-high context typology). Regarding the cultural characteristics on the websites, coders were asked to answer yes/no to the questions about the presence of specific cultural indicators such as “harmony in group,” “co-fulfillment,” or “selfreliance” based on the definitions of each cultural indicator. Coders made a decision about the presence of cultural indicators by scanning not only the texts (copy) of each website but also the visual components. The other informational content on each website (menus, attributes for interactivity, and privacy statements) were coded by the yes/no distinction as well. The First Stage of Coding The first stage of coding was used to check inter-coder reliability as well as the quality of the coding sheet. Many studies have noted the absolute importance of inter-coder reliability for content analytic research (Lombard, Snyder-Duch, & Bracken, 2002; Yeon, Choi, & Kiousis, 2005). The size of the sample for the pilot study was set at 40% of the total sample based on a previous study that used similar percentages (Neuendorf, 2002). Therefore, a total of 120 (40 per each country) websites were chosen and independently coded by the two coders. All websites from the sample were printed as hardcopies for the analysis. Although some research has suggested coding websites using a computer monitor, the authors decided to print them because there is no significant difference between the two methods and the hardcopies allowed coders to code site information from the same day thereby avoiding possible changes in the websites. This method gave them the ability go back to the hardcopy of the website to gauge coding discrepancies. The two coders used a preliminary draft of a coding sheet for the pilot study. To calculate inter-coder reliability, the Program for Reliability Assessment with Multiple Coders (PRAM) was utilized. Results revealed an average of 76% (0.7625) agreement (global) as inter-coder reliability. However, some variables attained poor agreement between the two coders. The authors and coders decided to pursue higher inter-coder reliability as recommended by previous research (Neuendorf, 2002). Approximately four hours of the second training session was conducted and some minor changes were made to the coding sheet. Finally, coders achieved acceptable inter-coder reliability (87% global agreement, 0.8775). After the pilot test, the two coders coded the rest of the websites (180 websites per coder) in the sample independently. The First Page The first page of each website was considered for the analysis. As noted by previous studies, the first page of a website serves as a type of front 344 J. Yu et al. TABLE 4 Appeals of Verbal Factors (Slogans, Headlines, Copy) Appearance & looks Health & nutrition Emotion & Psychology Quantitative change Authority Threat US U.K KOR X2 df P-Value 35% 96% 71% 50% 94% 48% 65% 84% 51% 18.00 10.44 12.73 2 2 2 P ≤ .01 P ≤ .01 P ≤ .01 35% 59% 10% 20% 25% 4% 30% 32% 16 5.74 27.18 8.00 2 2 2 n.s P ≤ .01 P ≤ .05 Base: (300); n.s = not significant. gate (Ha & James, 1998; Bucy, Lang, Potter, & Grabe, 1999). Generally, a website’s front page should get people’s attention and motivate them to stay. Therefore, companies usually try to include the most important information they want to communicate to consumers on this page (Yu & King, 2005). If a website does not capture people’s attention on the front page, there is a decreased likelihood of consumers remaining there (Chan-Olmsted & Park, 2000). In cases where websites used the first page solely for catching the eye of the consumer (e.g., visual catcher using a flash technique or a greeting), the next page was chosen for the analysis. RESULTS Verbal Appeals (RQ 1) Most of the websites contained more than one appeal. The health and nutrition appeal was found most often on all the websites and was used on almost all the websites from the US and the UK (96% and 94%). As shown on Table 4, emotional and psychological as well as authority appeals were also found frequently on US websites (71% and 59%) and at significantly higher levels than on the websites for the other two countries. Appearance appeals were significantly more likely to be found on Korean websites (59%) than on US websites. While threat appeals were not commonly used on the weight-loss websites, they were more commonly found on Korean websites (16%) than on US (10%) or UK sites (4%). Human Model Characteristics (RQ 2) Human models were present on most of the diet websites in each of the countries. There were no significant differences (p ≤ .05) found between the number of websites containing human models and the country of origin (US = 77%, Korea = 69%, UK = 65%). 345 Content Analysis of Online Diet Programs TABLE 5 Model Characteristics Model presence Male Female White model Black model Asian model Model alone Model group Model’s Role Spokesperson Participant Demonstrator Engage in activity Non-activity image Model’s Vocation Celebrity Famous athlete Medical specialist Diet specialist Average people Model’s clothing Sports wear Casual wear Medical attire Formal clothing Nude US UK KOREA X2 df P-Value 77% 37% 71% 72% 12% 1% 71% 27% 65% 33% 61% 61% 5% 0 62% 29% 69% 30% 60% 26% 0 57% 63% 22% 3.57 16.34 35.42 63.90 18.40 136.67 25.84 25.11 2 16 20 18 6 20 20 20 p p p p n.s n.s ≤ .05 ≤ .01 ≤ .01 ≤ .05 n.s n.s 25% 6% 23% 21% 43% 13% 5% 20% 16% 46% 34% 16% 25% 13% 38% 24.97 20.71 11.61 19.22 14.47 14 14 12 14 18 p ≤ .05 n.s n.s n.s n.s 5% 15% 5% 16% 66% 1% 0 2% 5% 61% 19% 0 16% 8% 54% 25.80 2.00 19.32 11.07 22.14 12 2 8 8 20 p ≤ .05 n.s p ≤ .05 n.s n.s 30% 53% 5% 10% 2% 28% 38% 0 9% 4% 39% 40% 13% 13% 4% 18.78 26.94 17.11 12.79 2.69 18 20 8 8 4 n.s n.s p ≤ .05 n.s n.s Base: (211/ Websites with Human Model); n.s = not significant. Female models were used about twice as often as male models in all three countries and models were depicted most often alone rather than in groups (see Table 5). Not surprisingly, there were differences found between the websites in terms of race of the models depicted. US and UK websites depicted white models most often whereas Korean websites included Asian models most frequently. However, many Korean websites also showed white models (26%). There were few significant differences in the roles of models on the websites between the three countries (p ≤ .05). The most common role of the models was “posing non-active image” across the three countries’ websites (43% of US, 46% of UK, and 38% of Korean). There was a significant difference in frequency of using spokespersons on the websites by country (p ≤ .05). Models were spokespersons/endorsers most frequently on Korean websites (34%). A demonstrator model (e.g., a before-and-after picture) was similarly popular among all three countries’ websites (23% of US, 20% of UK, and 25% of Korean). In terms of the vocation depicted of the models, “average people” were shown most often by a wide margin (66% of US, 61% of UK, and 54% of 346 J. Yu et al. Korean). Celebrities were found significantly (p ≤ .05) more frequently on Korean websites (19%). Famous athletes were not popular on any of the websites; only one case was shown on an US website. Medical specialists (a medical doctor or a nurse with a uniform/lab coat) were shown more frequently on Korean websites (16%) (p ≤ .05). Casual wear was the most common clothing worn by human models overall (53% of US, 38% of UK, and 40% of Korean) followed by sportswear (30% of US, 28% of UK, and 39% of Korean). Medical attire (e.g., gowns) was shown significantly more on Korean websites (13%) (p ≤ .05). Nudity was rarely shown on any of the websites. Visual Characteristics (RQ 3) Photos were the most common visuals on the three countries’ websites; however, they were most common on US and Korean websites. Photos that depicted health/nutrition were most common (US = 45%, UK = 29% and Korean = 30%), but they were more likely to be found on US websites. Most photos categorized as health/nutrition appeal were photos of food or other food supplements. In Korean websites, the appearance/looks appeal (e.g., a photo of a mannequin wearing a bikini swimsuit) was more frequently found (27%, p ≤ .01) (see Table 6). Illustrations were found more frequently on Korean websites (30%, p ≤ .05). Also, animation was another item indicating the significant difference between Korea (48%) and the two western countries (p ≤ .01). Only six websites in the US and seven websites in the UK used animation. Korean websites were also more likely to include photos, illustrations, and animation emphasizing appearance. For example, several Korean websites had animated drawings of women emphasizing a slim body. Tables and graphs were scarcely seen on the weight-loss websites overall. Information Content (RQ 4) Several significant differences were found between the websites for the three countries in the information content of menus and functions on the diet websites. US websites had nutrition information (54%), and privacy statements (52%) with over half of all the websites containing at least some of these items. Korean websites were the most likely to contain opportunities to access information in a second language (67%). Information about specific diseases possibly caused by obesity was mentioned in about one fourth of the sample on both the US and Korean websites (25% and 24%, respectively). However, the UK websites scarcely included information about diseases (7%). 347 Content Analysis of Online Diet Programs TABLE 6 Visual Characteristics Photo present Appearance Health & nutrition Emotion Quantitative Authority Threat Illustration present Appearance Health & nutrition Emotion Quantitative Authority Threat Animation present Appearance Health & nutrition Emotion Quantitative Authority Threat Table present Graph present US UK KOREA X2 df P-Value 60% 5% 45% 2% 9% 5% 1% 16% 1% 9% 1% 4% 2% 0 6% 2% 3% 0 0 0 0 2% 4% 49% 17% 29% 6% 12% 0 0 12% 4% 6% 1% 2% 2% 0 7% 4% 0 1% 0 0 0 1% 1% 69% 27% 30% 6% 11% 2% 0 30% 6% 7% 4% 7% 1% 0 48% 37% 7% 9% 4% 0 0 0 1% 8.31 17.75 7.09 2.39 0.49 5.55 2.00 11.45 3.58 .068 3.06 3.05 0.40 — 70.91 62.92 7.65 15.10 8.10 — — 4.04 3.06 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 — 2 2 2 2 2 — — 4 2 p ≤ .05 p ≤ .01 p ≤ .05 n.s n.s n.s n.s p ≤ .01 n.s n.s n.s n.s n.s n.s p ≤ .01 p ≤ 01 p ≤ .05 p ≤ .01 p ≤ .05 n.s n.s n.s n.s Base (300); n.s. = not significant. Information about medical specialists was mentioned more often on the menus of Korean websites (22%). Information about eating habits (e.g., “Please be awake for at least 3 hours after having a meal!”) appeared at a similar rate on the US and Korean websites (43% and 39%, respectively), but on only 17% of the UK websites. It is interesting to note that information about dieting for a specific part of the body (e.g., thigh, neck, leg, or arm) was mentioned most frequently on Korean websites (28%) (p ≤ .01). Exercise-related information was seen at a similar frequency on all three countries’ websites (35% of US, 34% of UK, and 31% of Korean). An exercise machine was mentioned on 11% of UK websites, but only 1 website provided information about an exercise machine on the US websites (p ≤ .01) (Table 7). Interactivity applied on diet websites was also investigated. Requests for logging-in or subscribing to a particular website were found most frequently on Korean (87%) websites than on the other two countries’ websites (56% of US and 45% of Korean) (p ≤ .01). Menus for chatting among the users or establishing a community were more frequently found on Korean websites (55%). The functions for exchanging messages, or Q&A among customers were seen on 80 Korean websites (p <.01). However, a newsletter was the typical method for consumer-company communication on the US websites 348 J. Yu et al. TABLE 7 Information Content (Menus and Functions) Weight-loss camp Second language Scientific data Short time demonstration Disease from obesity Medical professional Health insurance Recipe Eating habits Nutrition Part of body Exercise Drugs Supplements Exercise machines Registration (Log-in) Chat or community Message boards (Q&A) Newsletter Search engine Hyperlinks to other sites Consulting/medical specialists Consulting/diet specialists Privacy statement US UK KOREA X2 df P-Value 0 1% 8% 27% 0 3% 6% 24% 7% 67% 2% 24% 16.29 156.02 3.69 0.32 4 2 2 2 p ≤ .01 p ≤ .01 n.s n.s 25% 17% 1% 59% 43% 54% 3% 35% 16% 28% 1% 56% 41% 51% 22% 29% 45% 9% 7% 3% 1% 36% 17% 32% 4% 34% 19% 20% 11% 45% 20% 40% 12% 26% 37% 3% 24% 22% 1% 39% 39% 38% 28% 31% 12% 27% 5% 87% 55% 80% 1% 16% 11% 23% 13.48 16.11 0.00 12.65 17.73 10.66 38.87 0.39 3.95 2.02 9.47 40.54 26.17 34.84 21.41 5.12 29.54 20.44 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 p ≤ .01 p ≤ .01 n.s p ≤ .01 p ≤ .01 p ≤ .01 p ≤ .01 n.s n.s n.s p ≤ .01 p ≤ .01 p ≤ .01 p ≤ .01 p ≤ 01 — p ≤ .01 p ≤ .01 33% 16% 63% 48.41 2 p ≤.01 52% 21% 38% 20.67 2 p ≤ .01 Base: 300; n.s: not significant. (22%) (p ≤. 01). A search function and a hyperlink to other related websites were both common on the US and the UK websites (Table 7). Consulting with medical specialists/diet professionals was more popular on Korean websites (23%) (p ≤ .01). The privacy statement was a very popular element on the US websites (52%), compared to the other countries’ websites (p ≤ .01). Cultural Characteristics (RQ 5, RQ 6) Individualistic/collectivistic characteristics represented on the websites were examined by six cultural indicators (Table 8). The indicator “benefits to oneself,” which is regarding the satisfaction for oneself (e.g., “This formula is exactly for you!”) was used on the US websites more frequently (83%) than on the other two countries’ websites (70% of UK and 51% of Korean) (p ≤ .01). Also, the indicator of “doing something by oneself” (e.g., “taming your primal appetite!,” “shape your abs. . .thighs. . .body!”) was shown on the US websites more frequently (94%) than other countries’ websites (82% of UK websites and 66% of Korean) (p ≤ .01). 349 Content Analysis of Online Diet Programs TABLE 8 Cultural Characteristics (Individualism-Collectivism) Indicators/Individualism Enjoy being unique Benefits to oneself Doing something by oneself Indicators/Collectivism Conversation among people People in harmony Working together BASE = (300) US UK KOREA P-Value 39% 83% 94% 28% 70% 82% 44% 51% 66% n.s. p < .01 p < .01 56% 12% 4% 68% 27% 3% 54% 48% 32% n.s. p < .01 p < .01 Among the collectivistic indicators, the “conversation among people” was found in a very similar rate among the three countries’ websites (56% of US, 68% of UK, and 54% of Korean). The indicator of “people in harmony” was found more frequently on Korean websites (p ≤. 01) than other countries’ websites with about half of the Korean websites (48%) containing expressions or scenes related to harmony. “Working together,” including expressions or scenes indicating cooperation among people for a diet, appeared more often on Korean websites (32%), almost ten times as often as on the other two countries’ websites (4% = US and 3% = UK) (p ≤. 01). The low-context features can be found on Table 9. Product features (e.g., “A sustained release, Ephedra—Free product that finally works!”) were used on the US and Korean websites (44% and 37%, respectively) at a similar rate; the UK websites were less likely to use product/service features on their websites (22%, p ≤ 01). “Utilitarian needs” (e.g., “Slim Patch, peel off the pounds each time you peel off the patch!”) were more common on the US websites (47%) than on the websites of the UK and Korea (27% and 38%, respectively; p ≤. 05). Using numbers was more common on both the US and Korean websites (18% and 20%, respectively) than the UK websites (7%) (p <.05). TABLE 9 Cultural Characteristics (Low-High Context) Indicators/Low Context Product features Utilitarian needs Use of numbers Indicators/High Context Emotion and mood Use of metaphor Aesthetic expression BASE = (300) US UK KOREA P-Value 44% 47% 18% 22% 27% 7% 37% 38% 20% p ≤ .01 p ≤ .05 p ≤ .05 55% 53% 82% 75% 70% 93% 61% 60% 80% p ≤ .05 p ≤ .05 p ≤ .05 350 J. Yu et al. The items for measuring high-context characteristics were “emotion and mood,” “use of metaphor,” and “aesthetic expression.” Emotion and mood (e.g., “Get ready for change!, Transform your mood from crappy to happy!”) was found on the UK websites more frequently (78%) than the other two countries’ websites (55% of US and 61% of Korean) (p ≤ .05). The use of metaphor (e.g., “Post Holiday Scale Giving you the Blues?”) was less common on the US websites (53%) than the UK and Korean websites (75% and 61%, respectively; p ≤. 05). Aesthetic expressions (e.g., “The magic answer to obesity problems”) were found on the UK websites more often (93%) than the other countries’ websites (82% = US and 80% = Korean) DISCUSSION Health Appeal versus Appearance Appeal The results in this study showed that the health/nutrition appeal was commonly used across the three countries’ diet websites, while several differences between the Asian country and the western countries were also found. As an example of differences, the appearance/looks appeal was in many aspects on Korean diet websites (e.g., slogan/headlines, copy, and visual factors). Regarding some items (e.g., characteristics of photos and animations on the websites), the appearance/looks appeals were found significantly more often on Korean diet websites than the other countries’ websites. A recent phenomenon in Korean society, namely the obsession with thinner bodies among young Korean females (Choi, 2004), may be affecting the frequency of the appearance/looks appeals on Korean diet websites. Among young Korean women, there has been a growing obsession with diet (Yoon et al., 2006). Even though they may be of average weight for Koreans, many young women in Korea want to be skinnier, whatever the cost. Research has pointed out that such misconceptions about beauty have made young Korean women try to abnormally lose weight by spending a lot of time and money on this endeavor (Kim, 1999). This obsession with outward appearance among Korean females is linked to another surprising record: the highest rate of plastic surgery procedures in the world, approximately 17% of all women (Chosun Ilbo, 2005). Also, according to a report from the BBC (2005), about 50% of Korean women in their twenties have undergone cosmetic surgery. The findings of this study support the fact that, although concern about appearance/looks is likely to be common among people of all three countries, the obsessive desire to be beautiful may be more prevalent for Korean consumers recently than those in other two countries. This perception not only results in the popular usage of appearance appeal in advertising, but also results in several problems, such as eating disorders, among young Korean females (Hankyoreh Daily, 2006). Furthermore, many deceptive ads may be taking Content Analysis of Online Diet Programs 351 advantage of this abnormal perception among young female consumers. The coders in this study found that there were many unreasonable ad messages luring consumers such as “Get a perfect body in a month!” or “Lose 50 lbs in a week!” The dominant advertising appeal of the US and UK diet websites was health/nutrition. The frequent usage of a health/nutrition appeal could be linked to the major agenda related to obesity and dieting established recently by the media in the two countries. There are numerous studies and media reports addressing the danger to national health from being obese in both countries (De Caires, 2002; Fujioka, 2002; Papadaki & Scott, 2005). For example, obesity has been frequently reported to have a positive correlation with cardiovascular problems, type II diabetes, osteoarthritis, and certain cancers (breast, ovarian, prostrate, and colon) in the US (Tate, Jackvony, & Wing, 2003). According to a report from the US Surgeon General (2001), approximately 300,000 deaths per year in the US result from obesity. Numerous reports have also discussed health concerns originating from obesity in the UK (Tackling obesity in England, 2001; BBC News, 2006; United Press International, 2006). The Guardian (Giddens, 2006) reported that Britain has the highest rate of obesity in Europe, and the health problems the epidemic of obesity can bring are formidable in the society. This dominant agenda in the two western societies might be affecting the advertising messages on diet websites. Several diet websites use quotes from the media warning the danger of being obese alongside their diet solutions (e.g., healthrecipes.com, weight-loss-tips-free.com). US and the UK diet websites are applying health/nutrition appeals very often to persuade their consumers. According to Fujioka (2002), many western websites try to make the audience see being overweight as a disease to be cured by the companies’ products or services. Under this intention, the two countries’ websites are marketing several “drug” products for losing weight rather than activity-related programs. Also, they provide healthy recipes and nutritional information more often compared to Korean websites. In fact, a recent study points to thematic shifts in health/nutrition appeals in US TV ads for diet products (Bishop, 2001). The authors noted that the use of a health/nutrition theme has been a very significant framing issue when making claims in diet ads over the past decade. The many reports detailing the dangerous effects of obesity have played an important role in this thematic change (Bishop, 2001). Cultural Distinctions among the Countries were Vague Regarding the individualistic-collectivistic paradigm, despite some significant differences in a few indicators, the results generally did not show many significant cultural differences between a website from a western country and a website from an Asian country. Differing from the results of several 352 J. Yu et al. cross-cultural studies analyzing the advertising of two different cultures (Han & Shavitt, 1994; Cho et al., 1999; Choi et al., 2005; Paek, 2005), similarities were found in diverse parts of the websites, ranging from verbal factors to visual factors. Few studies have indicated similar characteristics in advertising between Asian countries and the western world, reporting the same results as that of this study. According to Wolburg and Kim (1998), the Korean ads they analyzed were actually in favor of individualism, as most sample ads from both cultures had product claims emphasizing individualistic characteristics. A total of 88% of the Korean ads and 93% of the US ads contained claims for making the individual more attractive, healthy, or efficient. Regarding the similarities in ads among different cultures, Levitt (1983) already suggested the concept of “homogenization” for marketing communications in a global market. Levitt suggested standardization of marketing on a global scale mentioning that travel and transport would be the primary facilitators of this situation as an analysis of trends and expectations before the debut of internet. Therefore, it is highly possible that the internet has caused a more rapid expansion of globalization. The internet is the most effective and powerful medium in history for the facilitation of people having the same experience (Samiee, 1998). Through the internet, people in many countries can have the same experience at anytime, anywhere. As another possible background for the similarities of several aspects on diet websites across the countries, the influences of western society on other cultures in the world can be discussed. In Korea, English is the most frequently used second language, and diverse multi-national franchises exist throughout the country (Ulgado & Lee, 1998). Also, the development of satellite TV has allowed people greater access to western lifestyles very easily. Korean people can watch western programs in their homes 24 hours a day. In addition to western programs, exposure to western advertising plays an important role in standardization. Many international brands air commercials made for the global market. Furthermore, it is very common to find western models and scenery in ads for Korean products. Under these circumstances, it is highly possible that standardization of many cultural aspects is occurring. Communication strategies are decided by companies after analyzing market trends and the minds of target audiences. Frequent exposure to western cultural elements can influence the attitudes and trends of the marketing environment. Similarities in advertising appeals are likely a reflection of the situations indicated previously. The US and the UK: A Shared Language, but Advertising Differences Based upon several examples of cross-cultural advertising research using high-low context (Cho et al., 1999; Paek, 2005), it was expected that the websites of the UK, one of the western countries, would show more Content Analysis of Online Diet Programs 353 low-context characteristics than Korean websites. However, in this study, the UK diet websites showed the highest frequency in all three indicators for high-context. Furthermore, the indicators of “usage of emotion/mood” and “metaphor or aesthetic expression” were more frequently found on British sites than on the other two countries’ websites. Despite having been generally referred to as a western country, the UK has shown several characteristics relating to a high-context culture. Therefore, internet advertising strategies in the UK are different from the US based upon the results of this study, even though both countries have been categorized as part of the western world historically. There have been a small number of studies indicating the differences between the UK and the US in the amount of information contained in ads (Nevett, 1992); use of soft sell type of ad messages (Bernstein, 1986; Garrett, 1986; Weinberger & Spotts, 1989a); level of intention to entertain the viewers (Nevett, 1992); general attitudes toward advertising (Nevett); and use of humorous appeals in advertising (Weinberger & Spotts, 1989b). Therefore, based on the results of this present study, another difference could be added to the literature. The UK weight-loss advertising on the internet contains more high-context cultural features than US ads, such as usage of emotion and mood, and metaphor and aesthetic expression. Consequently, the results of this study are not identical with the notions of Hall’s high-low context typology (1976) even though it has been considered and used as a significant theoretical framework for cross-cultural advertising research, along with Hofstede’s individualism-collectivism typology (1980). Actually, Hall’s description of high-context culture is virtually indistinguishable from Hofstede’s collectivist dimension, so that the two typologies have been used simultaneously as explanatory frameworks in several studies (Gudykunst & Ting-Toomey, 1988; Taylor & Miracle 1997). Therefore, it could be said that the two major cultural typologies, low-high context typology and individualistic-collectivistic typology, may not be enough to explain the results of this study. The need for new typologies for explaining or categorizing the cultural characteristics presented in advertising can be indicated. Actually, some researchers have pointed out that the applicability of the two traditionally popular typologies need to be re-evaluated (Fernandex, Carlson, Stepina, & Nicholson, 1997; Cho et al., 1999; Moon & Chan, 2005; Yu & King, 2005) because of their validity and generalizability (La Ferle & Lee, 2002; Moon & Chan, 2005). This study provides another reason why a new typology is needed for cross-cultural studies in advertising. LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH As in all research, there are some limitations to the current study. The first was the choice to analyze only a part of each website. Even though the first page has a lot of content, this made the analysis somewhat incomplete. 354 J. Yu et al. Some sites used the first page only as an introduction. There were mission statements, photos of the owner, and/or brief guides. All other content was accessible only through additional clicking. Another limitation involves the coding of the advertising appeals. Coding was based primarily on looking for certain keywords. Coders were limited to looking for those specific words that meant or represented one of the appeals. This presents an issue of interpretation on the part of coders. Even if a word represents one appeal in one context, it is possible for that same word to be used with a different connotation in another context. The assumptions and analysis of this research are all derived from the most current websites of the three countries. A future longitudinal analysis of content would allow an understanding of the change in consumers’ needs and companies’ ad appeals, as well as the marketing environment of the time among the three different cultures. Also, additional variables should be studied. While the sample was being coded, some interesting variables were found which were not accounted for. For example, an appeal to price was seen on many sites. Comparisons of the price of some products were used frequently. Marketing/advertising partners can also be coded to understand how diet businesses and other related businesses help each other through their ads. There were banner ads for Subway and TGI Friday’s on the Atkins Diet website. In sum, other possible directions for future research remain. This pilot study has focused on the content of and appeals used by diet websites. Future work incorporating some measurement of actual consumer responses or motivations would serve as an excellent complement to, and expansion of, knowledge regarding this increasingly popular online destination. REFERENCES Adler, R. B., Rosenfeld, L. B., & Proctor II, R. F. (2004). Interplay: The process of interpersonal communication (9th ed). New York: Oxford University Press. American Obesity Association. (2006). Obesity in the U.S. Retrieved August 21, 2008, from www.obesity.org/subs/fastfacts/obesity US.shtml. Baek, T., & Yu, H. (2007, August). Understanding health promotion strategies and appeals on weight-loss web sites in the United States and South Korea. Paper presented at the Association for Education in Journalism & Mass Communication (AEJMC) Annual Conference, Washington, DC. BBC. (2005, February 3). The price of beauty in South Korea. Retrieved October 20, 2006, from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/ programmes/from our own correspondent/4229995.stm BBC. (2006, November 17). Reactions in quotes: Ad ban. Retrieved March 26, 2008, from http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/mpapps/ pagetools/print/ news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/6157956.stm Bernstein, D. (1986). The television commercial: An essay. In Henry, B. (Ed.), British television advertising: The first 30 years (pp. 251–286). London: Century Benham. Content Analysis of Online Diet Programs 355 Bishop, R. (2001). Old dogs, new tricks? An ideological analysis of thematic shifts in television advertising for diet products, 1999–2000. Journal of Communication Inquiry, 25(4), 334–352. Blackburn, G. (2002). Making good decisions about diet: Weight loss is not weight maintenance. Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine, 69(11), 864– 866. Boote, A. S. (1982). Psychographic segmentation in Europe. Journal of Advertising Research, 22(6), 19–25. Bucy, E., Lang, A., Potter, R., & Grabe, E. (1999). Formal features of cyberspace: Relationships between web page complexity and site traffic. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 50(13), 1246–1259. Caillat, Z., & Mueller, B. (1996). Observations: The influence of culture on American and British advertising: An exploratory comparison of beer advertising. Journal of Advertising Research, 36(3), 79–88. Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (March 9, 2004). Obesity gains on tobacco as top death factor: Poor diet. Inactivity underlying factors for leading killers. Report. Atlanta: Author. Center for Media Research (CMR). (April 27, 2006). First page search engine listing provides brand life. Retrieved July 28, 2009, from www.centerformediaresearch. com/cfmr brief.cfm?fnl=060427 Center for Media Research (CMR). (2006). Pick influential search engine by category, but Yahoo! safe bet. Retrieved September 8, 2006 from www.cdc.gov/MMWR/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5114a2.htm Chan-Olmsted, S., & Park, J. (2000). From on-air to online world: Examining the content and structures of broadcast TV stations’ web sites. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 77(2), 321–339. Cho, B., Up, K., Gentry, J. W., Jun, S., & Kropp, F. (1999). Cultural values reflected in theme and execution: A comparative study of U.S. and Korean television commercials. Journal of Advertising, 28(4), 59–73. Cho, C-H. & Cheon, H. J. (2005). Cross-cultural comparisons of interactivity on corporate websites: The United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, and South Korea. Journal of Advertising, 34(2), 99–115. Choi, O.-S. (2004). An analysis of ideal-body discourse on women’s magazines: Focused on its relation to cosmetic surgery industry. Korean Publishing Science Society, 46, 261–313. Choi, S. M., Lee, W-N. & Kim, H-J. (2005). Lessons from the rich and famous: A cross-cultural comparison of celebrity endorsement in advertising. Journal of Advertising, 34(2), 85–98. Chosun Ilbo (2005, May 7). Korean women just hate their looks. Retrieved October 21, 2006, from http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/ 200503/200503070034.html Christ, P. (2005). Internet technologies and trends transforming public relations. Journal of Website Promotion, 1(4), 3–14. Cutler, B., & Javalgi, R. (1992a). A cross-cultural analysis of the visual components of print advertising: The United States and the European Community. Journal of Advertising Research, 32(1), 71–80. Cutler, B., & Javalgi, R. (1992b). The visual components of print advertising: A fivecountry cross-cultural analysis. European Journal of Marketing, 26(4), 7–21. 356 J. Yu et al. Cutler, B., Javalgi, R., & Lee, D. (1995). The portrayal of people in magazine advertisements: The United States and Korea. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 8(2), 45–58. De Caires, S. (2002). Diet, exercise can reduce diabetes odds. Drug Store News, February, pp. 56–57. Federal Trade Commission (FTC). (2002, September 19). Weight-loss advertising: An analysis of current trends. Staff report. Washington, DC: Author. Federal Trade Commission (FTC). (2003, December). Deception in weight-loss advertising workshop: Seizing opportunities and building partnerships to stop weightloss fraud. Staff report. Washington, DC: Author. Fernandex, D-R., Carlson, D. S., Stepina, L. P. & Nicholson, J. D. (1997). Hofstede’s country classification 25 years later. Journal of Social Psychology, 137(1), 43–53. Ford, J., Voli, P., Honeycutt, E., & Casey, S. (1998). Gender role portrayals in Japanese advertising: A magazine content analysis. Journal of Advertising, 27(1), 114–124. Fresco, A. (2006). Dies debate on famine and obesity. Retrieved May 17, 2009, from http://www.leidenuiv.nl/en/researcharchive/index.php3-c=158.htm Frith, K. T., & Sengupta, S. (1991). Individualism and advertising: A crosscultural analysis from three countries. Media Asia, 18(4), 191–197. Fujioka, K. (2002). Management of obesity as a chronic disease: Nonpharmacologic, pharmacologic, and surgical options. Obesity Research, 10(Suppl 2), 116–123. Garrett, J. (1986). The television commercial: An essay. In B. Henry, (Ed.), British television advertising: The first 30 years (pp. 383–402). London: Century Benham. Giddens, A. (2006, November 20). Big Britain. The Guardian. Retrieved August 26, 2008, from http://commentisfree.guardian.co.uk/anthony giddens/ 2006/11/post 661.html.printer.friendly Gudykunst, W., & Ting-Toomey, S. (1988). Culture and interpersonal communication. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Ha, L., & James, L. (1998). Interactivity reexamined: A baseline analysis of early business web sites. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 42(4), 457–474. Hall, E. T. (1976). Beyond culture. New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday. Han, S., & Shavitt, S. (1994). Persuasion and culture: Advertising appeals in individualistic and collectivistic societies. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 30(4), 326–335. Hankyoreh Daily. (2006, August 6). Do you want to lose weight? Anorexia among Korean young females. Retrieved December 22, 2007, from http://kr.news.yahoo.com/etc/print text.htm?articleid = 2006080619530711223 Harper, A, & Astrup, A. (2004). Can we advise our obese patients to follow the Atkins diet? Obesity Reviews: An Official Journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity, 5(2), 93–94. Hofstede, G. (1980). Cultures’ consequences: International differences in workrelated values. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Huang, M.-H. (1998). Exploring a new appeals: Basic, versus social, emotional advertising on a global setting. International Journal of Advertising, 17(2), 145–169. Jeon, W., Franke, G., Huhmann, B., & Phelps, J. (1999). Appeals in Korean magazine advertising: A content analysis and cross-cultural comparison. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 16(2), 249–258. Content Analysis of Online Diet Programs 357 Jung, T., Youn, H., & Chang, T. Understanding diet websites function on the web: Content analysis of diet websites. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Sheraton New York, New York City, NY. Retrieved from http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p13236 index.html Kaiser Family Foundation. (2002). Appeals and promises in commercials and magazine advertisements. Menlo Park, CA: The Henry H. Kaiser Family Foundation. Kim, G. (1999). The effects of adolescent girls’ self -esteem, the preoccupation to be thinner, and dieting on binge eating. Journal of Korean Psychological Association: Health, 4(1), 155–166. Kim, N., & Kang, J. (2002). Secular trend of obesity prevalence in Korea. Journal of Korean Society for the Study of Obesity, 11(4), 329–337. Kirk, S. F., Harvey, E. L., McConnon, A., Pollard, J. E., Greenwood, D. C., Thomas, J. D., et al (2003). A randomised trial of an internet weight control resource: The UK weight control trial. BMC Health Services Research, 3(1), 19. Klassen, M., Wauer, S., & Cassel, S. (1991). Increases in health and weight loss claims in food advertising in the eighties. Journal of Advertising Research, 30(6), 32–37. Knoop, C., Lovich, D., Silverstein, M., & Tutty, M. (2003, January 3). Vital signs: E-health in the United States. Boston, MA: The Boston Consulting Group. Retrieved May 4, 2009, from http://www.bcg.com/impact expertise/publications/ files/Vital Signs E Health United States Jan2003.pdf Korean Society for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention. (2003). Longitudinal analysis of changes in Koreans’ average weight over time. Seoul: Author. La Ferle, C., & Lee, W. (2002). Attitudes toward advertising: A comparative study of consumers in China, Taiwan, South Korea and the United States. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 15(2), 5–22. LaTour, M. S., & Rotfeld, H. J. (1997). There are threats and (maybe) fear-caused arousal: Theory and confusions of appeals to fear and fear arousal itself. Journal of Advertising, 26(3), 45–60. Levitt, T. (1983). The globalization of markets. Harvard Business Review, 61(3), 92–102. Lombard, M., Snyder-Duch, J., & Bracken, C. (2002). Content analysis in mass communication: Assessment and reporting of intercoder reliability. Human Communication Research, 28(4), 587–604. Macias, W., & Lewis, L. (2003). A content analysis of direct-to-consumer prescription drug web sites. Journal of Advertising, 32(4), 43–57. Moon, Y., & Chan, K. (2005). Advertising appeals and cultural values in television commercials. International Marketing Review, 22(1), 48–66. Nelson, M. M., & Paek, H. (2005). Predicting cross-cultural differences in sexual advertising contents in a transnational women’s magazine. Sex Roles, 52, 371–383. Neuendorf, K. (2002). The content analysis guidebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Nevett, T. (1992). Differences between American and British television advertising: Explanations and implications. Journal of Advertising, 21(4), 61–73. Okazaki, S., & Rivas, J. A. (2002). A content analysis of multinationals’ web communication strategies: Cross-cultural research framework and pre-testing. Internet Research, 12(5), 380–390. 358 J. Yu et al. Paek, H. (2005). Understanding celebrity endorsers in cross-cultural contexts: A content analysis of South Korean and U.S. newspaper advertising. Asian Journal of Communication, 15(2), 133–153. Paek, H., Nelson, M. R., & McLeod, M. D. (2004). Beyond polarized cultural values: A new approach to the study of South Korean and U.S. newspaper advertisements. Advances in Consumer Research, 31, 495–502. Papadaki, A., & Scott, JA. (2005). The Mediterranean eating in Scotland experience project: Evaluation of an internet-based intervention promoting the Mediterranean diet. British Journal of Nutrition, 94(2), 290–298. Park, C., & Jun, J. (2003). A cross-cultural comparison of internet buying behavior: Effects of internet usage, perceived risks, and innovativeness. International Marketing Review, 20(5), 534–553. Pew Research Center. (2006). Online health search 2006, Pew Internet & American Life project. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved March 24, 2008, from www.pewinternet.org Pontiroli, A. E., Pizzocri, P., Paroni, R., & Folli, F. (2006). Sympathetic over-activity, endothelial dysfunction, inflammation, and metabolic abnormalities cluster in grade III (World Health Organization) obesity: Reversible through sustained weight loss obtained with laparoscopic adjustable gastric bonding. Diabetes Care, 29(12), 2735–2738. Samiee, S. (1998). The internet and international marketing: Is there a fit? Journal of Interactive Marketing, 12(4), 5–21. Sung, Y., & Tinkham, S. (2005). Brand personality structures in the United States and Korea: Common and culture-specific factors. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 15(4), 334–350. Szmigin, I., & Carrigan, M. (2000). Does advertising in the UK need older models? Journal of Product & Brand Management, 9(2), 128–144. Tackling obesity in England (2001). Report by the Comptroller and Auditor General HC 220 Session 2000–2001, 15 February. London: National Audit Office. Retrieved January 24, 2009 from http://www.nao.org.uk//idoc.ashx?docId= 7B694854–588F-4D45-A968-EBB0439DE6B2&version=-1 Tak, J., Kaid, L. L., & Lee, S. (1997). A cross-cultural study of political advertising in the United States and Korea. Communication Research, 24(4), 413–430. Tate, D. (2001). Using internet technology to deliver a behavioral weight loss program. Journal of the American Medical Association, 285(9), 1172–1177. Tate, D., Jackvony, E., & Wing, R. (2003). Effects of internet behavioral counseling on weight loss in adults at risk for type-2 diabetes: A randomized trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 289(14), 1833–1836. Tate, D., Wing, R. R., & Winett, R. A. (2001). Using internet technology to deliver a behavioral weight-loss program. Journal of the American Medical Association, 285(9), 1172–1177. Taylor, C., & Miracle, G. E. (1997). The impact of information level on the effectiveness of U.S. and Korean television commercials. Journal of Advertising, 26(1), 1–18. Toncar, M. (2001). The use of humor in television advertising: Revisiting the US-UK comparison. International Journal of Advertising, 20(4), 521–539. United Press International. (2006, November 17). Eat to live: U.K. bans food ads on kids’ TV. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved August 26, 2008, Content Analysis of Online Diet Programs 359 from http://www.upi.com/ConsumerHealthDaily/view.php?StoryID=20061117– 112143-2320r Ulgado, F., & Lee, M. (1998). The Korean versus American marketplace: Consumer reactions to foreign products. Psychology & Marketing, 15(16), 595–614. U.S. Surgeon General. (2001, January 8). Surgeon General’s call to action to prevent and decrease overweight and obesity. Press Release. Washington, DC: Author. Walker, A., & Wadee, A. (2006), World-wide rises in obesity: minimal hopes of control. Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of health, 126(1), 16–17. Wall Street Journal. (2006, April 12). U.S. lags behind in high-speed internet access. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved September 4, 2009, from http://freepress.net/ news/print.php?id=14939 Weight Watchers. (2007). UK is the second major market in diet marketing after the US. Weight Watchers. Retrieved May 17, 2008, from http://www. weightwatchers.co.uk/index.aspx Weinberger, M.C., & Spotts, H.E. (1989a). A situational view of information content in TV advertising in the U.S. and U.K. Journal of Marketing, 53(1), 89–94. Weinberger, M.C., & Spotts, H.E. (1989b). Humor in U.S. versus UK TV commercials: A comparison. Journal of Advertising, 18(2), 39–44. Whitelock, J., & Chung, D. (1989). Cross-cultural advertising: An empirical study. International Journal of Advertising, 8(3), 291–310. Wolburg, J., & Kim, H. (1998). Messages of individualism and collectivism in Korean and American magazine advertising: A cross cultural study of values. Proceedings of the 1998 American Academy of Advertising Conference, 147–154. Yeon, H-M., Choi, Y. & Kiousis, S. (2005). Interactive communication features on nonprofit organizations’ webpages for the practice of excellence in public relations. Journal of Website Promotion, 1(4), 61–83. Yoon, K., Lee, J, Kim, J., Cho, J., Choi, Y., Ko, S., Zimmet, P., & Son, H. (2006). Epidemic obesity and the type 2 diabetes in Asia. The Lancet, 368(9548), 1681–1688. Yu, H., & King, K. W. (2005). Cross cultural content analysis of weight-loss websites: The U.S. and Korea. Abstract in Proceedings of the 2005 American Academy of Advertising Conference, p. 128. Copyright of Journal of Promotion Management is the property of Taylor & Francis Ltd and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.