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16. Syntax. Ways of linking, word order
Syntax – part of grammar, deals with word combinations,
sentences, texts. The relations between words, sentences & parts
of text are important. Syntactical relations can be studied in isolation
from semantic content. They assume their independent gr meaning.
Ways of synt linking: concord, government, juxtaposition, the use of
prepositions as subordinators.
1.
concord – few examples: this room – these rooms, that
room – those rooms. =>it has disappeared from the lang
2.
government – also marginal significance.: he met them.
They met him. They met him. He met them. Gov & concord
lost their leading roles & have been replaced by 2 purely
syntactic ways of word linking.
3.
juxtaposition: leads to strict word order in the central zone
of the sentence. Central zone: S+V+O. Main function of this
strict WO – to separate the subject from the object, to
express grammatical relations between the members of the
sentence.
Ways of arranging words:
direct WO
inverted WO: inversion – changing the normal WO in a
sentence by putting part or all of the verb group in front of
the subject, and the rest of the verb group is put after the
subject. It’s normal in questions. Also in descriptions
(Beyond them lay the fields). After neither, nor. In
conditional clauses that aren’t introduced by a conjunction.
In comparisons after as. When broad negative adverbs or
other negative adverbials are put at the beginning fro
emphasis (Never have I experienced such agony.). For
emphasis in general (Horrible these women are, ugly, dirty)
19. Ways of expressing t object, t attribute and t apposition.
T object. O of a verb or clause is a noun group which refers to t
person or thing that is involved in an action but doesn’t perform t
action. O comes after t verb. Direct & indirect O, prepositional O.
Formal O it. O-s are expressed by: 1)nouns or pronouns 2)numeral
Give me a hundred. 3)adj You like red. 4)infinitives or inf groups He
was very glad to go home 5)gerund or gerundial phrase I was
surprised at her being so shy. 5)clause She was half conscious at
what was goin on.
T attribute. Is used to describe smb or smth or give info about
them. Expressed by: 1)adj simple or compound. I was in a lighthearted mood. 2)pron. Here is some money for you. 3)num. T first
boy was frightened. 4)nouns or prepositional nominal phrases. T
garden wall was almost ruined. He was a man of regular habits.
5)part and participial phrases There was a smile playing about his
mouth. 6)tgerunds & gerundial constructions He wouldn’t run the
risk of being too late.7) inf or inf constructions. This is a problem for
you to solve. 8)adv or adverbial phrases Somebody appeared on t
upstairs balcony. 9)quotation nouns It was a “You-must-take-us-asyou-find-us” attitude. 10)clause He called me by the name which no
one here knew.
Non-detached attr – adjoin t headword & are connected with other
parts of t sentence only through t headword. Detached – are
separated by commas: Big & strong, he impressed us.
T apposition.(прилож) is expressed by noun or nominal phrase &
refers to another noun or nominal phrase or sometimes to a clause.
(Behind the villa, a strange-looking building, began the forest.) It can
be in preposition or postposition. (Mr.Smith, the local doctor,...\The
local doctor, Mr.Smith,...)
17. Sentence. Structural classification of sentences.
Communicative types of sentences.
Sentence – a group of words which expresses a statement,
question or order. Structural classification: 1)simple (1 subjectpredicate unit (one clause)) or composite (2 or more clauses)
(compound & complex) 2)complete or incomplete 3)two-member
(double-nucleus) or one-member (single-nucleus)
T Simple s. 2-member s.: It can be unextended or extended by
attributes, prepositional objects or adverbial modifiers. 1-member s.:
2 types: Nominal: the principle part is expressed by a noun. e.g.
Silence. (unextended); English spring flowers. (extended) Verbal: t
principle part is expressed by an infinitive or a gerund. Such
sentences are used to describe emotional perceptions of reality.
e.g. To think of that! Elliptical s.: one or more word-forms in t
principle positions are omitted cos they have only grammatical,
structural relevance & don’t carry any new relevant info. e.g. Looks
like rain.
Communicative types of sen-s. According to t role in the
communication s. are divided:
Declar s.: contains a statement which gives us info about events,
activities, attitudes, thoughts, feelings. May be positive or negative.
Interrog s.: contains a question. Function – asking for info. 2 main
types: general (yes/no) & special (wh-questions). Besides there are
tag ?, alternative ?, rhetorical ? (doesn’t ask for any new info. It
implies a statement & is often emotionally coloured)
Imperative s.: express commands, prohibition, request, invitation,
warning and persuasion. Softened with t help of please, t rising
tone, a tag ? or a yes/no ? beginning with will/would/could. T subject
you is sometimes used to indicate which person one is talking to or
it’s necessary to add emphasis or express anger. E.g. You get in
the car this minute. T imperative can be expressed with t 1st or 3rd
person Pl. e.g. Let’s do it. Let them do it.
When an imperative is followed by “and” or “or” it has a meaning
similar to a conditional clause beginning with “if”. E.g. Go away or I’ll
call t police.
Exclamatory s.: mostly open with pronominal words what & how.
E.g. What a funny story! Exclamation often follows other s. types:
1)statements – You do know how to do it! 2)Commands – Hurry up!
3)Questions – Doesn’t she sing beautifully? 4)In s. with conjunctions
if & that – If only I could be young again! 5)1-member s. expressing
alarm – Help! Fire! 6) Highly emotional infinitive or nominal 1member s. followed by a clause - To think that she should have said
so!
20. Ways of expressing the adverbial Modifier.
Adverbials are words or phrases which give information about
when, how, where, or in what circumstances smth. happens.
An adverbial can be expressed by:
1.
an adverb or an adverbial phrase They looked anxiously at
each other.
2.
a noun, pronoun or numeral We met in 1975. Behind him he
could hear her sobbing. The light was burning in the house.
3.
a noun without a preposition or a non-prepositional noun
phrase Wait a minute. Come this way, please.
4.
a gerund, a gerundial construction On turning to the hotel he
found a note in his room. Are you angry because of my being
late?
5.
an infinitive, an infinitive phrase or for-to-infinitive construction
The problem is too difficult to solve. The problem is too
difficult for a child to solve.
6.
a participle or a participial phrase Singing, she returned to the
kitchen.
7.
an absolute construction The meal over, they went to the
office.
8.
a clause Won’t you stay till the rain stops?
The main types of adverbials indicate manner, aspect, opinion,
place, time, frequency, duration, degree, extent, emphasis, focus,
probability:
of manner – to describe the way smth is done: he
drove too fast.
Of aspect – he isn’t a doctor technically speaking
Of opinion – to indicate reaction: Luckily, …
Of place
Of time – soon
Of frequency – at once (how often smth happens)
Duration – we were married for 15 years
Degree – intensity – They still enjoy it a great deal.
Extent – almost disappeared
Emphasis – quite, absolutely
Focus – especially, mostly
Probability – definitely, perhaps, probably
18. Ways of expressing the subject and the predicate.
The subject. In an active clause t S is t part of t clause that refers to
t person or thing that does t action or that is in t state indicated by t
verb. In a passive clause t S refers to t person or thing that is
affected by an action or involved in someone’s thoughts.
Ways of expressing: 1) noun in a common case or nominal phrase
with a noun or noun in t genit case. The blue of the sky deepened.
Jim’s was an old car. 2) personal pronoun in t nominat case or any
other noun-pronoun. Nothing can be done. 3) numeral. Seven can’t
be divided by two. 4) adj. Red is my favourite colour. 5) infinitive or
inf phrase. To deny the past is to deny the future 6) gerund or
gerundial phrase. Swimming in cold water is useful. 7) any word or
words used as quotation His “How do you do” never sounds cordial
enough. 8) clause. What girls of her sort want is just a wedding ring.
Grammatical classification of S: 1) notional–denotes or points out
a person or a thing 2) formal – it, there
T predicate. T P is t main part of t sentence (along with t S).
Structural classification:
1. simple P: a) verbal b) nominal (noun, adj, verbal+link v, implies
negation: He a gentleman! She spying!) 2. compound P: consists
of 2 parts: notional & structural. Structural comes 1 st, expressed by
finite verb. Nominal–by noun, adj, adv, verbal, phrase, clause. a)
Comp verbal aspect P–denotes beginning, duration, repetition
expressed by inf or gerund. Aspect v+ inf/gerund: She kept smiling
b) Com ver modal P–modal V, like, hate, intend, hope, want + inf: I
hoped to see him.c) Com nominal P–link V+nominal part (link V
expresses gram cg). 3 groups of link verbs: of being (be, feel, smell,
look, seem), of becoming (become, turn, get), of remaining
(continue, keep). Can be expressed by: 1)noun in t common or t
genit case.The face was Frank’s. 2)adj or adjective phrase The man
was difficult to convince. 3)pronoun She was not herself yet
4)numeral He was 60. 5)gerund My hobby is dancing. 6)participle or
part phrase The subject seemed strangely chosen. 7)infinitive His
first thought was to run away. 8)prepositional phrase She was on
our side. 8)clause That is what has happened.
T object. O of a verb or clause is a noun group which refers to t
person or thing that is involved in an action but doesn’t perform t
action. O comes after t verb. Direct & indirect O, prepositional O.
Formal O it. O-s are expressed by: 1)nouns or pronouns 2)numeral
Give me a hundred. 3)adj You like red. 4)infinitives or inf groups He
was very glad to go home 5)gerund or gerundial phrase I was
surprised at her being so shy. 5)clause She was half conscious at
what was goin on.
21. The composite sentence.
It is a sentence consisting of two or more clauses. In its structure a
clause is similar to a simple sentence but unlike a simple sentence it
forms part of a bigger syntactical unit.
2 kinds:
- compound sentence: has two or more main clauses – clauses
refer to two separate situations\actions (they are equally important).
Conjunctions: as, but, or.
- complex sentence:
It contains a subordinate clause and at least one main clause. A
subordinate clause gives more info about the main clause.
Conjunctions: because, if, that, WH-words.
Subordinate clauses can come in front of, after, or inside the main
clause.
Groups of clauses:
- Nominal clauses
- Attributive clauses
- Adverbial clauses
22. Types of Complex sentences.
1. the complex sentence with nominal clauses: function as a
noun or a nominal phrase.
a) subject clause may be introduced by conjunctions (that, if,
whether, because, the way) or connectives (who, whoever, which,
how, why). What I need is advice.
b) predicate clause: conjunctions that, whether, as, as if, as though,
because, the way. The fact was that they had forgotten about it.
If the subject denotes order, request, suggestion, arrangement,
desire the conjunction the is generally used followed by a clause
with the predicative in the subjunctive mood (should+infinitive) The
regulation was that the first examination should be done in writing.
c) object clause: conjunction: that, if, whether, lest, connectives:
who, which, whoever, what, whatever) I don`t know why I like you
so much. I like it when people are nice to me (the formal it).
d) appositive clause: conjunction: that, if, whether, as though,
conjunctive pronouns and adverbs – why, how. These clauses
disclose the meaning of a noun with a very general meaning. The
question whether it was he or his enemy was hotly discussed.
2. attributive clauses
they function as modifiers to a word of nominal character
(antecedent – сущ-ое, имеющее эквивалент, к нему относится
последующее местоимение)
relatives pronouns (who, whose, whom, what, which)
relative adverbs (when, where)
Attributive clauses may be limiting (are very closely connected with
the antecedent and cannot be removed) and descriptive(contain
additional info and may be left out without any serious changing the
meaning of the main clause)
Limiting: library is a place where they keep books.
Descriptive: I consulted my father who promised to help.
23. Adverbial clauses
Give information about the circumstances of an event. The usual
position – just after the main clause. Most types of adverbial clause
can be put in front of the main clause when you want to draw
attention to the adverbial clause.
1. Concessive clauses: contain a fact that contrasts with the main
clause. The subject is sometimes omitted when it’s the same as
the main subject, and a participle is used as the adverb: Whist
liking cats he never let them come into the house.
2. conditional: are used to talk about possible situations. Event in
the main clause depend on the condition in the subordinate
clause. If, unless, inversion
3. manner: to describe smb’s behaviour or the way smth is done.
As, as if, like, the way
4. place: position or location of smth
5. time
6. purpose: intention smb has while doing smth. A to-infinitive
clause: He did it to annoy her. To avoid, in order not to, so as
not to
7. reason: explain why smth happens or is done.
8. result: result of the event or situation. So that