Download Historians of the Renaissance and their Perspectives

Historians of the Renaissance and their Perspectives
Renaissance as a ‘New Age’ (Contemporaries): It was seen by contemporaries as a
distinct age separate to that of previous ages (i.e. medieval). It was also seen as
something new and brilliant compared to life previously.
Marsilio Ficino: (in 1492) Renaissance a ‘a golden age’; that they have restored the
‘arts… poetry, painting, sculpture and architecture and music’; that what they are
‘achieving… had been honoured amongst the ancient people’
Vasari: first used traditional view of Renaissance as a rebirth or revival
Matteo Palmieri – a ‘new age’; believed they were rescuing architecture, art (and the
knowledge about it from the classical periods) ‘from obscurity’
Petrach: ‘men broke through the darkness’ to ‘return to the pure, pristine radiance’ of
antiquity
Renaissance viewed as a distinct period (Historians): Historians saw the Renaissance
as somewhat of a revival of the Ancient Roman era, but also as something new and
distinct to that of the medieval age.
Voltaire: (in 1756) the Renaissance as ‘beg[inning] to shake off that barbarous rust, with
which Europe has been covered since the decline of the Roman Empire.’
Ferguson: Italians ‘turned for inspiration to the civilisation of Roman and Greek
antiquity…[with] their reverence for classical culture’ growing steadily from the late 13th
century to the early 16th
Nussdorfer: ‘The Renaissance was a revival of interest in Roman antiquity’
Hill: ‘a springtime after the winter’ (winter – Middle Ages)
Martin: defends Burkhardt’s view that the Renaissance was a period very different to the
Middle Ages and which marks the beginning of modern society:
- The centre of medieval society was on the land, while it was centred in the urban
in the Renaissance
- A movement away from feudalism, where there was the rise of the middle class
man whose position became more dominant in society
- Money rather than birth determined social positions (rise of capitalism)
Atchity: Renaissance represents ‘a sharp break with the Middle Ages because Medieval
beliefs and practices underwent a dramatic shift in the Renaissance’
Brown:
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It was ‘new learning and new freedom – combined with the wealth and
independence of the Italian city-states – that led to the dawn of the Renaissance’
The Renaissance was ‘the beginning of the modern world’
Renaissance more than the rebirth of old ideas, but it was a development of the
ideas to a far greater extent
Burkhardt:
 Renaissance the beginning of modern life
 Puts less emphasis on the revival of art and letters, but on the general
awakening/re-birth of human intellect and personality, where there was a sense of
consciousness and a respect for individuality - ‘man became a spiritual
individual’
 Renaissance significant and influential not only through the revival of antiquity
but also through ‘the genius of the Italian people’
 Socially equal and wealthy society allowed for this development - ‘it was needful
that noble and burgher should first learn to dwell together on equal terms’ so that
that they had a social world where they had a ‘want of culture…and means to
obtain it’
 Renaissance distinct from Middle Ages (that emphasised race, class and family),
as the Renaissance was a period where people were aware of themselves as
individuals
 Society ‘now ignored all its distinctions of caste and was based simply on the
existence of an educated class’
Medievalists: Some historians believe that the Renaissance was merely a continuation of
what had previously transpired in the medieval age. Some also believe that the
Renaissance was not completely ‘new’, but had taken ideas/philosophies from previous
eras.
Black: Renaissance a ‘brilliant culmination of a series of earlier trends’ than a ‘new
beginning’; i.e. Renaissance a natural progression from the Middle Ages; Renaissance
not as significant as contemporaries viewed it, as achievements were based on the
achievement of ‘previous ‘renaissances’’; that it was not a ‘break with the past’
Thorndike: critical of Burkhardt’s theories:
- Individualism not a new characteristic in the Renaissance, but that it existed in the
Middle Ages through the original creation of Gothic architecture
- Opposes the claim that interest in nature was evidence of scientific advance in the
Renaissance, stating that nature was also observed in the Middle Ages
- Argues Ptomely’s ‘Geography’ was far less accurate than that of medieval
geographers
- View that not everything was new or newly invented/thought
Haskin: believes there was a Renaissance in the 15th century, but a more significant one
in the 12th century that had far greater cultural achievements - achieved the development
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of Gothic architecture, vernacular poetry, recovery of works of ancient Rome, a renewed
interest in the science and philosophy of ancient Greece.
Crawford: ‘The great artists of the Renaissance… did not appear from nowhere, but were
inheritors of centuries of traditions in the arts and crafts’, i.e. inherited ideas from
medieval achievements
McIlvain: while new ideas in government, especially limited government, made the
Renaissance significant, this idea of limited government was a concept already derived
from the Middle Ages; Renaissance therefore an extension of the culture of the Middle
Ages, rather than a period when learning recommenced
Lopez: capitalist society emerged in the Renaissance; rejects idea of economic prosperity
hand-in-hand with artistic achievements - there were periods of economic depression
(rather than consistent economic prosperity). Economic wealth of society was not
experienced by all groups in society, and the gap between the rich and poor widening. He
therefore argues that life was a lot harder in the Renaissance than the Middle Ages for
many workers.
Gombrich: Renaissance ‘a cultural fashion’ that happened to catch on – ‘a return in art…
to primitive simplicity’ after richness of Gothic architecture in Middle Ages
McKay: ‘in terns of the way most people lived and thought, no sharp division exists
between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance’.
Hole:
 An ‘urban phenomenon which hardly touched the countryside’
 Renaissance occurred from late 14th to the 16th century
 Believes it was more than the revival of classical antiquity, and that it included
the new stress on the individual human being – that it centred on humanity
Marxists and Feminists: These historians place more emphasis on the way in which
people experienced life during the Renaissance, conveying the idea that not all people
experienced a renaissance.
Kent & Simons: Clientage structures in Florence resembled formal structures of
feudalism, i.e. patrons had the power and influence in the works they commissioned (not
the artists); success determined by the connections to powerful people – less about
individuality and more about connections between people
Cohn (Marxist): reduction in rights of worker – less economic and political power
Kohl & Smith: ‘not all sectors of the population participated equally in Renaissance
culture’, but that it was ‘produced by and for an educated and privilege elite’, while ‘the
poor, the peasants, and the workers, and especially women’ were left out of the
Renaissance
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Kelly (feminist): women experienced limited power and agency (ability to affect change)
during the Renaissance; limited to the private sphere of the home (particularly patrician
women) and were dominated by men
Thomas (feminist): influence of women through their relationships with powerful men;
e.g. Medici women & Isabella D’Este; exceptions to feminist view
Feminists: Lower class women were more involved in the public sphere than the patrician
women – lower class women have more influence, e.g. could help husband in business
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City States
City-state: Papal States
Geography:
 Located in central Italy; includes Rome
 The land varied, with some of the climate harsh, while some of the land was arid
or marshy (infertile); some fertile pockets and area on the coast
 Therefore, land had an impact on the economy and agriculture
Economy:
 Produced a variety of cereals, olives, vines and livestock, as well as timber, salt
and alum deposits and fishing on the coast
 Rome was the centre of the Christian world as it was where the Pope lived
(500,000 pilgrims a year) – capital of Papal States but also of Catholic
Christendom; therefore an economic industry was having accommodation, street
vendors, etc for pilgrims
 Rome transformed in the 16th century into a city of over 100,000 people
 Pope taxed all of Christendom – made huge amount of money
Politics:
 Conflict and rivalry between:
o The Holy Roman Empire: centred in Germany; used to rule all of Italian
Peninsula, then left city-states alone, where they established their own
governments
o The Papacy: head of Roman Catholic Church and bishop of Rome; a
religious, a political and a military lead, as well as an administrator
 Pope an ambitious and political leader who tried to expand his role into nonreligious affairs
 Papal rule had three aspects:
o The popes were both the leaders and the continuators of faith
o To maintain their authority, enforce law and order, extract taxes and check
incursions from rival territories they had to act like other secular rulers,
becoming fully enmeshed in diplomacy and war
o Administrative: the popes were the heads of the largest bureaucracy in
Europe
 Pope engaged in power struggles, levied taxes and favoured families, resulting in
the Papacy being often at war or in conflict with other city-states
 In emerging city-states, those who supported the Papacy were called Guelphs
(often from commercial classes and artisans) and those who supported the Empire
(usually aristocracy)
 The Holy Roman Empire ceased to play a significant role in Italy south of the
Alps after being defeated by the Papacy in 1266
 Pope ruled over area where there were rebellious nobles and petty despots: while
Pope was influential, administering papal states was difficult as there were
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varying allegiances to Rome – sometimes states wished to align themselves with
other city-states or become independent
Therefore, control of papal states was not uniform, and there were times when the
Pope had little or no control over the papal states
King of France took the Papacy between 1308 and 1376, where feudal lords
meanwhile took over Rome. Papacy returned to Rome to re-establish control of
Rome and the surrounding areas and this took until 1420
Several Papal States were administered by locally elected Podestas (outside
appointed ruler for a short period of time) whose authority and effectiveness
varied greatly; Rome was administered by a senator
Personality and personal qualities of Pope influenced effectiveness of rule
Pope often forced to use bribes to appease surrounding city-states
Interaction between city-states:
 The Papal States were very militaristic and had expansionist policies under
various Popes
 Papacy fought long war with Visconti in Milan, and were attacked by mercenaries
and by outbreaks of the plague, and forced to use bribes to appease surrounding
city-states
City-State: Florence
Geography:
 Florence was located at the top of the Italian peninsular, therefore becoming a
crossroads from Italy to Europe
 Situated on the river Arno, however location is not favourable and it has few
resources
 The Contado (surrounding hilly Tuscan countryside) landlocked Florence and
whose land was infertile; however it did provide food for Florence itself
Economy:
 Florence a wealthy city who had two main rich families: Medici and the Rucellai
 Bankruptcy was common, despite some families rising to great wealth
 Main sources of income:
o Wool and cloth industry - employed 30,000 people a year
o Banking – the Medici were the bankers of the Pope, charging interest on
collecting taxes of Western Europe (done by Jews for papal states)
o Craft goods (gold, embroidery, painting and sculpture)
o Trade
 The rich used their money to patronise some art works
 Two main threats curbed Florence’s economic expansion:
o While wool industry was growing rapidly (13th century), it was curbed by
(in the 14th century) famine and political unrest; the Black Death (in 1348)
also stopped the growing population, resulting in fewer workers
o War with neighbouring city-states was another threat
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Trade left many families bankrupt – pirates and theft were major hazards of
imports/exports done at sea
Politics:
 Before 1297, rival factions existed who made alliances through marriage (feudal
lords)
 1293 – Ordinances of Justice (constitution – laid out how the bodies would work
and who was eligible for office)
 The commune was then founded, where a republican system of government was
created, based on election from a small group of people who were members of
one of the great trade guilds: it was a restricted participation in government
 The merchants then became the powerful class, although the aristocracy still
remained wealthy
 In 1434, the Medici came to power; under the Medici, an oligarchy came to exist
(electing government from a narrow base)
 The Medici became ‘de facto’ rulers of Florence for 60 years, as they were:
o Good at gaining control
o Kept adapting the structure of government, putting in extra councils who
were responsible for deciding whose names went into the bags for
selection to government – eventually, only the names of Medici supporters
went into bags
o Manipulated law
o Exiled opponents
o People felt safe with them and trusted them as they used diplomacy and
allegiances to make them safe
o They were wealthy and spent lots of money on art and architecture that
promoted them, and on sponsoring pageants and entertainments that made
them popular
 Theoretically, members of guilds had the right to vote and offices were rapidly
rotated; their names were places in a bag and drawn out
 The top ruling groups were three councils called Tre Maggiori. The topmost
group was called Signoria and the man at the top, the Gonfalonier of Justice. He
had 8 Priors to advise him and elections were held every two months. These men
were advised by elected members of the 2 colleges below them (the Gonfalonieri
and the Twelve Goodmen). Below this group, government members only had the
right to veto legislation.
 Florence tried a brief spell of government based on the Venetian model, before
the Medici came back to Florence to rule for another 30 years or so
 The rapid rotation of office and the practice of choosing officials by lot made the
system more open than many others, although magnati, non-guild members, noncitizens and women were all excluded
Hole: “The fear of faction showed itself in two ways, both of which made Florentine
government unstable”
Interaction between city-states:
 Florence tended to fight with its neighbours or exploit them
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War with Visconti (of Milan) fighting over Florence’s only port, Pisa, from 1398
to 1447
War with Naples, resulted in an economic problem, as Naples confiscated
Florentine owned business in Rome, blockaded Pisa and cut out imports and
exports
City-State: Naples
Geography:
 Situated in southern Italy in a mountainous landscape; the Apennine mountains
and its location compared to other city-states meant the regional isolation of
Naples – it affected trade negatively
 Its geographical location left Naples therefore, backwards; also made them
vulnerable to foreign invasion
 Naples was an agricultural city-state
 Population cut in half after plague struck kingdom
Economy:
 Centre of an area that compromised of about 1500 communes
 It had little industry and mainly produced handicrafts and agricultural produce
 Grain, sheep and cattle were very important; they also produced olive oil, wine,
raw silk and cotton
 Produced many raw materials and was exploited commercially by the northern
states
Politics:
 A feudal area, where those below lords were almost slaves; towns were also under
the control of local lords
 Invaded by Normans in 11th century, who continued the feudal administration
 During the 14th and 15th centuries they were under foreign domination:
o First by Barbarossa (the HRE)
o Second, by France (given to them by the Pope who wanted to rid Italy of
the HRE), who introduced councils of barons to advise the king and
administer the state
o Third, by the Spanish (as Naples resented the French and invited the
Spanish king to rule instead) – they attempted to reform the government,
but failed to make Naples a modern centralised state
 They were effectively ruled by foreign monarchies and were passed between
queens and kings; this lead to confusion from constant changes of power
 Poor leadership of the feudal barons below the foreign king resulted in Naples
itself having beautiful building and learned men, a court and university, but
backward and poor communes
 The barons were powerful and unruly and the king had difficulty in controlling
them, and cared little for the peasants and so there was no effective middle class
as there was little business activity
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Didn’t have a middle class, but a small group of nobles that converted wealth and
a bigger group of lesser nobles who struggled for the wealth left
Hole: ‘Outside that single city, the Kingdom played no part in the ‘Renaissance’.
Hole: ‘Politically, as well as culturally and economically, it was backward.’
Interaction between city-states:
 Naples was generally excluded from the Renaissance
 It was exploited by other states as they produced lots of raw materials
 War with Florence between 1390 and 1414 and occupied Rome in 1408
City-State: Venice
Geography:
 Developed their city from a swamp and exploited their geographical position to
develop a great Maritime empire
 Depended on trade – were situated between the east and West
 Geographical position in the lagoon helped in defence as few sailors could
negotiate the tricky currents
 Positioned along the Adriatic Sea in northeast Italy and located in the Venetian
Lagoon
 City connected with many rivers through canals across the city
 Protected themselves from land-based attacks by diverting all the major rivers
therefore creating an even deeper lagoon
 No roads in city – only walkways; most travel by walking and by boat
Economy:
 Developed an Empire to protect trade routes and to ensure a supply of raw
materials
 Venetians relatively wealthy – had a large middle class which provided leaders
for a Republican form of government
 Economic industries:
o Trade - traded salt, fish, incense, grain, spices and silks (they traded with
the Byzantine Empire)
o Ship-building - produced ships on a production line for other states, for
their own trade, and to build warships – had to import raw material: hemp,
iron and copper
o Banking
o Storage – made money by storing produce for other trading nations
 Rialto the centre of commerce and banking
 Venice frequently trading throughout the Adriatic, Mediterranean, Aegean and
Black Seas
 Venice was also ideally situated to trade with rest of Europe and Italian peninsula
via land
 Venice sold sugar and wine, spices, porcelain, ceramics, alum and textiles,
minerals, timber, furs and slaves
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Locally sold products: glass, textiles such as patterned silks, crafts and later,
printed books
Problems arose as new sea routes were found and Venice could be bypassed
Politics:
 A Republican city-state
 Council of Ten (like a secret police) ruled with an iron hand: were ten senators
whole policed the whole system
 In Venice, the right to vote and to stand for office were confined to the patrician
classes (2,500 noblemen); highest office was the Doge, but his power was strictly
controlled and was not hereditary
 Those who were interested in having some power, but were excluded could still
have some sort of say through the system of Scuola
 Wealth was based on trade, rather than land, and the rich and poor lived close
together – reason for harmony
 Government employed a lot of people, and took care to provide food and relief to
the poor in times of need
 Government:
o Doge assisted by 6 councillors
o College/Cabinet: elected by Senate; had executive functions
o Senate
o Great Council
 Two main factions – the Young (interested and open to new ideas) and the Old
(who were more conservative)
 1297, Great Council passed law called Serrata, meaning ‘lock-up’, which made
membership in the Great Council hereditary, thus creating a stable ruling class,
known as the nobili, comprising of 5% of the population
Interaction between city-states:
 Went to war against Genoa several times
 Was engaged in battles against the League of Cambrai
City-State: Milan
Geography:
 The most northern of the major city-states
 It is positioned in the Po River valley – this was strategic in location, as it was one
of the major trading routes to all of the city-states on the Italian peninsula and to
Northern Europe
 Po River valley is also fertile, which provided the agricultural base to the
prosperity of Milan
 It is connected to many rivers through the creation of canals in the city
Economy:
 A wealthy city-state due to agriculture (due to fertile land)
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Hale: ‘Its fertile surroundings and accessibility [to and from rivers]… ensured its
economic growth.’
It had many merchants who had a strong trading relationship with most of the
Western world and eastern Mediterranean
Its commercial activity created strong economic growth:
o It sold luxury goods, in particular cloths and clothing and by the end of the
15th century, was producing silk cloths
o It sold arms and armour: it was militarily strong as it had to be, due to its
position in the Italian peninsula (and its wars against neighbouring citystates), and therefore made these not only for itself, but for economic
profit
Franceshi:
o Milan drove its urban economy up, through being export-orientated, in
particular the cloth industry
o ‘Only in the economic system that centred on Milan was manufacturing
preponderant.’
As a result of the city state’s wealth; Milan became a local hub for art.
Politics:
 There were three periods of government during the Renaissance:
o The Visconti Family 1311-1447
o The Ambrosian Republic 1447-1450
o The Sforza Family 1450-1500
 The Visconti family began to prevail over the autonomous commune and rival
dynasty of the della Torre in the mid to late 1200’s
 There was a need for strong leadership due to previous barbarian invasions, so
Milan had a monarchy which was to become a princely state then a duchy:
o The Visconti family ruled as dukes almost continuously from 1317 to
1447 – they were a dominant noble family
o In 1447 when the last Visconti died, the Milanese attempted to install a
republic, but as it was unable to protect the city's military interests, in
1450, Francesco Sforza, a professional soldier, seized control of the
government; one descendant ruled by coercion and manipulation
o The political power of Milan collapsed when it was invaded by France in
the late 15th century
 In rural Milan, feudalism still existed. This meant that great families had sway
over agriculture areas and mountain districts.
 The Visconti had been a competent centralised government. Whereas, the Sfroza
family brought military power to Milan. They built on Filippo Maria Visconti’s
ideas and structure of the centralised government.
Najemy: ‘Milan’s dukes ruled over the wealthiest region of Italy and relied successfully
on indirect taxes and custom duties’
Hale: ‘princely authority…was sometimes brutal and arbitrary’
Interaction between city-states:
 War with Florence over port of Pisa, from 1398 to 1447
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War with Papacy
Diplomacy and Alliances
Reasons for conflict and war between city-states/powers:
 Italy not a united country - boundaries were not defined
 Acquisition of territory paramount
 Intense rivalry
 Political instability
 Need to maintain the balance of power – to prevent one power from gaining
dominance
Alliances:
 Five city states dominated, with more minor city-states, the independent rulers
relies on emergency protection from more powerful states
 Alliances changed frequently, especially with the threat of foreign invasion
 1450-1594, due to the diplomatic efforts of Medici, uneasy balance of power
achieved
 Balance of power often threaten particularly due to the Venetian expansionism
Threats:
 Alliance between Naples, Milan and Florence usually maintained balance of
power
 Alliance between Medici and Sforza (1450’s) became foundation for Italian peace
 Florence acted as balance between amicable Naples & Milan on one side, and the
ambitious popes and Venice on other
 The diplomacy of the Papal States exemplifies the shifting and pragmatic nature
of alliances, e.g. when Papal States give people protection, they usually made
great advances under them and stayed secure and safe
Guelfs – merchants: supported Pope
Guibillines – aristocracy: supported Emperor (HRE)
Hole: ‘Move from republican communes to the princely rule of a leading family’
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Humanism
Why were the Humanists interested in the Classical world?
Humanism was a study of Greek and Roman works and ideas. It brought inspiration for
many scholars across the Italian peninsular of intellectual life and to art and culture of
society in the Renaissance. It sought to redefine the relationship between Christianity and
the classical world, and to put more emphasis on the individuality of each human being,
their potential and their being the greatest of all in the world.
Historians on Humanism:
Dickens: ‘a creative study of Greek and Roman civilisation’
Rice: ‘an educational and cultural program based on the study of classics… coloured by
the notion of human dignity’
Ferguson: ‘a revolt against many features of medieval thought and society’
Hole:
- Humanists in the Renaissance set out to ‘re-define the relationship between
Christianity and classical civilization’
- ‘The main intellectual movement of the Renaissance’
Hale:
- ‘They did not challenge Christian doctrine’ but they did not see it as the only
source of guidance for a useful life; therefore they led a secular life while still
Christians
- Individuality – ‘men began to call attention to themselves as unique and
individual beings’
The Three Stages of Humanism:
Early Humanism:
 Definition: Early Humanism was a revival in the interest in classical antiquity in
the 14th century, with this including an interest in ‘Latin writing of the Roman
world’ (Hole), with works coming from philosophers and thinkers such as Cicero
 Examples of manuscripts include Cicero’s Letters and Rhetoric, and Livy’s
Decades and History of Rome
 Humanists during this period focused on travelling around Europe searching for
manuscripts in monastic libraries from the ancient Roman period and then
translating them and correcting mistakes. They wished to find the earliest ones
they could get, as later manuscripts were often copied with errors and with
Christian glosses. Hole: humanists sought to ‘restore them to their pagan
integrity’ and then to ‘consider what relevance their ideas had for a Christian’ in
Renaissance Italy.
 During this period, it was important for humanists to be fluent in Latin to be able
to understand ancient texts that were written in Latin and then to translate them
and fix up errors; it was also the international language
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Petrarch was a scholar who was particularly interested in searching for
manuscripts and works by Cicero and also Livy. Poggio Bracciolini was another
humanist in search of manuscripts.
Their ideas included the emphasis on individuality and human potential (man
being greatest in God’s creation); they also emphasised a new structure of
learning, highlighting the need for a well-rounded education, and in particular the
art of rhetoric (persuading through speech)
Civic Humanism:
 Definition: A period between 1375 and 1434, where humanists focused on the
idea of citizens to actively contributing to society, based off the ideas of the
Roman republican system. During this period, a withdrawal from politics,
economics and one’s duty to the family (monasticism) was disapproved.
 Knowledge of Greek began to become more important and useful with the arrival
of Chrysoloras as Professor of Greek at the University of Florence from 13971400. This knowledge of Greek was important as previously no one could speak,
read or write it, despite ‘all knowledge com[ing] from that source’ (as Bruni states
– Bruni was taught Greek).Until Greek was learnt in the Italian sates, no Greek
texts were translated. Humanists found knowledge of ancient Greeks incredibly
valuable as ancient Greeks were the first to have a republic.
 Civic humanism used to justify political system of Florence
 Main ideas:
o Ideal life: where one had a duty to society and to their family, therefore
leading a life that was active in public and which was not scholastic. This
was shown in Salutati who used his knowledge and learning to influence
his role as Chancellor of Florence. Idea of duty to city often used to justify
the spending of money by Italy’s most wealthy persons on e.g. art. Feltre
states ‘all of us are created for the life of social duty’.
o Education: new education program for the wealthy, where schools that
were taught by humanists would teach an all-rounded education, so that
students in the future would have an active part in the life of a city. These
education schools were taught by Vittorinio da Feltre at Mantua and
Guarino at Ferrara. The curriculum included rhetoric, maths, Latin, sport
and music. Bruni calls this education ‘a thorough grounding in the ars of
life.’ This was based on Vergerio’s One the Conduct of Honourable Men.
o Studia Humanitatis: a cultural and educational programme that led to an
understanding of man and improving his social and political behaviour.
 Increase during this period in the collection of manuscripts, texts and works by
those of ancient Rome and Greece (included copies). Niccolo Niccoli was famous
for his large library that was contributed to by Petrach’s books – it was also
famous as he allowed other scholars to borrow books.
 Civic virtue important – described by Hole as ‘the active participation of its
leading citizens in government’
 Some influential works included Cicero’s De Oratore and Plato’s Dialogues
Neoplatonism:
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Definition: it was a revival of the ideas and works of Greek philosophers, in
particular Plato, as well as Pythagoras and Aristotle, combined with Christianity.
Ideas of Neoplatonism:
o Humans have a dual nature or two sides. Neo-Platonists believed that man
had a spiritual (about love, beauty and freedom) and a material/physical
(about one’s basic instincts) nature. Man was positioned on a ladder from
beasts to angels, and they believed man had a choice in which side of
himself he wanted to develop. If he developed his spiritual side, he would
move further up the latter, closer to angels. If he developed his material
side, he would move down the ladder, closer to the beasts. Whichever side
he chooses to develop, he’ll have elements of the other
o Platonic love: love existed in a never-ending circle with three stages or
forms with each leading to the other. It began with sensual love (physical
attraction), then spiritual love (love of soul) and lastly to divine (love of
god). This leading to the love of God created a love of beauty, that thus
began again the cycle of love
Ideal life: The perfect man has a balance between contemplation and activity, i.e.
thought and action
Neo-Platonists attitude towards the body was that the human body was beautiful
and that it could reach a state of perfection. This idea of was often shown through
art, in particular sculpture
Works of Plato had significant value and importance and Ficino was responsible
for translating Plato’s works for the use of other scholars
Hole: ‘Neoplatonists selected carefully from Plato’s works and interpreted him in
ways which suited their purposes’ – made links to Christianity despite Plato’s
ideas having a pagan founding
The Main Contributors of Humanism:
Early - Petrarch:
 An early humanist interested in ancient manuscripts and translating them. He was
also interested in the individuality of humans and their potential
 He is often regarded as the ‘Father of Humanism’
 Hale: believed that the ideal man ‘combined the opposing virtues of selfcontainment and public-spiritedness’
 Molho: ‘singlehandly revived interest in classics’.
 The patrons of Petrarch were: the Correggio lords of Parma, the Visconti of
Milan, Andrea Dandolo in Venice and by Carrara of Padua – this was due to him
travelling around Europe throughout his life
Civic:
 Guarino: ran a school from 1429 to 1460 – he and his pupils played crucial role in
establishing Greek as well as Latin as important in the medium of scholarship
 Feltre: set up a school name La Giosca, centred on teaching his student an allrounded education
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Bruni – Chancellor of Florence; defended Florence from Milan; The History of
the People of Florence (link with republican Romans and Florentines – the New
Romans) – influenced by Livy’s Latin History of Rome. He is viewed as one of
the first great humanist historians.
Niccolo Niccoli – famous for libraries (people could borrow books); searched for
books and were patronised
Salutati – Chancellor of Florence and let his knowledge influence his role in
public office – influenced by Cicero’s fine rhetorical Latin. He also set a trend
where other city-states hired humanists.
Neoplatonism:
 Marsiglio Ficino: a humanist who presented Plato to society through translating
his works into Latin, making it more accessible to scholars. Cosimo de Medici
was his patron and gave Plato’s dialogue for him to translate and accommodation
and therefore a living. He wrote Theologica Platonica which discussed the
relationship between Christian theology and Plato’s ideas on the immorality of the
soul.
 Pico della Mirandola: excelled in Latin, Greek, Hebrew and Arabic. He wrote his
900 Theses and planned to defend them against all comers, but this debate was
banned by the Pope, who viewed some of his ideas as heretical. He once stated
that there was ‘nothing to be seen more wonderful than man’ – therefore the idea
of human beauty and potential – that humans were the greatest
Impact of Humanism on Renaissance Society:
Education:
 Opened universities and schools: University of Florence, University of Padua, La
Giosca (school taught by Feltre) at Mantua – taught children of the Gonzaga
family, school taught by Guarino at Ferrara (1429-1436) – taught children of the
Este family.
 Established libraries of manuscripts and works. This can be seen where Niccolo
Niccoli had a library of 600 books, and where he lent them to fellow scholars
 Change in curriculum
o To produce a well rounded student
o Pupils learnt Greek and Latin, as well as rhetoric, sport, music, literature
and maths
 Established humanist schools, attended by sons of nobles as well as wealthy
merchants (some scholarship students attended). One student of Vittorino da
Feltre was Federigo da Montefeltro who used his learning at his court at Urbino
(which became centre of Renaissance lustre).
 Vergerio(contemporary): education ‘trains and develops those higher gifts of
body and mind which ennoble men’
Values:
 Wealth was increasingly accepted
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The new emphasis on the quality of virtú encouraged the development of
individual potential. This sanctioned the display of wealth, particularly through
the patronage of art and architecture. This has been identified by F W Kent as the
‘theory of magnificence’. Poggio argues that is was virtú not ancient lineage that
makes a nobleman
Ficion(contemporary): man ‘rules himself’, ‘thereafter rules the family,
administering the state’…
Civic duty: admirable to participate in society particularly through political
participation and anything that would glorify your city; e.g. Salutati and Leonardo
Bruni
Anything to do with the classical world – Greek and Latin learning; given a much
higher place and a large emphasis
Vesuvius man: the perfect person is a balanced person – many talents; e.g.
Leonardo da Vinci (engineer, artists, sculptor, mathematician, scientist )
Politics:
 Bruni and Salutati interested in the idea of liberty and freedom:
o Focused on the Roman republic, and drew a parallel between the glory of
the Roman republic and the Florentine republic (15th century)
o At time Florence was at war with Milan (despot – Visconti)
o ‘Worth a thousand horses’ Visconti on Salutati
o Employed as the official letter writers – propaganda – trying to emphasis
the political differences between Florence and Milan by focusing on the
republican traditions of the commune
 ‘Only the wise should rule’ (Plato). This idea was used to justify a narrowing of
political participation under Lorenzo de’ Medici in Florence.
Culture:
 Humanism influenced art and architecture the most, making these two things
incredibly valuable during this period
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