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Tenses
Present simple: We use the present simple to talk about actions we see as long term
or permanent. It is a very common and very important tense.
Usage
Talk about regular actions or events.
Talk about facts.
Talk about future facts, usually found in
a timetable or a chart.
Talk about thoughts and feelings at the
time of speaking. Although these feelings
can be short-term, we use the present
simple and not the present continuous.
They drive to the office every day.
She doesn't come here very often.
The news usually starts at 6.00 every
evening.
Do you usually have bacon and eggs for
breakfast?
We have two children.
Water freezes at 0° C or 32° F.
What does this expression mean?
The Thames flows through London.
Christmas Day falls on a Monday this
year.
The plane leaves at 5.00 tomorrow
morning.
Ramadan doesn't start for another 3
weeks.
Does the class begin at 10 or 11 this
week?
They don't ever agree with us.
I think you are right.
She doesn't want you to do it.
Do you understand what I am trying to
say.
Present continuous: The present continuous is used to talk about present situations
which we see as short-term or temporary. We use the present simple to talk about
present situations which we see as long-term or permanent.
Usage
The action is taking place at the time of
speaking.
The action is true at the present time but
we don't think it will be true in the long
term.
The action is at a definite point in the
future and it has already been arranged.
It's raining.
Who is Kate talking to on the phone?
Look, somebody is trying to steal that
man's wallet.
I'm not looking. My eyes are closed
tightly.
I'm looking for a new apartment.
He's thinking about leaving his job.
They're considering making an appeal
against the judgment.
Are you getting enough sleep?
I'm meeting her at 6.30.
They aren't arriving until Tuesday.
We are having a special dinner at a top
restaurant for all the senior managers.
Isn't he coming to the dinner?
Present simple VS Present continuous
Present Simple
1. Regular actions or events
: -He plays tennis most weekends.
Present Continuous
1. The time of speaking ('now')
:- Shh, I'm trying to hear what they are
saying .
2. Facts
:- The sun rises in the east.
2. Things which are true at the moment
but not always
:- We're looking for a new flat.
3. Facts known about the future
: -We leave at 8.30 next Monday
3. Present plans for the future
:- We're having dinner with them next
week .
4. Thoughts and feelings about the time of
speaking
:- I don't feel very well.
Look at these examples :
I don't usually have cereals for breakfast but I'm having some this
morning because there is nothing else.
I often cycle to work but I'm taking the car this morning because it's
raining very hard.
I'm thinking about having my hair cut short but I don't think my
husband will be very happy about it.
My parents live in Washington but I'm just visiting.
Note how, in all these examples, we use the present continuous to talk about events
which are temporary/limited in time and the present simple to talk about events
which are habits/permanent.
Past simple : We use the past simple to talk about actions and states which we see as
completed in the past.
Usage
Talk about a specific point in time.
Talk about a period of time.
With time expressions such as these:
She came back last Friday.
I saw her in the street.
They didn't agree to the deal.
She lived in Tokyo for seven years.
They were in London from Monday to
Thursday of last week.
When I was living in New York, I went to
all the art exhibitions I could.
Yesterday, three weeks ago, last year, in
2002 , from March to June, for a long
time, for 6 weeks, in the 1980s, in the
last century, in the past
Past continuous : We use the past simple to talk about actions and states which we
see as completed in the past.
Usage
Talk about a specific point in time.
Talk about past events which went on for
a period of time.
To emphasize the continuing process of
an activity or the period of that activity. (If
we just want to talk about the past event
as a simple fact, we use the past simple.)
Describe a "background action" when
something else happened.
While I was driving home, Peter was
trying desperately to contact me.
Were you expecting any visitors?
Sorry, were you sleeping?
I was just making some coffee.
I was thinking about him last night.
In the 1990s few people were using
mobile phones.
I was walking in the street when I
suddenly fell over.
She was talking to me on the phone and it
suddenly went dead.
They were still waiting for the plane when
I spoke to them.
The company was declining rapidly before
he took charge.
We were just talking about it before you
arrived.
I was making a presentation in front of
500 people when the microphone stopped
working.
Past simple VS Past continuous : Both the past simple and the past continuous
refer to completed actions in the past.
Most of the time when talking about such
actions, we use the past simple. This is by
far the most common way of talking about
the past.
Only use the past continuous when you
want to emphasize the continuity of the
action.
When we use these two forms in the same
sentence, we use the past continuous to
talk about the "background action" and
the past simple to talk about the shorter
completed action.
I lived there for 6 years.
I only found out a few moments ago.
I asked her but she didn't know anything.
The company made 100 people redundant
last year.
Everybody was talking about it all
evening. They were really trying hard but
couldn't do it.
I was thinking about you the other day.
Were you expecting that to happen?
It was raining hard when we left the
building.
I was reading the report when you rang.
He was going out to lunch when I saw
him.
The company was doing well when I last
visited it.
Irregular verbs
All new verbs in English are regular.
I photocopied the report.
She faxed it to me.
They emailed everybody about it.
I googled my name and got more than
20,000 responses.
Irregular verbs are divided into 4
categories.
1. All forms the same
2. Similar sound groups
3. The second and third forms are the
same.
4. The "unclassifiables"
set set set
cost cost cost
beat beat beaten
eat ate eaten
blow blew blown
throw threw thrown
drink drank drunk
sing sang sung
speak spoke spoken
wake woke woken
bend bent bent
sleep slept slept
spend spent spent
bring brought brought
buy bought bought
teach taught taught
have had had
pay paid paid
say said said
come came come
do did done
go went gone
show showed show
Present perfect : Please note that British and American English have different rules
for the use of this tense. The explanation and exercises here refer to British English.
In American English, it is often acceptable to use the past simple in some of these
examples. We use the present perfect when we want to look back from the present to
the past.
Usage
To look back on the recent past.
When looking back on the recent past, we
often use the words 'just' 'already' or the
word 'yet' (in negatives and questions
only).
I've broken my watch so I don't know
what time it is.
They have cancelled the meeting.
She's taken my copy. I don't have one.
The sales team has doubled its turnover.
We've already talked about that.
She hasn't arrived yet.
I've just done it.
They've already met.
They don't know yet.
Have you spoken to him yet?
Have they got back to you yet?
To look back on the more distant past.
When looking back on the more distant
past, we often use the words 'ever' (in
questions) and 'never'.
We've been to Singapore a lot over the last
few years.
She's done this type of project many times
before.
We've mentioned it to them on several
occasions over the last six months.
They've often talked about it in the past.
Have you ever been to Argentina?
Has he ever talked to you about the
problem?
I've never met Jim and Sally.
We've never considered investing in
Mexico.
Present perfect continuous : To talk about an action or actions that started in the
past and continued until recently or that continue into the future:
Usage
To refer to an action that has finished but
you can still see evidence.
Oh, the kitchen is a mess. Who has been
cooking?
You look tired. Have you been sleeping
properly?
I've got a a stiff neck. I've been working
too long on computer.
To refer to an action that has not finished. I've been learning Spanish for 20 years
and I still don't know very much.
I've been waiting for him for 30 minutes
and he still hasn't arrived.
He's been telling me about it for days. I
wish he would stop.
To refer to a series of actions.
She's been writing to her regularly for a
couple of years.
He's been phoning me all week for an
answer.
The university has been sending students
here for over twenty years to do work
experience.
It is often used with 'since', 'for', 'all week', I've been wanting to do that for ten years.
'for days', 'lately', 'recently', 'over the last
You haven't been getting good results over
few months'.
the last few months.
They haven't been working all week.
They're on strike
He hasn't been talking to me for weeks.
We've been working hard on it for ages.
I've been looking at other options recently.
He's been working here since 2001.
Present perfect simple VS Present perfect continuous
Often there is very little difference
between the present perfect simple and
the present perfect continuous. In many
cases, both are equally acceptable.
To emphasize the action, we use the
continuous form.
To emphasize the result of the action, we
use the simple form.
Look at the difference in these examples.
When an action is finished and you can
see the results, use the continuous form.
When you use the words 'ever' or 'never',
use the simple form.
They've been working here for a long time
but Andy has worked here for even longer.
I've lived here for 10 years and she has
been living here for 12 years.
We've been working really hard for a
couple of months.
She's been having a hard time.
I've made fifteen phone calls this morning.
He's written a very good report.
I've been reading this book for two
months but I've only read half of it. It's
very difficult to read.
She's been trying to convince him for 20
minutes but she hasn't managed to yet.
They've been talking about this for month
and they still haven't found a solution.
The phone bill is enormous. You've been
calling your boyfriend in Australia,
haven't you?
You're red in the face. Have you been
running?
I don't know them. I've never met them.
Have you ever heard anything so strange
in your life.
Remember that British and American English have different rules for the use of the
present perfect. In American English, it is often considered acceptable to use the past
simple in some of these examples.
The past simple is used to talk about actions in the past that have finished. It
talks about 'then' and definitely excludes 'now'.
The present perfect simple to look back on actions in the past from the present.
It always includes 'now'.
Past Simple
Without connection to the present.
:- I first got to know him 10 years ago.
:- I started work here in 1989.
:- I had too much to eat at lunchtime.
With time expressions like 'yesterday',
'ago', 'last year', 'in 1999'.
:- We spoke to him yesterday.
:- He came in a few moments ago.
:- We made our last purchase from them
over a year ago.
:- She joined the company in 1999.
Present Perfect Simple
Situations seen from the present.
:- I've known him for 10 years.
:- I've worked here since 1987.
:- My stomach hurts. I've eaten too much.
With time expressions like are 'ever',
'never', 'since’.
:- I've never seen so many people here
before.
:- Have you ever been more surprised?
:- I've done a lot since we last talked
about it.
Typical time expressions used with the present perfect in British English but often
used with the past simple in American English are 'already', 'just', 'yet'.
I haven't done it yet. (UK)
I didn't do it yet. (US)
I've just done it. (UK)
I just did it. (US)
I've already done it. (UK)
I already did it. (US)
We can use the time phrase 'for' with both forms, but with different meanings.
I lived in Paris for a couple of years before I moved here.
I've lived in Paris for a couple of years and still love it.
Past perfect
Usage
To talk about what happened before a
point in the past. It looks back from a
point in the past to further in the past.
To be used when we report what people
had said/thought/believed.
I hadn't known the bad news when I
spoke to him.
I checked with the supplier and they still
hadn't received the contract.
She had already told him before I got a
chance to give him my version.
The company has started the year well
but was badly hit by the postal strike.
He told me they had already paid the bill.
He said he believed that John had moved
to Italy.
I thought we had already decided on a
name for this product.
Past perfect continuous
Usage
To look back at a situation in progress.
To say what had been happening before
something else happened.
When reporting things said in the past.
It was a good time to invest. Inflation had
been falling for several months.
Before I changed jobs, I had been working
on a plan to reduce production costs.
We had been thinking about buying a new
house but then we decided to stay here.
It had been snowing for a while before we
left.
We had been playing tennis for only a few
minutes when it started raining.
He was out of breath when he arrived
because he had been running.
She said she had been trying to call me
all day.
They said they had been shopping.
I told you I had been looking for some new
clothes.
Past tense review
Past Simple
To talk about actions
and states which we
see as completed in
the past.
:-I left school when I
was sixteen.
:- I was very happy
then.
:- He told me all
about his childhood.
Past Continuous
To talk about past
events which went on
for a period of time.
:- While I was driving
home, Peter was trying
desperately to contact
me.
:- I was thinking about
him last night.
:- I was walking in the
street when I suddenly
fell over.
Present Perfect
Present Perfect
Continuous
To look back from
To talk about an
the present to the
action or actions
past.
that started in
:- I've broken my
the past and
watch so I don't
continued until
know what time it is. recently or that
:- She hasn't arrived continue into the
yet.
future.
:- We've been to
:- You look tired.
Singapore a lot over
Have you been
the last few years.
sleeping
:- Have you ever
properly?
been to Argentina?
:- I've been
waiting for him
for 30 minutes
and he still
hasn't arrived.
:- He's been
phoning me all
week for an
answer.
Past Perfect
Simple
To talk about
what happened
before a point in
the past. It
looks back from
a point in the
past to further
in the past.
:- I hadn't
known the bad
news when I
spoke to him.
:- I thought we
had already
decided on a
name for this
product.
Past Perfect
Continuous
To look back at a
situation in
progress.
:- We had been
thinking about
buying a new
house but then
we decided to
stay here.
:- It had been
snowing for a
while before we
left.
:- She said she
had been trying
to call me all
day.
Going to :
There are 4 future forms. The one which is used most often in spoken English is 'going
to', not 'will'.
Usage of “Going to”
To talk about a plan for the future.
Notice that this plan does not have to be
for the near future.
To make a prediction based on evidence
we can see now.
We can replace 'going to go' by 'going'.
I'm going to see him later today.
They're going to launch it next month.
We're going to have lunch first.
She's going to see what she can do.
I'm not going to talk for very long.
When I retire I'm going to go back to
Barbados to live.
In ten years time, I'm going to be boss of
my own successful company.
Look out! That cup is going to fall off.
Look at those black clouds. It's going to
rain soon.
These figures are really bad. We're going
to make a loss.
You look very tired. You're going to need
to stop soon.
I'm going out later.
She's going to the exhibition tomorrow.
Will - future :
Some people have been taught that 'will' is 'the future' in English. This is not
correct. Sometimes when we talk about the future we cannot use 'will'. Sometimes
when we use 'will' we are not talking about the future.
We can use 'will' to talk about future
The sun will rise over there tomorrow
events we believe to be certain.
morning.
Next year, I'll be 50.
That plane will be late. It always is.
There won't be any snow. I'm certain. It's
too warm.
Often we add 'perhaps', 'maybe',
I'll probably come back later.
'probably', 'possibly' to make the belief
He'll possibly find out when he sees
less certain.
Jenny.
Maybe it will be OK.
Perhaps we'll meet again some day.
We often use 'will' with 'I think' or 'I hope'. I think I'll go to bed now.
I think she'll do well in the job.
I hope you'll enjoy your stay.
I hope you won't make too much noise.
We use 'will' at the moment we make a
Bye. I'll phone you when I get there.
new decision or plan. The thought has
I'll answer that.
just come into our head.
I'll go.
I won't tell him. I promise.
Other uses of “Will”
'Will' is clearly referring to the future.
If I speak to her, I'll tell her about it.
I'll probably visit Sue when I go to Oxford.
Next birthday she'll be 32. Or so she says.
'Will' is referring to events happening at
the present.
The car won't start.
If that's the phone, I'll get it.
Will you have another cup of coffee?
'Will' referring to the present, the idea
My baby won't stop crying. I've tried
being expressed is usually one of 'showing everything and I'm really exhausted.
willingness' or 'will power'.
I am the boss. You will do as I say.
I need quiet to write this but he will keep
on talking to me. I wish he would leave
me alone.
'Will' for requests, orders, invitations and
Will you give me a hand?
offers.
Will you please take a seat?
Will you have some cake?
I'll help you.
'Will' to make promises or threats.
I'll do it at once.
I'll phone him back immediately.
I won't forget this.
I'll get my own back some day.
'Will' for habit.
A cat will always find a warm place to
sleep.
My car won't go any faster than this.
'Will' for deduction.
I expect he'll want us to get on with it.
The phone's ringing. That will be Mark.
Shall: We don't use 'Shall' very frequently in modern English, particularly in
American English.
It is used to make offers and suggestions and to ask for advice.
What time shall we meet?
Shall we vote on it now?
What dress shall I wear?
Shall I open the window?
You only really need to know that about 'shall' in modern English. Read the rest
of this only if you want to know more about how some older speakers still use 'shall'.
Formerly, in older grammar, 'shall' was used as an alternative to 'will' with 'I' and 'we'.
Today, 'will' is normally used. When we do use 'shall', it has an idea of a more
personal, subjective future.
I shall go to see the boss and I shall ask him to explain this decision.
Notice that the negative of 'shall' can be 'shall not' or 'shan't' – though the second one
is now very rare in American English.
I don't like these people and I shall not go to their party.
I shan't object if you go without me.
Going to VS Will
Going to
If you are making a future prediction
based on evidence in the present
situation, use 'going to'.
:- Not a cloud in the sky. It's going to be
another warm day.
:- Look at the queue. We're not going to
get in for hours.
:- The traffic is terrible. We're going to
miss our flight.
:- Be careful! You're going to spill your
coffee.
Will
When we want to talk about future facts
or things we believe to be true about the
future, we use 'will'.
:- The President will serve for four years.
:- The boss won't be very happy.
:- I'm sure you'll like her.
:- I'm certain he'll do a good job.
If we are not so certain about the future,
we use 'will' with expressions such as
'probably', 'possibly', 'I think', 'I hope'.
:- I hope you'll visit me in my home one
day.
:- She'll probably be a great success.
:- I'll possibly come but I may not get back
in time.
:- I think we'll get on well.
At the moment of making a decision, use 'will'. Once you have made the decision, talk
about it using 'going to'.
I'll call Jenny to let her know. Sarah, I need Jenny's number. I'm going to
call her about the meeting.
I'll come and have a drink with you but I must let Harry know. Harry, I'm
going to have a drink with Simon.
Present forms for the future
We use the present continuous to talk
about things that we have already
arranged to do in the future.
I've got my ticket. I'm leaving on
Thursday.
I'm seeing Julie at 5 and then I'm having
dinner with Simon.
He's picking me up at the airport.
The company is giving everyone a bonus
for Christmas.
In many situations when we talk about
I'm going to see him./I'm seeing him.
future plans we can use either the present I'm going to do it./I'm doing it.
continuous or the 'going to' future.
However, when we use the present
continuous, there is more of a suggestion
that an arrangement has already been
made.
We use the present simple to talk about
My plane leaves at 6 in the morning.
events in the future which are
The shop opens at 9.30.
'timetabled'. We can also use the present
The sun rises a minute earlier tomorrow.
continuous to talk about these.
My plane is leaving at 8.30.
The shop is closing at 7.00.
The sun is rising at 6.32 tomorrow.
The imperative
To give a direct order.
To give instructions.
To make an invitation.
On signs and notices.
To give friendly informal advice.
Make the imperative 'more polite' by
adding 'do'.
The Passive
To say what happens to people and
things, to say what is done to them.
When we don't know who did the action.
When what was done is more important
than who did it.
The -ing form
The –ing form can be used like a noun,
like an adjective or like a verb.
When it is used like a noun it may or may
not have an article before it.
It can also be part of a 'noun phrase'.
In formal English, we would use a
possessive with the –ing form. In informal
English, many people do not.
As an adjective, the –ing form can be used
before a noun.
Take that chewing gum out of your
mouth.
Stand up straight.
Give me the details.
Open your book.
Take two tablets every evening.
Take a left and then a right.
Come in and sit down. Make yourself at
home.
Please start without me. I'll be there
shortly.
Have a piece of this cake. It's delicious.
Push.
Do not use.
Insert one dollar.
Speak to him. Tell him how you feel.
Have a quiet word with her about it.
Don't go. Stay at home and rest up. Get
some sleep and recover.
Do be quiet.
Do come.
Do sit down.
English is spoken here.
The car is being repaired.
The car was damaged while it was parked
on the street.
The shirts were made in Turkey.
It was approved by Gerry last week.
I was informed by the Human Resources
Manager only two days ago.
Smoking is forbidden.
I have a long working day.
I don't like dancing.
Marketing is a very inexact science.
The marketing of the product will
continue for a few months yet.
Speaking to an audience is always
stressful.
Swimming after work is very relaxing.
I'm angry about his missing the meeting.
Do you mind my coming?
I was met by a welcoming party at the
airport.
Let's go to the meeting room.
The –ing form is used after prepositions.
Before leaving, you need to speak to
Sarah.
After discussing it with her, I've changed
my mind.
Instead of feeling sorry for yourself, do
some work for charity.
Notice that when 'to' is used as a
preposition, it is followed by the –ing
form.
There are many verb + -ing combinations.
Here are some common ones:
I don't object to working this Sunday.
I'm looking forward to seeing him again.
I'm used to working long hours.
I admit telling her.
I appreciate having the raise.
I avoid speaking to him.
I consider blowing your nose in public to
be wrong.
I delayed coming until the last possible
moment.
He denied telling her.
I detest going to parties.
I enjoy dancing.
I feel like having a party.
I've finished writing the report.
I've given up going to the gym.
I can't help thinking about it.
I can't imagine ever leaving this company.
I don't mind doing that.
He put off talking to her as long as he
could.
I can't stand drinking beer.
I stopped smoking last month. (I no longer
smoke.)
I stopped to smoke a cigarette. (I stopped
what I was doing and had a cigarette.)
I remember telling him. (A memory of the
past.)
I must remember to tell him. (Something
to remember for the future.)
I'm interested in finding out more details.
(Interested about the future.)
I was interested to read his report.
(Interested in the past.)
I love to go shopping.
I love going shopping.
I'm afraid to fly.
I'm afraid of flying.
I started to learn English 5 years ago.
I started learning English 5 years ago.
Some verbs can be followed by either the
infinitive or –ing form but with different
meanings. Here are some common ones:
Some verbs can be followed by either the
infinitive or –ing form but with the same
meaning. Here are some common ones:
Conditional
Zero conditional :When we talk about things that are generally or always true, we can
use:
If/When/Unless plus a present form PLUS If he gets there before me, ask him to
present simple or imperative
wait.
When you fly budget airline, you have to
pay for your drinks and snacks.
Note that we are not talking about a
Unless you need more space, a small car
specific event but something which is
is big enough for one person.
generally true.
In the condition clause, we can use a
If you visit London, go on the London Eye.
variety of present forms. In the result
If unemployment is rising, people tend to
clause, there can only be the present
stay in their present jobs.
simple or imperative.
If you've done that, go and have a coffee.
When you go on holiday, take plenty of
sun cream. It'll be very hot.
When I'm concentrating, please don't
make so much noise.
When I've finished an article, I always ask
Kate to read it through.
Notice that 'unless' means the same as 'if
not'.
The first conditional
To talk about future events that are likely
to happen.
The 'if' clause can be used with different
present forms.
The "future clause" can contain 'going to'
or the future perfect as well as 'will'.
The "future clause" can also contain other
modal verbs such as 'can' and 'must'.
Unless he asks you politely, refuse to do
any more work on the project.
Unless prices are rising, it's not a good
investment.
Unless you've been there yourself, you
don't really understand how fantastic it
is.
If we take John, he'll be really pleased.
If you give me some money, I'll pay you
back tomorrow.
If they tell us they want it, we'll have to
give it to them.
If Mary comes, she'll want to drive.
If I go to New York again, I'll buy you a
souvenir from the Empire State Building.
If he's feeling better, he'll come.
If she hasn't heard the bad news yet, I'll
tell her.
If I see him, I'm going to tell him exactly
how angry I am.
If we don't get the contract, we'll have
wasted a lot of time and money.
If you go to New York, you must have the
cheesecake in Lindy's.
If he comes, you can get a lift home with
him.
Second conditional
To talk about 'impossible' situations.
If we were in London today, we would be
able to go to the concert in Hyde Park.
If I had millions dollars, I'd give a lot to
charity.
If there were no hungry people in this
world, it would be a much better place.
If everyone had clean water to drink, there
would be a lot less disease.
Note that after I / he/ she /it we often use
the subjunctive form 'were' and not 'was'.
(Some people think that 'were' is the only
'correct' form but other people think 'was'
is equally 'correct' .)
If she were happy in her job, she wouldn't
be looking for another one.
If I lived in Japan, I'd have sushi every
day.
If they were to enter our market, we'd
have big problems.
Note the form 'If I were you' which is often
used to give advice.
If I were you, I'd look for a new place to
live.
If I were you, I'd go back to school and get
more qualifications.
If I went to China, I'd visit the Great Wall.
If I was the President, I'd reduce taxes.
If you were in my position, you'd
understand.
To talk about 'unlikely' situations.
Note that the choice between the first and the second conditional is often a question of
the speaker's attitude rather than of facts. Compare these examples. Otto thinks these
things are possible, Peter doesn't.
Otto – If I win the lottery, I'll buy a big house.
Peter – If I won the lottery, I'd buy a big house.
Otto – If I get promoted, I'll throw a big party.
Peter – If I got promoted, I'd throw a big party.
Otto – If my team win the Cup, I'll buy champagne for everybody.
Peter – If my team won the Cup, I'd buy champagne for everybody.
Note that the 'If clause' can contain the past simple or the past continuous.
If I was still working in Brighton, I would commute by train.
If she were coming, she would be here by now.
If they were thinking of selling, I would want to buy.
Note that the main clause can contain 'would' 'could' or 'might.
If I had the chance to do it again, I would do it differently.
If we met up for lunch, we could go to that new restaurant.
If I spoke to him directly, I might be able to persuade him.
Also note that sometimes the 'if clause' is implied rather than spoken.
What would I do without you? ("if you weren't here")
Where would I get one at this time of night? ("if I wanted one")
He wouldn't agree. ("if I asked him")
Third conditional
To talk about 'impossible' conditions,
impossible because they are in the past
and we cannot change what has
happened.
If I had worked harder at school, I would
have got better grades.
If I had had time, I would have gone to see
him. But I didn't have time.
If we had bought that house, we would
have had to rebuild the kitchen.
If we had caught the earlier train, we
would have got there on time but we were
late.
Notice that the main clause can contain
'would', 'could' or 'might.
If I had seen him at the meeting, I would
have asked him. (But he wasn't there so I
didn't.)
If I had seen him at the meeting, I could
have asked him. ( But he wasn't there so
it wasn't possible.)
If I had seen him at the meeting, I might
have asked him. (But I'm not sure.
Perhaps if the opportunity had arisen.)
If I had paid more attention in class, I
would have understood the lesson.
Also notice that sometimes the 'if clause'
is implied rather than spoken.
I'd have done it. ("if you had asked me but
you didn't.")
I wouldn't have said that. ("if I'd been
there.")
He wouldn't have let him get away with
that. ("if he had tried that with me.")
Wish
' I wish to' can mean the same as 'I want
to' but it is much, much more formal and
much, much less common.
Use 'wish' with a noun to 'offer good
wishes'.
Notice that when you want to offer good
wishes using a verb, you must use 'hope '
and not 'wish'.
The main use of 'wish' is to say that we
would like things to be different from
what they are, that we have regrets about
the present situation.
Notice that the verb tense which follows 'I
wish' is 'more in the past' than the tense
corresponding to its meaning.
I wish to make a complaint.
I wish to see the manager.
I wish you all the best in your new job.
We wish you a merry Christmas.
We wish you the best of luck.
We hope you have the best of luck.
I wish you a safe and pleasant journey.
I hope you have a safe and pleasant
journey.
I wish I was rich.
He wishes he lived in Paris.
They wish they'd chosen a different
leader.
I'm too fat. I wish I was thin.
I never get invited to parties. I wish I got
invited to parties.
It's raining. I wish it wasn't raining.
I went to see the latest Star Wars film. I
wish I hadn't gone.
I've eaten too much. I wish I hadn't eaten
so much.
I'm going to visit her later. I wish I wasn't
going to visit her later.
In more formal English, we use the
I wish I were taller.
subjunctive form 'were' and not 'was' after I wish it were Saturday today.
'wish'.
I wish he were here.
In the case of 'will' , where 'will' means
He won't help me. I wish he would help
me.
'show willingness' we use 'would'.
You're making too much noise. I wish you
would be quiet.
You keep interrupting me. I wish you
wouldn't do that.
Where 'will' means a future event, we
There's a strike tomorrow. I hope some
cannot use 'wish' and must use 'hope'.
buses will still be running.
I hope everything will be fine in your new
job.
Had better
We use “had better” plus the infinitive
without “to” to give advice. Although
“had” is the past form of “have”, we use
“had better” to give advice about the
present or future.
The negative form is “had better not”.
You'd better tell her everything.
I'd better get back to work.
We'd better meet early.
You'd better not say anything.
I'd better not come.
We'd better not miss the start of his
presentation.
We use “had better” to give advice about
You should brush your teeth before you
specific situations, not general ones. If you go to bed.
want to talk about general situations, you I shouldn't listen to negative people.
must use “should”.
He should dress more appropriately for
the office.
When we give advice about specific
You shouldn't say anything.
situations, it is also possible to use
I should get back to work.
“should”.
We should meet early.
However, when we use “had better” there
You'd better do what I say or else you will
is a suggestion that if the advice is not
get into trouble.
followed, that something bad will happen. I'd better get back to work or my boss will
be angry with me.
We'd better get to the airport by five or
else we may miss the flight.
Used to
We use 'used to' for something that
happened regularly in the past but no
longer happens.
I used to smoke a packet a day but I
stopped two years ago.
Ben used to travel a lot in his job but
now, since his promotion, he doesn't.
I used to drive to work but now I take the
bus.
We also use it for something that was true There used to be a cinema in the town but
but no longer is.
now there isn't.
She used to have really long hair but
she's had it all cut off.
I didn't use to like him but now I do.
To Be Used To Doing
To say that something is normal, not
unusual.
:- I'm used to living on my own. I've done
it for quite a long time.
:- Hans has lived in England for over a
year so he is used to driving on the left
now.
:- They've always lived in hot countries so
they aren't used to the cold weather
here.
Asking questions
Basically, invert the order of the subject
and the first auxiliary verb.
If there is no auxiliary, use part of the
verb 'to do'.
To Get Used To doing
To talk about the process of something
becoming normal for us.
:- I didn't understand the accent when I
first moved here but I quickly got used
to it.
:- She has started working nights and is
still getting used to sleeping during the
day.
:- I have always lived in the country but
now I'm beginning to get used to living
in the city.
It is snowing.
= Is it snowing?
He can speak German.
= Can he speak German?
They have lived here a long time.
= Have they lived here a long time?
She will arrive at ten o'clock.
= Will she arrive at ten o'clock?
He was driving fast.
= Was he driving fast?
You have been smoking.
= Have you been smoking?
You speak fluent French.
= Do you speak fluent French?
She lives in Brussels.
= Does she live in Brussels?
They lived in Manchester.
= Did they live in Manchester?
He had an accident.
= Did he have an accident?
With question words are made in the
same way:
Note who, what and which can be the
subject.
Note the position of the prepositions in
these questions:
How often does she use it?
Why don't you come?
Where do you work?
How many did you buy?
What time did you go?
Which one do you like?
Whose car were you driving?
Who is coming to lunch? (who is the
subject of the verb)
Who do you want to invite to lunch? (you
is the subject of the verb)
What happened? (what is the subject of
the verb)
What did you do? (you is the subject of
the verb)
Who did you speak to?
What are you looking at?
Where does he come from?
When we ask for information, we often
say 'Do you know…?' or 'Could you tell
me….?' These are indirect questions and
more polite.
Note that the word order is different.
We don’t use do, does or did.
Use if or whether when there is no
question word.
The same changes in word order happen
when we report questions. Note that in
reported questions, the verb changes to
the past:
Do you know where Johnny is?
Have you any idea if he has found it?
Could you tell me what time he arrived?
Would you mind telling me how often you
play tennis?
Has he done it? = Do you know if he has
done it?
Is it ready? = Can you tell me if it is
ready?
What are you doing?
= He asked me what I was doing. What
have you done about it?
= He asked me what I had done about it.
Do you work with Pamela?
= He asked me if I worked with Pamela.
Question tags
We use tags in spoken English but not in formal written English. They are not
really questions but are a way of asking the other person to make a comment and so
keep the conversation open.
Making a tag is very mechanical. To make a tag, use the first auxiliary. If there
is no auxiliary, use do, does or did. With a positive sentence, make a negative tag and
with a negative sentence, make a positive tag.
Positive Sentence
It's beautiful, isn't it?
He has been, hasn't he?
You can, can't you?
It must be, mustn't it?
Negative Sentence
It isn't very good, is it?
It hasn't rained, has it?
It can't be, can it?
Jenny doesn't know James, does she?
You know him, don’t you?
They didn't leave, did they?
He finished it, didn't he?
He won’t do it, will he?
He will come, won't he?
Notice these:
There isn't an ATM here, is there?
Let's have a cup of coffee, shall we?
To reply, use the same auxiliary:
It's beautiful, isn't it? ~ Yes, it is. I think it's fabulous.
It isn't very good, is it? ~ No, it isn't. In fact, it's terrible.
Although, the rules are very simple and mechanical, in order to use them easily in
conversation, they have to be automatic. So you need to hear and practice them very
often.
Reported speech
When we are saying what other people
say, think or believe.
He says he wants it.
We think you are right.
I believe he loves her.
Yesterday you said you didn't like it but
now you do!
She told me he had asked her to marry
him.
I told you she was ill.
We thought he was in Australia.
When we are reporting things in the
He thinks he loves her.
present, future or present perfect we don't I'll tell her you are coming.
change the tense.
He has said he'll do it.
When we tell people what someone has
You look very nice. = I told him he looked
said in the past, we generally make the
very nice.
tense 'more in the past'.
He's working in Siberia now. = She told
me he was working in Siberia now.
Polly has bought a new car. = She said
Polly had bought a new car.
Jo can't come for the weekend. = She said
Jo couldn't come for the weekend.
Paul called and left a message. = He told
me Paul had called and had left me a
message.
I'll give you a hand. = He said he would
give me a hand.
However, when we are reporting
"The train doesn't stop here."
something that was said in the past but is :- He said the train doesn't stop here.
:- He said the train didn't stop here.
still true, it is not obligatory to make the
tense 'more in the past'. The choice is up
"I like Sarah."
to the speaker.
:- She said she likes Sarah.
:- She said she liked Sarah.
We have to change the pronoun if we are
"I don't want to go."
reporting what someone else said.
:- I said I didn't want to go.
:- Bill said he didn't want to go.
We have to change words referring to
"I'll be there at ten tomorrow."
'here and now' if we are reporting what
:- (If it is later the same day) He said he
was said in a different place or time.
We do not use do or question marks in
indirect questions.
We use the same structure when we
report answers.
Yes/no questions are reported with if or
whether.
Suppose
We often use 'suppose' to mean 'imagine'
or 'guess'
would be there at ten tomorrow.
:- (If it is the next day) He said he would
be there at ten today.
:- (If we are in a different place) He said he
would be there tomorrow at ten.
:- (If we are in the place he is coming to)
He said he would be here at ten
tomorrow.
"What time is it?" = He asked me what
time it was.
"Why hasn't he come? = She wondered
why he hadn't come.
"When will you be arriving?" = He wanted
to know when we would be arriving.
"What were you doing?" = They
questioned him about what he had been
doing.
"147 Oak Street." = I told him what my
address was.
"I didn't have time to do it." = She
explained why she hadn't done it.
"Look at this dress and bag." = She
showed me what she had bought.
"Put the paper here and press this
button." = He demonstrated how the
scanner worked.
Do you want a ride? = Mike asked me if I
wanted a ride.
Are you coming? = They wanted to know if
I was coming.
Will you be here later? = She asked me
whether I would be here later.
I suppose you'll be meeting Danielle when
you go to Paris?
When you weren't there, I supposed you
must have been held up.
I suppose you two know each other?
Notice that 'suppose' is not normally used Now I suppose we'll have to do something
in the continuous form. We do not usually else.
say 'I am supposing'.
We're waiting for John and I suppose he
must be stuck in traffic.
At this moment I suppose it doesn't
matter.
We make 'suppose' negative, in negative
I don't suppose you know where Mary is?
meaning.
I don't suppose he'll do anything.
I don't suppose you have a Nokia phone
charger here?
When responding to an idea with
Is Susan coming to this meeting? ~ I
'suppose', you can use 'so' to avoid
suppose so.
repeating the idea that has already been
expressed.
'Supposed to be' can be used to mean 'it is
said / believed'.
'Supposed to be' can also be used to talk
about what is arranged, intended or
expected. It is a bit like 'should'.
Often there is a suggestion that the action
'supposed to' happen does not actually
happen.
'Not supposed to' often suggests that
something is not allowed or prohibited.
'Suppose' can also be used as a
conjunction to mean 'what if'. Notice that
the verb which follows it is sometimes,
but not always, put 'more in the past'.
Have something done
If you 'have something done', you get
somebody else to do something for you.
In informal English, we can replace 'have'
by 'get'.
We can also use 'have/got something
done' in situations where something bad
has happened to people or their
possessions. This is not something they
wanted to happen.
Should have
To talk about past events that did not
happen.
The new James Bond movie is supposed
to be excellent.
He is supposed to have been rude to Mark
but I don't believe it.
It is supposed to be the best restaurant in
town.
I'm supposed to get to work by 8.
John is supposed to turn off all the lights
when he leaves.
I'm supposed to pay my rent on the first
of the month.
It's not supposed to be here.
I'm supposed to be there before 8 but I'm
often late.
You were supposed to phone me.
I'm supposed to be getting on a plane to
Tokyo at this very minute.
You're not supposed to smoke in here.
I'm not supposed to tell you.
We're not supposed to use the Internet for
personal reasons at work.
Suppose we take the earlier train to
Munich? It would give us more time there.
Suppose we took the plane instead? That
would give us even more time.
There's nobody in reception to let our
visitors in. Suppose I sit there until
somebody comes?
I'm going to ask him for a pay increase. ~
Suppose he said 'no'? What would you
do?
I'm going to have my hair cut.
She's having her house redecorated.
I'm having a copy of the report sent to you
We're getting a new telephone system
installed.
They will be getting the system repaired
as quickly as they can.
I got the bill sent direct to the company.
John had all his money stolen from his
hotel bedroom.
We had our car damaged by a falling tree.
I got my nose broken playing rugby.
I should have let her know what was
happening but I forgot.
He should have sent everybody a
To speculate about events that may or
may not have happened.
To speculate negatively about what may
or may not have happened.
To regret past actions.
Can have / Could have
To talk about something somebody was
capable of doing but didn't do.
Often, there is a sense of criticism.
To talk about something we were not
capable of doing.
To speculate about what has happened.
(We can also use 'may have' or 'might
have' in these situations.)
To speculate about what has happened
but only in questions and negative
sentences and with words such as
'hardly', 'never' and 'only'.
reminder by email.
They should have remembered that their
guests don't eat pork.
She should have got the letter this
morning. I expect she'll give us a call
about it later.
He should have arrived at his office by
now. Let's try ringing him.
They should have all read that first email
by this stage. It's time to send the next
one.
She shouldn't have left work yet. I'll call
her office.
He shouldn't have boarded his plane yet.
We can probably still get hold of him.
They shouldn't have sent the report off for
printing yet. There is still time to make
changes.
I shouldn't have shouted at you. I
apologise.
We shouldn't have left the office so late.
We should have anticipated this bad
traffic.
They shouldn't have sacked him. He was
the most creative person on their team.
I could have gone to Oxford University but
I preferred Harvard.
She could have married him but she
didn't want to.
They could have bought a house here 20
years ago but chose not to.
You could have phoned me to let me
know.
They could have helped me instead of just
sitting there.
I could have done more to help you.
Sorry.
I couldn't have managed without you.
I couldn't have got the job. He was always
going to appoint his nephew.
I couldn't have enjoyed myself more.
Thank you for a lovely day.
She could have taken the earlier train.
Simon could have told her.
They could have overheard what we said.
Can she have forgotten about our
meeting?
He can't have seen us.
They can hardly have thought that I was
not interested in the job.
To speculate about something that didn't
happen.
To talk about possible present situations
that have not happened.
Will be doing
To talk about something that will be in
progress at a particular moment in the
future.
To talk about future events that are fixed
or decided.
To predict what is happening now.
To ask extremely politely, and with no
pressure, about future plans.
Will have done
To talk about what will have been
achieved by a certain moment in time.
If we want to emphasise the continuity of
the activity, we can use the continuous
form.
You could have broken your neck,
jumping out the window like that.
He could have hurt somebody, throwing a
bottle out of the window like that.
I could have done well in my exam if I'd
worked harder.
I could have been earning a lot as an
accountant but the work was just too
boring.
He could have been Prime Minister now
but he got involved in a big financial
scandal.
They could have been the market leaders
now if they had taken his advice.
This time next week, I'll be sitting on the
beach in Barbados.
I'll be thinking about you all back in the
office – and I'll be laughing.
We'll be enjoying ourselves too, boss. We
won't be doing any work while you are not
here.
I'll be visiting your country on a regular
basis. In fact, I'm going to be coming next
month.
He'll be looking after the factory until we
can appoint a new manager.
They'll be thinking about this very
carefully over the next few months.
Try phoning his hotel. He'll probably still
be having breakfast.
They'll be deciding who gets the contract
at this very moment. I'm very nervous.
She's not in her office. She'll be having
lunch in the canteen.
Will you be eating with us this evening?
Will you be needing anything else?
Will they be joining us for dinner?
We'll have been in these offices for eight
years next month.
She'll have visited ten countries in twelve
days by the time she gets back.
I'll have finished this project by Friday.
I'll have been working here for 35 years by
the time I retire.
She'll have been driving for more than
fifteen hours straight by the time she gets
here.
They'll have been working with us for 15
To predict what we think has already
happened at present.
years by the end of this year.
He'll have already read the report by now.
Too late to change it.
She'll have boarded her plane. It's too late
to contact her.
They'll have decided by now. We should
hear the result today or tomorrow.
Table of English Tenses
Affirmative/ Negative/
tense
Question
Use
Signal Words
Simple Present
A: He speaks.
N: He does not speak.
Q: Does he speak?
action in the present taking place once,
never or several times
facts
actions taking place one after another
action set by a timetable or schedule
always, every …, never,
normally, often, seldom,
sometimes, usually
if sentences type I (If I talk, …)
Present
Progressive
A: He is speaking.
N: He is not speaking.
Q: Is he speaking?
action taking place in the moment of
speaking
action taking place only for a limited period
of time
action arranged for the future
at the moment, just, just now,
Listen!, Look!, now, right now
Simple Past
A: He spoke.
N: He did not speak.
Q: Did he speak?
action in the past taking place once, never
or several times
actions taking place one after another
action taking place in the middle of another
action
yesterday, 2 minutes ago, in
1990, the other day, last Friday
if sentence type II (If I
talked, …)
Past Progressive
A: He was speaking.
N: He was not
speaking.
Q: Was he speaking?
action going on at a certain time in the past when, while, as long as
actions taking place at the same time
action in the past that is interrupted by
another action
Present Perfect
Simple
A: He has spoken.
N: He has not spoken.
Q: Has he spoken?
putting emphasis on the result
action that is still going on
action that stopped recently
finished action that has an influence on the
present
action that has taken place once, never or
several times before the moment of
speaking
already, ever, just, never, not
yet, so far, till now, up to now
tense
Affirmative/ Negative/
Question
Use
Signal Words
Present Perfect
Progressive
A: He has been
speaking.
N: He has not been
speaking.
Q: Has he been
speaking?
putting emphasis on the course or
duration (not the result)
action that recently stopped or is still going
on
finished action that influenced the present
all day, for 4 years, since 1993,
how long?, the whole week
Past Perfect
Simple
A: He had spoken.
N: He had not spoken.
Q: Had he spoken?
action taking place before a certain time in
the past
sometimes interchangeable with past
perfect progressive
putting emphasis only on the fact (not the
duration)
already, just, never, not yet,
once, until that day
if sentence type III (If I had
talked, …)
Past Perfect
Progressive
A: He had been
speaking.
N: He had not been
speaking.
Q: Had he been
speaking?
action taking place before a certain time in
the past
sometimes interchangeable with past
perfect simple
putting emphasis on the duration or
course of an action
for, since, the whole day, all day
Future I Simple
A: He will speak.
N: He will not speak.
Q: Will he speak?
action in the future that cannot be
influenced
spontaneous decision
assumption with regard to the future
in a year, next …, tomorrow
If-Satz Typ I (If you ask her, she
will help you.)
assumption: I think, probably,
perhaps
Future I Simple
(going to)
A: He is going to speak. decision made for the future
N: He is not going to
conclusion with regard to the future
speak.
Q: Is he going to
speak?
in one year, next week,
tomorrow
Affirmative/ Negative/
Question
Use
Signal Words
Future I
Progressive
A: He will be speaking.
N: He will not be
speaking.
Q: Will he be speaking?
action that is going on at a certain time in
the future
action that is sure to happen in the near
future
in one year, next week,
tomorrow
Future II Simple
A: He will have spoken. action that will be finished at a certain time by Monday, in a week
N: He will not have
in the future
spoken.
Q: Will he have
spoken?
Future II
Progressive
A: He will have been
speaking.
N: He will not have
been speaking.
Q: Will he have been
speaking?
action taking place before a certain time in
the future
putting emphasis on the course of an
action
for …, the last couple of hours,
all day long
Conditional I
Simple
A: He would speak.
N: He would not speak.
Q: Would he speak?
action that might take place
if sentences type II
(If I were you, I would go home.)
Conditional I
Progressive
A: He would be
speaking.
N: He would not be
speaking.
Q: Would he be
speaking?
action that might take place
putting emphasis on the course / duration
of the action
Conditional II
Simple
A: He would have
spoken.
N: He would not have
spoken.
Q: Would he have
spoken?
action that might have taken place in the
past
tense
if sentences type III
(If I had seen that, I would have
helped.)
tense
Conditional II
Progressive
Affirmative/ Negative/
Question
A: He would have been
speaking.
N: He would not have
been speaking.
Q: Would he have been
speaking?
Use
action that might have taken place in the
past
puts emphasis on the course / duration of
the action
Signal Words
Legend
moment in time
action that takes place once, never or several times
actions that happen one after another
actions that suddenly take place
period of time
action that started before a certain moment and lasts beyond that
moment
actions taking place at the same time
Result
action taking place before a certain moment in time
puts emphasis on the result
Course /
Duration
action taking place before a certain moment in time
puts emphasis on the course or duration of the action
English Tenses – Examples
Explanation
Past
Present
Future
Simple Past
Simple Present
Future I Simple
action that takes place once, He played football every
never or several times
Tuesday.
He plays football every
Tuesday.
He will / is going to play
football every Tuesday.
actions that happen one
after another
He played football and then
he went home.
He plays football and then
he goes home.
He will play football and
then he will go home.
state
He loved football.
He loves football.
He will love football.
Past Progressive
Present Progressive
Future I Progressive
action going on at that
moment
He was playing football.
He is playing football.
He will be playing football.
actions taking place at the
same time
He was playing football and
she was watching.
He is playing football and
she is watching.
He will be playing football
and she will be watching.
Past Perfect Simple
Present Perfect Simple
Future II Simple
He had won five matches
until that day.
He has won five matches so
far.
He will have won five
matches by then.
Past Perfect Progressive
Present Perfect Progressive
Future II Progressive
He had been playing football
for ten years.
He has been playing football
for ten years.
He will have been playing
football for ten years.
action taking place before a
certain moment in time;
emphasises the result
action taking place before a
certain moment in time (and
beyond), emphasises the
duration
Simple Present (Present Simple) – Introduction
The simple present expresses an action in the present taking place once, never
or several times. It is also used for actions that take place one after another and for
actions that are set by a timetable or schedule. The simple present also expresses
facts in the present.
be
Use:
am with the personal pronoun II
is with the personal pronouns he, she or it (or with the singular form of nouns)
are with the personal pronouns we, you or they (or with the plural form of nouns)
Example: I am hungry.
affirmative
negative
question
I
I am.
I am not.
Am I?
he/she/it
He is.
He is not.
Is he?
you/we/they
You are.
You are not.
Are you?
have
Use:
have with the personal pronouns I, you, we und they (or with the plural form of nouns)
has with the personal pronouns he, she, it (or with the singular form of nouns)
Example: I have a dog. / I have got a dog.
'have got' is mainly used in British English. You can also use 'have' on its own
(especially in American English). In this case, however, you must form negative
sentences and questions with the auxiliary verb 'do' (see 'All other verbs').
positive
negative
question
I/you/we/they I have got. / I have. I have not got. /
I do not have.
Have I got? /
Do I have?
he/she/it
Has he got? /
Does he have?
He has got. /
He has.
He has not got. /
He does not have.
All other verbs
Use:
The infinite verb (play) with the personal pronouns I, you, we and they (or with the
plural form of nouns). The verb + s (plays) with the personal pronouns he, she, it (or
with the singular form of nouns)
affirmative
negative
question
I/you/we/they
I play.
I do not play.
Do I play?
he/she/it
He plays.
He does not play.
Does he play?
Tips on how to form negative sentences and questions
Negative sentences and questions are formed with the auxiliary verb 'do'.
The 3rd person singular of 'do' is 'does'. This means that in negative sentences and
questions the '-s' of the main verb is placed behind 'do'.
Simple Present - Exceptions in Spelling
The 3rd person singular is usually formed by adding -s. But there are a few exceptions
to the rule:
The verbs can, may, might, must remain the same in all forms. So don't add -s.
Example: he can, she may, it must
Verbs ending in -o or a sibilant (ch, sh, s, x) add -es instead of s.
Example: do - he does, wash - she washes
A final y after a consonant becomes -ie before s.
Example: worry - he worries
But: A final y after a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) is not modified.
Example: play - he plays
Short Forms
affirmative
negative
I am English. = I'm English.
I am not English. = I'm not English.
We are English.= We're English.
We are not English. = We're not / We aren't
English.
He is English. = He's English.
He is not English. = He's not / He isn't English.
I have got a dog. = I've got a dog.
I have not got a dog. = I've not got a dog. / I haven't
got a dog.
He has got a dog. = He's got a
dog.
He has not got a dog. = He's not got a dog. / He
hasn't got a dog.
I do not play tennis. = I don't play tennis
He does not play tennis = He doesn't play tennis.
Simple Present - Use
Facts (something is generally known to be true)
The sun never sets in the east or south or north, but
always in the west.
The sun sets in the west.
Action in the present taking place once, never or several times
Colin plays football regularly - every Tuesday.
In English, signal words are often used, e.g.: always,
never, seldom, often, regularly, every Monday.
Colin always plays soccer on
Tuesdays.
Actions in the present taking place one after another
First one action takes place and then the other.
She takes her bag and leaves.
Action set by a time table or schedule
Although the action takes place in the future, it takes
place regularly and is set by a time table.
The train leaves at 9 pm.
Verbs expressing states, possession, senses, emotions and mental activity
I love her.
When you love someone, that's a state, a fact or
emotion, but not an action (like running for example).
Whenever you want to express a state, possession,
sense or emotions, use the simple form (not the
progressive). The following words all belong to this
group:
be (state)
believe (mental activity)
belong (possession)
hate (feeling and emotion)
hear (senses)
like (feeling and emotion)
love (feeling and emotion)
mean (mental activity)
prefer (mental activity)
remain (state)
realize (mental activity)
see (senses)
seem (feeling and emotion)
smell (senses)
think (mental activity)
understand (mental activity)
want (feeling and emotion) wish (feeling and emotion)
Simple Present - Signal Words
always
every ...
sometimes
seldom
often
never
normally
usually
Simple Present - Summary
Form:
be
affirmative
negative
question
I
I am.
I am not.
Am I?
he/she/it
He is.
He is not.
Is he?
you/we/they
You are.
You are not.
Are you?
affirmative
negative
question
I/you/we/they
I have got. / I have.
I have not got. / I do not Have I got? / Do I
have.
have?
he/she/it
He has got. / He
has.
He has not got. / He
does not have.
Has he got? / Does
he have?
affirmative
negative
question
I/you/we/they
I play.
I do not play.
Do I play?
he/she/it
He plays.
He does not play.
Does he play?
have
other verbs
Exceptions in Spelling
Exception
Example
The verbs can, may, might, must remain the same in all he can, she may, it must
forms. So don't add s.
Verbs ending in o or a sibilant (ch, sh, s, x) add es
instead of s.
do - he does, wash - she
washes
A final y after a consonant becomes ie before s. (but:
don't modify y after a vowel)
worry - he worries (but: play
- he plays)
Short Forms
affirmative
negative
I am English.
= I'm English.
I am not English.
= I'm not English.
We are English.
= We're English.
We are not English.
= We're not / We aren't English.
He is English.
= He's English.
He is not English.
= He's not / He isn't English.
I have got a dog.
= I've got a dog.
I have not got a dog.
= I've not got a dog. / I haven't got a dog.
He has got a dog.
= He's got a dog.
He has not got a dog.
= He's not got a dog. / He hasn't got a dog.
I do not play tennis.
= I don't play tennis
He does not play tennis
= He doesn't play tennis.
Use
Use
Example
action in the present taking place once,
never or several times
Colin always plays soccer on Tuesdays.
actions in the present taking place one after
another
She takes her bag and leaves.
facts (something is generally known to be
true)
The sun sets in the west.
action set by a timetable or schedule
The train leaves at 9 pm.
verbs of possession, senses, emotions and
mental activity
I love her.
Typical Signal Words
always
every ...
sometimes
seldom
often
normally
usually
never
Present Progressive - Introduction
The present progressive puts emphasis on the course or duration of an action.
The present progressive is used for actions going on in the moment of speaking and
for actions taking place only for a short period of time. It is also used to express
development and actions that are arranged for the near future.
Present progressive is also known as present continuous.
Form
Use a form of to be and the infinite verb plus -ing.
Use:
am with the personal pronoun I
is with the personal pronouns he, she or it (or the singular form of nouns)
are with the personal pronouns you, we, they (or the plural form of nouns)
affirmative
negative
question
I
I am playing.
I am not playing.
Am I playing?
he, she, it
He is playing.
He is not playing.
Is he playing?
you, we, they
You are playing.
You are not playing.
Are you playing?
Tips on how to form negative sentences and questions
In negative sentences, we put not between the form of be and the verb.
In questions, we simply swop the places of subject and the form of be.
Exceptions in Spelling
:- A single, silent e at the end of the word is dropped before ing.
Example: come - coming
I am coming home. You are coming home. He is coming home.
But: ee at the end of the word is not changed
Example: agree - agreeing
:- The final consonant after a short, stressed vowel is doubled before ing.
Example: sit - sitting
I am sitting on the sofa. You are sitting on the sofa. He is sitting on the
sofa.
:- The letter “l” as final consonant after a vowel is always doubled before ing.
Example: travel - travelling
I am travelling around. You are travelling around. He is travelling around.
Mind: This applies only for British English; in American English there is usually only
one l.
:- An ie at the end of a word becomes y before ing.
Example: lie - lying
I am lying in bed. You are lying in bed. He is lying in bed.
Short Forms
affirmative
negative
I am playing. - I'm playing.
I am not playing. - I'm not playing.
He is playing. - He's playing.
He is not playing. - He's not playing. / He isn't playing.
We are playing. - We're
playing.
We are not playing. - We're not playing. /We aren't
playing.
Use
:- Actions taking place at the moment of speaking (now)
The action is going on now.
Signal words like now, at the moment are often used
to emphasise that the action is taking place at the
moment of speaking. Signal words are not really
necessary, however, as this is already expressed by
the tense itself.
He is playing football.
:- Arrangements for the near future
I'm going to the theatre
tonight.
In the example you can see that the tickets are
already bought. So we are talking about an
arrangement for the near future.
To make clear that the action is not going on now, we
usually use signal words like tonight, tomorrow, next
Friday, at noon.
:- Actions taking place only for a limited period of time
Here we are talking about a time limit. Jim does not
usually work in the firm, he is still at school and
wants to earn some extra money during his holidays.
To make clear that there is a time limit, we usually
use signal words, e.g. this week/month/year.
Jim is helping in his
brother's firm this week.
:- Actions taking place around now (but not at the moment of speaking)
This action takes place around now and only for a
limited period of time, but not at the moment of
speaking.
We don't have to use signal words here, but we often
find signal words in such sentences, e.g. now, at the
moment.
I'm studying for my
exams.
:- Development, changing situations
The sentence describes a development from one
situation to another.
Signal words are not that common here, only
sometimes the change of situation is emphasised by
using for example more and more.
The population of China
is rising very fast.
Signal Words
:- Actions taking place at the moment of speaking (now)
at the moment
now / just now / right now
Look!
:- Arrangements for the near future
in the morning / in the afternoon / in the evening
tomorrow
next ...
Listen!
at noon / tonight
:- Actions taking place only for a limited period of time
this week / this month / this year
:- Actions taking place around now (but not at the moment of speaking)
at the moment
now / just now / right now
:- Development, changing situations
more and more
Summary
Form
affirmative
negative
question
I
I am playing.
I am not playing.
Am I playing?
he, she, it
He is playing.
He is not playing.
Is he playing?
you, we, they
You are playing.
You are not playing.
Are you playing?
Exceptions in Spelling
Exception
silent e is dropped before ing (but: ee is not changed)
Example
come - coming (but: agree agreeing)
final consonant after short, stressed vowel is doubled sit - sitting
final consonant l after vowel is always doubled (in
British English)
travel - travelling
ie becomes y before ing
lie - lying
Short Forms
positive
negative
I am playing. - I'm playing.
I am not playing. - I'm not playing.
He is playing. - He's playing.
He is not playing. - He's not playing. / He isn't playing.
We are playing. - We're
playing.
We are not playing. - We're not playing. /We aren't
playing.
Use
Use
Example
actions taking place at the moment of speaking
(now)
He is playing football.
arrangements for the near future
I'm going to the theatre tonight.
actions taking place only for a limited period of
time
Jim is helping in his brother's
firm this week.
actions taking place around now (but not at the
moment of speaking)
I'm studying for my exams.
development, changing situations
The population of China is rising
very fast.
Typical Signal Words
at the moment
Listen!
now / just now / right now
Look!
Simple Past (Past Simple)
The simple past expresses an action in the past taking place once, never,
several times. It can also be used for actions taking place one after another or in the
middle of another action.
Form
Positive
Negative
Question
no differences
I spoke.
I did not speak.
Did I speak?
For irregular verbs, use the past form. For regular verbs, just add “ed”.
Exceptions in Spelling when Adding ‘ed’
Exceptions in spelling when adding ed
Example
after a final e only add d
love – loved
final consonant after a short, stressed vowel
or l as final consonant after a vowel is doubled
admit – admitted
travel – travelled
final y after a consonant becomes i
hurry – hurried
Use
:- action in the past taking place once, never or several times
He visited his parents every weekend.
:- actions in the past taking place one after the other
He came in, took off his coat and sat down.
:- action in the past taking place in the middle of another action
When I was having breakfast, the phone suddenly rang.
:- if sentences type II (If I talked, …)
If I had a lot of money, I would share it with you.
Signal Words
yesterday,
last Friday
2 minutes ago,
in 1990,
If-Clause Type II (If I talked, …)
the other day,
Simple Past – Past Progressive
Form
Simple Past
:- irregular verbs:
I spoke
:- regular verbs: verb + ed
I worked
Past Progressive
:- past form of 'be' + ing form of verb
I was speaking
you were speaking
he / she / it was speaking
we were speaking
they were speaking
Exceptions
Exceptions when adding 'ed' :
:- when the final letter is e, only add d.
love - loved
:- after a short, stressed vowel, the final
consonant is doubled
admit - admitted
:- final l is always doubled in British
English (not in American English)
travel - travelled
:- after a consonant, final y becomes i.
(but: not after a vowel)
worry - he worried
but: play - he played
Exceptions when adding 'ing' :
:- silent e is dropped (but: does not apply
for -ee)
come - coming
but: agree - agreeing
:- after a short, stressed vowel, the final
consonant is doubled
sit - sitting
:- final l is always doubled in British
English (not in American English)
travel - travelling
:- final ie becomes y.
lie - lying
Use
After another or at the same time?
Do you want to express that the actions in the past happened one after another
or at the same time?
Simple Past
Past Progressive
:- after another
She came home, switched on the
computer and checked her e-mails.
:- at the same time
Simon was playing on the computer
while his brother was watchin TV.
New action or already in progress?
If you want to express that a new action happened in the middle of another
action, you need both tenses: Simple Past the new action and Past Progressive for the
action already in progress.
Simple Past
Past Progressive
:- new action
My mobile rang (when I was sitting in a
meeting.)
:- action already in progress
While I was sitting in a meeting, (my
mobile suddenly rang.)
Only mentioning or emphasising progress?
Do you just want to mention that an action took place in the past (also used for
short actions)? Or do you want to put emphasis on the progress, e.g. that an action
was taking place at a certain time?
Simple Past
Past Progressive
:- just mentioning
Colin played football yesterday.
:- emphasising progress
Yesterday at six o'clock, Colin was
playing football.
Certain Verbs
The following verbs are usually only used in Simple Past (not in the progressive form).
:- state: be, cost, fit, mean, suit
We were on holiday.
:- possession: belong, have
Sam had a cat.
:- senses: feel, hear, see, smell, taste, touch
He felt the cold.
:- feelings: hate, hope, like, love, prefer, regret, want, wish
Jane loved pizza.
:- brain work: believe, know, think, understand
I did not understand him.
:- introductory clauses for direct speech: answer, ask, reply, say
“I am watching TV,“ he said.
Signal words
Simple Past
first
then
If-clause Type II (If I talked, …)
Simple Past – Present Perfect Simple
Form
Simple Past
Past Progressive
when
while
as long as
Present Perfect Simple
:- irregular verbs
I spoke
:- irregular verbs: form of 'have' + 3rd
column of irregular verbs
I / you / we / they have spoken
he / she / it has spoken
:- regular verbs: infinitive + ed
I worked
:- regular verbs: form of 'have' + infinitive
+ ed
I / you / we / they have worked
he / she / it has worked
Exceptions
Exceptions when adding 'ed':
:- when the final letter is e, only add d
love - loved
:- after a short, stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled
admit - admitted
:- final l is always doubled in British English (not in American English)
travel - travelled
:- after a consonant, final y becomes i (but: not after a vowel)
worry - worried
but: play - played
Use
In British English, the use of Simple Past and Present Perfect is quite strict. As
soon as a time expression in the past is given, you have to use Simple Past. If there
are no signal words, you must decide if we just talk about an action in the past or if
its consequence in the present is important.
Note that the following explanations and exercises refer to British English only.
In American English, you can normally use Simple Past instead of Present Perfect. We
cannot accept this in our exercises, however, as this would lead to confusions
amongst those who have to learn the differences.
Certain time in the past or just / already / yet?
Do you want to express that an action happened at a certain time in the past
(even if it was just a few seconds ago) or that an action has just / already / not yet
happened?
Simple Past
Present Perfect Simple
:- certain time in the past
I phoned Mary 2 minutes ago.
:- just / already / not yet
I have just phoned Mary.
Certain event in the past or how often so far?
Do you want to express when a certain action took place or whether / how often
an action has happened till now?
Simple Past
Present Perfect Simple
:- certain event in the past
He went to Canada last summer.
:- whether / how often till now
Have you ever been to Canada? / I have
been to Canada twice.
Emphasis on action or result?
Do you just want to express what happened in the past? Or do you want to
emphasise the result (a past action's consequence in the present)?
Simple Past
Present Perfect Simple
:- Emphasis on action
I bought a new bike. (just
telling what I did in the past.)
:- Emphasis on result
I have bought a new bike. (With this sentence I
actually want to express that I have a new bike
now.)
Signal Words
Simple Past
yesterday
... ago
in 1990
the other day
last ...
Present Perfect Simple
just
already
up to now
until now / till now
ever
(not) yet
so far
lately / recently
Simple Past – Past Perfect Simple
Form
Simple Past
Past Perfect Simple
:- 2nd column of irregular verbs
I spoke
:- had + 3rd column of irregular verbs
I had spoken
:- regular verbs: infinitive + ed
I worked
:- regular verbs: form of have + infinitive
+ ed
I had worked
Exceptions
Exceptions when adding ed:
:- when the final letter is e, only add d
love - loved
:- after a short, stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled
admit - admitted
:- final l is always doubled in British English (not in American English)
travel - travelled
:- after a consonant, final y becomes i (but: not after a vowel)
worry - worried
but: play - played
Use
We use Simple Past if we give past events in the order in which they occured.
However, when we look back from a certain time in the past to tell what had happened
before, we use Past Perfect.
Normal order in the past or looking back to an event before a certain time in the
past?
Do you just want to tell what happened some time in the past or do you want to
tell what had happened before/up to a certain time in the past?
Simple Past
Past Perfect Simple
:- some time in the past
Jane got up at seven. She opened her
birthday presents and then the whole
family went to the zoo.
:- before/up to a certain time in the past
Before her sixth birthday, Jane had
never been to the zoo.
Signal Words
Simple Past
first
then
Past Perfect Simple
already
up to then
before that day
after*
*Note: "After" is only used as a signal word for Past Perfect if it is followed by a subject
+ verb, meaning that one action had been completed before another action
began (the new action is in Simple
After the family had had breakfast, they went to the zoo.
However, if "after" is followed by object + subject + verb, the verb belongs to the new
action and is therefore in Simple Past.
After her visit to the zoo, Jane was exhausted.
More exceptions with signal words
When: depending on the situation, "when" can be used with Simple Past or Past
Perfect. Compare the following examples:
When Jane saw the elephants, she was amazed. (at the same time)
When Jane had seen the elephants, she wanted to see the giraffes.
(second action happened after the first action had been completed)
When Jane went to see the elephants, she had already seen the lions.
(second action had been completed when the first action took place)
Before: "Before" as well can either be used with Simple Past or Past Perfect. If the
action after "before" is a new action, use Simple Past. If the action after
"before" started (and was not completed) before a certain time in the past, use
Past Perfect. Compare the following examples:
Jane had read a lot about elephants before she went to the zoo.
Jane went to the zoo before she had finished reading her new book about
elephants.
Past Progressive (Past Continuous)
The past progressive puts emphasis on the course of an action in the past.
Form
Positive
Negative
Question
I / he / she / it
I was speaking.
I was not speaking.
Was I speaking?
you / we / they
You were speaking. You were not speaking. Were you speaking?
Exceptions in Spelling
Exceptions in spelling when adding ing
Example
final e is dropped (but: ee is not changed)
come – coming
(but: agree – agreeing)
after a short, stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled
sit – sitting
l as final consonant after a vowel is doubled (in British
English)
travel – travelling
final ie becomes y
lie – lying
Use
:- puts emphasis on the course of an action in the past
He was playing football.
:- two actions happening at the same time (in the past)
While she was preparing dinner, he was washing the dishes.
:- action going on at a certain time in the past
When I was having breakfast, the phone suddenly rang.
Signal Words of Past Progressive
when,
while,
as long as
Present Perfect Simple
The present perfect simple expresses an action that is still going on or that
stopped recently, but has an influence on the present. It puts emphasis on the result.
Form
Positive
Negative
Question
I / you / we / they
I have spoken.
I have not spoken.
Have I spoken?
he / she / it
He has spoken.
He has not spoken.
Has he spoken?
Exceptions in Spelling when Adding ‘ed’
Exceptions in spelling when adding ed
Example
after a final e only add d
love – loved
final consonant after a short, stressed vowel
or l as final consonant after a vowel is doubled
admit – admitted
travel – travelled
final y after a consonant becomes i
hurry – hurried
Use
:- puts emphasis on the result
She has written five letters.
:- action that is still going on
School has not started yet.
:- action that stopped recently
She has cooked dinner.
:- finished action that has an influence on the present
I have lost my key.
:- action that has taken place once, never or several times before the moment of
speaking
I have never been to Australia.
Signal Words of Present Perfect
already,
ever,
just,
so far,
till now,
up to now
never,
not yet,
Present Perfect Progressive (Present Perfect Continuous)
The present perfect progressive expresses an action that recently stopped or is
still going on. It puts emphasis on the duration or course of the action.
Form
Positive
Negative
Question
I / you / we / they I have been
speaking.
I have not been
speaking.
Have I been
speaking?
he / she / it
He has not been
speaking.
Has he been
speaking?
He has been
speaking.
Exceptions in Spelling
Exceptions in spelling when adding ing
Example
final e is dropped
(but: ee is not changed)
come – coming
(but: agree – agreeing)
after a short, stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled
sit – sitting
l as final consonant after a vowel is doubled (in British
English)
travel – travelling
final ie becomes y
lie – lying
Use
:- puts emphasis on the duration or course of an action (not the result)
She has been writing for two hours.
:- action that recently stopped or is still going on
I have been living here since 2001.
:- finished action that influenced the present
I have been working all afternoon.
Signal Words
all day,
for 4 years,
the whole week
since 1993,
how long?,
Simple Present - Present Perfect Progressive
Form
Simple Present
:- infinitive
(3rd person singular: infinitive + 's')
I / you / we / they speak
he / she / it speaks
Present Perfect Progressive
:- form of 'have' + been + ing-form
I / you / we / they have been speaking
he / she / it has been speaking
Exceptions
Exceptions when adding 's':
:- The verbs can, may, might, must
remain the same in all forms. Do not
add s.
he can, she may, it must
Exceptions when adding 'ing' :
:- Silent e as final letter is dropped. (does
not apply for -ee)
come - coming
but: agree - agreeing
:- For verbs ending in o or a sibilant
(ch, sh, s, z), add es.
do - he does, wash - she washes
:- After a short, stressed vowel, the final
consonant is doubled.
sit - sitting
:- y as final letter after a consonant
becomes ie. (but: not after a vowel)
worry - he worries
but: play - he plays
:- l as final letter after a single vowel is
doubled in British English (but not in
American English).
travel - travelling
:- ie at the end of the word becomes y.
lie - lying
Use
We use Simple Present for general statements about the present and for actions
taking place regularly in the present. We use Present Perfect Progressive to express
how long an action has been going on.
General statements (when/how often) or how long already?
Do you want to make a general statement about the present, e.g. say when or
how often an action usually takes place? Or do you want to express, how long an
action has already been going on?
Simple Present
general statement, when / how often
I write a letter every day.
Signal Words
Simple Present
how often
... times
Present Perfect Progressive
how long already
I have been writing for an hour.
Present Perfect Progressive
how long
since
for
Note: The signal words for Simple Present are the same here as for Present Perfect in
the explanation on confusing tenses - Present Perfect Simple/Present Perfect
Progressive. If we use these signal words for Simple Present, we want to know
how often an action usually takes place in the present (not how often it has
taken place so far). There is a difference, because you can ask someone how
often he plays tennis (in general) or how often he has played tennis (so far).
Present Perfect Simple – Present Perfect Progressive
Form
Present Perfect Simple
:- irregular verbs: form of 'have' + 3rd
column of irregular verbs
I / you / we / they have spoken
he / she / it has spoken
Present Perfect Progressive
:- form of 'have' + been + verb + ing
I / you / we / they have been speaking
he / she / it has been speaking
:- regular verbs: form of 'have' + infinitive
+ ed
I / you / we / they have worked
he / she / it has worked
Exceptions
Exceptions when adding 'ed' :
:- when the final letter is e, only add d
love - loved
:- after a short, stressed vowel, the final
consonant is doubled
admit - admitted
:- final l is always doubled in British
English (not in American English)
travel - travelled
:- after a consonant, final y becomes i
(but: not after a vowel)
worry - worried
but: play - played
Exceptions when adding 'ing' :
:- silent e is dropped. (but: does not
apply for -ee)
come - coming
but: agree - agreeing
:- after a short, stressed vowel, the final
consonant is doubled
sit - sitting
:- after a vowel, the final consonant l is
doubled in British English (but not in
American English).
travel - travelling
:- final ie becomes y.
lie - lying
Use
Both tenses are used to express that an action began in the past and is still
going on or has just finished. In many cases, both forms are correct, but there is often
a difference in meaning: We use the Present Perfect Simple mainly to express that an
action is completed or to emphasise the result. We use the Present Perfect Progressive
to emphasise the duration or continuous course of an action.
Result or duration?
Do you want to express what has happened so far or how long an action has
been going on yet?
Present Perfect Simple
Present Perfect Progressive
:- Result (what / how much / how often)
I have written 5 letters. / I have been to
London twice.
:- Duration (how long)
I have been writing for an hour.
Certain verbs
The following verbs are usually only used in Present Perfect Simple (not in the
progressive form).
:- state: be, have (for possession only)
have been on holiday for two weeks.
:- senses: feel, hear, see, smell, taste, touch
He has touched the painting.
:- brain work: believe, know, think, understand
I have known him for 3 years.
Emphasis on completion or duration?
Do you want to emphasise the completion of an action or its continuous course
(how has somebody spent his time)?
Present Perfect Simple
Present Perfect Progressive
:- Emphasis on completion
I have done my homework. (Meaning: My
homework is completed now.)
:- Emphasis on duration
I have been doing my homework.
(Meaning: That's how I have spent my
time. It does not matter whether the
homework is completed now.)
Result or side effect?
Do you want to express that a completed action led to a desired result or that
the action had an unwanted side effect?
Present Perfect Simple
Present Perfect Progressive
:- desired result
I have washed the car. (Result: The car is
clean now.)
:- unwanted side effect
Why are you so wet? - I have been
washing the car. (side effect: I became
wet when I was washing the car. It does
not matter whether the car is clean now.)
Time + negation: last time or beginning of an action?
In negative sentences: Do you want to express how much time has past since
the last time the action took place or since the beginning of the action?
Present Perfect Simple
Present Perfect Progressive
:- since the last time
I haven't played that game for years.
(Meaning: It's years ago that I last played
that game.)
:- since the beginning
I haven't been playing that game for an
hour, only for 10 minutes. (Meaning: It's
not even an hour ago that I started to play
that game.)
Permanent or temporary?
If an action is still going on and we want to express that it is a permanent
situation, we would usually use the Present Perfect Simple. For temporary situations,
we would prefer the Present Perfect Progressive. This is not a rule, however, only a
tendency.
Present Perfect Simple
Present Perfect Progressive
:- permanent
James has lived in this town for 10
years. (Meaning: He is a permanent
resident of this town.)
:- temporary
James has been living here for a year.
(Meaning: This situation is only
temporary. Maybe he is an exchange
student and only here for one or two
years.)
Signal words
Present Perfect Simple
how often
... times
Present Perfect Progressive
how long
since
for
Past Perfect Simple
The past perfect simple expresses an action taking place before a certain time in the
past.
Form
Positive
no differences
I had spoken.
Negative
I had not spoken.
Exceptions in Spelling when Adding ed
Exceptions in Spelling when Adding ed
Question
Had I spoken?
Example
after final e, only add d
love – loved
final consonant after a short, stressed vowel
or l as final consonant after a vowel is doubled
admit – admitted
travel – travelled
final y after a consonant becomes i
hurry – hurried
Use
:- action taking place before a certain time in the past
(putting emphasis only on the fact, not the duration)
Before I came here, I had spoken to Jack.
:- Conditional Sentences Type III (condition that was not given in the past)
If I had seen him, I would have talked to him.
Signal Words
already,
just,
never,
not yet,
once,
until that day (with reference to the past, not the present)
If-clause Type III (If I had talked, …)
Past Perfect Progressive (Past Perfect Continuous)
The past perfect progressive puts emphasis on the course or duration of an action
taking place before a certain time in the past.
Form
Positive
Negative
He had been talking.
Question
He had not been talking.
Had he been talking?
Use
:- action taking place before a certain time in the past
:- sometimes interchangeable with past perfect simple
:- puts emphasis on the course or duration of an action
Signal words
for,
since,
the whole day,
all day
Future Simple “will”
Will future expresses a spontaneous decision, an assumption with regard to the future
or an action in the future that cannot be influenced.
Form
positive
no differences
I will speak.
negative
I will not speak.
Use
:- a spontaneous decision
Wait, I will help you.
:- an opinion, hope, uncertainty or assumption regarding the future
He will probably come back tomorrow.
:- a promise
I will not watch TV tonight.
question
Will I speak?
:- an action in the future that cannot be influenced
It will rain tomorrow.
:- conditional clauses type I
If I arrive late, I will call you.
Signal Words
in a year, next …,
tomorrow
with the sentences beginning with: I think, probably, perhaps
Future Simple “going to”
Going to future expresses a conclusion regarding the immediate future or an action in
the near future that has already been planned or prepared.
Form
positive
I
I am going to speak.
you / we / they You are going to
speak.
he / she / it
negative
question
I am not going to speak. Am I going to speak?
You are not going to
speak.
He is going to speak. He is not going to
speak.
Are you going to
speak?
Is he going to speak?
Use
:- an action in the near future that has already been planned or prepared
I am going to study harder next year.
:- a conclusion regarding the immediate future
The sky is absolutely dark. It is going to rain.
Signal Words
in one year,
next week,
tomorrow
Future Progressive (Future Continuous)
Future progressive puts emphasis on the course of an action taking place in the
future.
Form
positive
He will be talking.
negative
He will not be talking.
Use
:- action that is going on at a certain time in the future
:- action that is sure to happen in the near future
Question
Will he be talking?
Signal Words
in one year,
next week,
tomorrow
Future II Simple
Future II Simple expresses an action that will be finished at a certain time in the
future.
Form
Positive
He will have talked.
Negative
He will not have talked.
Question
Will he have talked?
Use
:- action that will be finished at a certain time in the future
Signal Words
by Monday,
in a week
Future II Progressive (Future II Continuous)
Future II progressive puts emphasis on the course / duration of an action
taking place before a certain time in the future. It can also be used to express an
assumption regarding a future action.
Future II progressive is not used very often as it can usually be replaced by
future II simple.
Form
Positive
He will have been talking.
Negative
He will not have been
talking.
Question
Will he have been talking?
Use
:- action taking place before a certain time in the future
:- puts emphasis on the course of an action
Signal Words
for ...,
the last couple of hours,
all day long
Conditional I Simple
The conditional I simple expresses an action that might take place.
Form
Positive
He would talk.
Negative
He would not talk.
Use
:- action that might take place
:- if clause type II (If I were you, I would go home.)
Question
Would he talk?
Conditional I Progressive (Conditional I Continuous)
The conditional I progressive puts emphasis on the course of an action that might
take place.
Form
Positive
He would be talking.
Negative
He would not be talking.
Question
Would he be talking?
Use
:- action that might take place
:- puts emphasis on the course of an action
Conditional II Simple
The conditional II simple expresses an action that could have taken place in the past.
Form
Positive
He would have talked.
Negative
He would not have talked.
Question
Would he have talked?
Use
:- action that could have taken place in the past
:- if causes type III (If I had seen that, I would have helped.)
Conditional II Progressive (Conditional II Continuous)
Conditional II Progressive puts emphasis on the duration of an action that could have
taken place in the past.
Form
Positive
He would have been
talking.
Negative
He would not have been
talking.
Question
Would he have been
talking?
Use
:- action that could have taken place in the past
:- puts emphasis on the course / duration of an action
Word Order in English Sentences
In the English language there are no different forms for subjects and objects. To keep
subject and object apart, however, we have to stick to the word order.
Word Order in Positive Sentences
For the beginning, remember this simple rule:
subject
verb(s)
object
I
speak
English
I
can speak
English
If you are a more advanced learner, remember the following rule:
subject
I
verb(s9
will tell
indirect object
you
direct object
place
the story
at school
time
tomorrow.
Word Order in Negative Sentences
The word order in negative sentences is the same as in affirmative sentences.
Note, however, that in negative sentences we usually need an auxiliary verb:
subject
verbs
indirect object
direct object
place
time
I
will not tell
you
the story
at school
tomorrow.
Word Order in Subordinate Clauses
In subordinate clauses, the word order is the same as in simple affirmative
sentences. (Conjunctions are often used between two clauses):
indirect
direct
conjunction subject verb(s)
place
time
object
object
because
I
will tell
I
don't
have
you
the story
at
school
tomorrow ...
time
now.
Position of Time Expressions
(e.g.: recently, now, then, yesterday)
Adverbs of time are usually put at the end of the sentence.
subject
verb(s)
indirect object
direct object
I
will tell
you
the story
time
tomorrow.
If you don't want to put emphasis on the time, you can also put the adverb of time at
the beginning of the sentence.
time
subject
verb(s)
indirect object
direct object
Tomorrow
I
will tell
you
the story.
Note that some time expressions are adverbs of frequency (always, never, usually etc.).
These are usually put before the main verb (except for 'be' as a main verb).
subject
auxiliary/be
adverb
main verb
object, place or time
I
often
go swimming
in the evenings.
play
tennis.
He
doesn't
always
We
are
usually
I
have
never
here in summer.
been
abroad.
Position of Adverbs
Adverb of Manner
(e.g.: slowly, carefully, awfully)
These adverbs are put behind the direct object (or behind the verb if there's no direct
object).
subject
verb(s)
direct object
adverb
He
drove
He
drove
the car
carefully.
carefully.
Adverbs of Place
(e.g.: here, there, behind, above)
Like adverbs of manner, these adverbs are put behind the direct object or the verb.
subject
verb(s)
direct object
adverb
I
didn't see
He
stayed
him
here.
behind.
Adverbs of Time
(e.g.: recently, now, then, yesterday)
Adverbs of time are usually put at the end of the sentence.
subject
verb(s)
indirect object
direct object
I
will tell
you
the story
time
tomorrow.
If you don't want to put emphasis on the time, you can also put the adverb of time at
the beginning of the sentence.
time
subject
verb(s)
indirect object
direct object
Tomorrow
I
will tell
you
the story.
Adverbs of Frequency
(e.g.: always, never, seldom, usually)
Adverbs of frequency are put directly before the main verb. If 'be' is the main verb and
there is no auxiliary verb, adverbs of frequency are put behind 'be'. Is there an
auxiliary verb, however, adverbs of frequency are put before 'be'.
subject
auxiliary/be
adverb
main verb
object, place or time
I
often
go swimming
in the evenings.
play
tennis.
He
doesn't
always
We
are
usually
I
have
never
here in summer.
been
abroad.
Word Order in Questions
In questions, the word order subject-verbs-object is the same as in affirmative
sentences. The only thing that’s different is that you usually have to put the auxiliary
verb (or the main verb “be”) before the subject. Interrogatives are put at the beginning
of the sentences:
interrogative
What
When
auxiliary
verb
subject
other
verb(s)
would
you
like to
tell
Did
you
have
were
you
indirect
object
direct
object
place
time
me
a party
in
your
flat
yesterday?
here?
You don’t use an auxiliary verb if you ask for the subject. In this case the interrogative
simply takes the place of the subject.
interrogative
verb(s)
object
Who
asked
you?
Adjectives and Adverbs
Adjectives are used to modify nouns, e.g. The dog is loud. – What is the dog
like? – loud
Adverbs are used to modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs, e.g. The dog
barks loudly. – How does the dog bark? – loudly
Comparison of Adjectives
Positive Form
Use the positive form of the adjective if the comparison contains one of the
following expressions:
as … as
Jane is as tall as John.
not as … as / not so … as
John is not as tall as Arnie.
Comparative Form and Superlative Form (-er/-est)
:- one-syllable adjectives (clean, new, cheap)
:- two-syllable adjectives ending in -y or -er (easy, happy, pretty, dirty, clever)
positive form
comparative form
superlative form
clean
cleaner
(the) cleanest
Exceptions in spelling when adding -er / -est
:- silent ‘e’ is dropped
late-later-latest
:- final ‘y’ after a consonant becomes i
easy-easier-easiest
:- final consonant after short, stressed vowel is doubled
hot-hotter-hottest
Comparative Form and Superlative Form (more/most)
:- adjectives of three or more syllables (and two-syllable adjectives not ending in -y/-er)
positive form
comparative form
superlative form
difficult
more difficult
most difficult
Comparative Form and Superlative Form (irregular comparisons)
positive form
comparative form
superlative form
good
better
best
bad / ill
worse
worst
little (amount)
less
least
little (size)
smaller
smallest
much / many
more
most
far (place + time)
further
furthest
far (place)
farther
farthest
late (time)
later
latest
late (order)
latter
last
near (place)
nearer
nearest
near (order)
-
next
old (people and
things)
older
oldest
old (people)
elder
eldest
Form and Comparison of Adverbs
Adverbs are used to express how something is done (adjectives express how someone
or something is).
The dog sleeps quietly. The dog is absolutely quiet.
Form
In general: adjective + -ly
adjective
slow
adverb
slowly
Exceptions in spelling
exception
example
silent e is dropped in true, due, whole
true → truly
y becomes i
happy → happily
le after a consonant is dropped
sensible → sensibly
after ll only add y
full → fully
Adjectives ending in -ic: adjective + -ally (exception: public-publicly)
adjective
adverb
fantastic
fantastically
Adjectives ending in -ly: use ‘in a … way / manner’ or another adverb with similar
meaning
adjective
adverb
friendly
in a friendly way
in a friendly manner
likely
probably
Exceptions
adjective
adverb (meaning)
adverb (meaning)
good
well
difficult
with difficulty
public
publicly
deep
deep (place)
deeply (feeling)
direct
direct
directly (=soon)
hard
hard
hardly (=seldom)
high
high (place)
highly (figurative)
late
late
lately (=recently)
most
most
mostly (=usually)
near
near
nearly (=almost)
pretty
pretty (=rather)
prettily
short
short
shortly (=soon)
The following adjectives daily, enough, early, far, fast, hourly, little, long, low,
are also used as adverbs monthly, much, straight, weekly, yearly, …
(without modification):
Comparison
Comparison (-er/-est)
Comparative ending
in -er
Superlative ending
in -est
one-syllable adverbs (hard)
harder
hardest
adverbs with the same form as
adjectives (early)
earlier
earliest
Comparison (more / most)
Comparative formed with
more
adverbs ending in -ly
(happily)
more happily
Superlative formed with
most
most happily
Irregular comparisons
positive form
comparative
superlative
well
better
best
badly
worse
worst
ill
worse
worst
little
less
least
much
more
most
far (place + time)
further
furthest
far (place)
farther
farthest
late (time)
later
latest
Adjective or Adverb
:- Adjectives are used to modify nouns:
The dog is loud.
:- Adverbs are used to modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs:
The dog barks loudly.
Linking Verbs
Some verbs can only be used with adjectives, others might change their meaning
when used with an adverb.
verb
used with an adjective
used with an adverb
look
look good (= appearance)
look well (= healthy)
feel
feel good (= state of health/mind)
feel well (= have a good sense of touch)
smell
smell good (= odour)
smell well (= have a good sense of smell)
taste
taste good (= preference)
taste well (= have a good sense of taste)
The following verbs can only be used with adjectives:
be
become
get
grow
seem
sound
stay
turn
keep
remain
Auxiliary Verbs
Auxiliary Verbs are the verbs be, do, have, will when they are followed by
another verb (the full verb) in order to form a question, a negative sentence, a
compound tense or the passive.
The verb "be"
The verb be can be used as an auxiliary and a full verb. As an auxiliary we use
this verb for compound tenses and the passive voice. Note that be is an irregular verb:
Simple Present:
I am, he/she/it is, we/you/they are
Simple Past:
I/he/she/it was, we/you/they were
Past Participle:
been
You can tell that in the following sentences be is an auxiliary because it is
followed by another verb (the full verb). (For progressive forms use the "-ing" form of
the full verb; for passive voice, use the past participle of the full verb.)
Progressive Forms
Present Progressive:
He is playing football.
Past Progressive:
He was playing football.
Present Perfect Progressive:
He has been playing football.
Past Perfect Progressive:
He had been playing football.
Passive
Simple Present/Past:
The house is/was built.
Present/Past Perfect:
The house has/had been built.
Future I:
The house will be built.
"be" as a full verb
The verb be can also be a full verb. In this case, it's not followed by another verb.
If be is used as a full verb, we do not need an auxiliary in negative sentences or
questions.
positive sentence:
They are fifteen years old.
negative sentence:
They are not fifteen years old.
question:
Are they fifteen years old?
The verb "have"
The verb have, too, can be used both as an auxiliary and as a full verb. As an
auxiliary we use this verb to form compound tenses in active and passive voice. (Use
the past participle of the full verb.)
Compound Tenses - Active Voice
Present Perfect Simple:
He has played football.
Past Perfect Simple:
He had played football.
Present Perfect Progressive:
He has been playing football.
Past Perfect Progressive:
He had been playing football.
Compound Tenses - Passive Voice
Present/Past Perfect:
The house has/had been built.
Note that have is an irregular verb, too:
Simple Present:
I/we/you/they have, he/she/it has
Simple Past:
I/he/she/it/we/you/they had
Past Participle:
had
"have" in positive sentences
As a full verb have indicates possession. In British English, however, we usually
use have got (have being the auxiliary, got the full verb).
full verb:
I have a car.
auxiliary verb:
I have got a car.
"have" in negative sentences and questions
When we use have as a full verb, we must use the auxiliary do in negative
sentences and questions. If we use have got, however, we do not need another
auxiliary.
have as a full verb:
I do not have a car.
Do I have a car?
have as an auxiliary verb:
I have not got a car.
Have I got a car?
The verb "will"
The verb will can only be used as an auxiliary. We use it to form the future
tenses.
The auxiliary verb "will"
Future I:
He will not play football.
Future II:
He will have played football.
The verb will remains the same for all forms (no "s" for 3rd person singular). The
short form for negative sentences is won't.'
I will, he will
I will not = I won't
The verb "do"
The verb do can be both an auxiliary and a full verb. As an auxiliary we use do
in negative sentences and questions for most verbs (except not for be, will, have got
and modal verbs) in Simple Present and Simple Past. (Use the infinitive of the full
verb.)
The auxiliary "do" in negative sentences
Simple Present:
He does not play football.
Simple Past:
He did not play football.
The auxiliary "do" in questions
Simple Present:
Does he play football?
Simple Past:
Did he play football?
The verb do is irregular:
Simple Present:
I/we/you/they do, he/she/it does
Simple Past:
I/he/she/it/we/you/they did
The full verb "do"
As a full verb we use do in certain expressions. If we want to form negative sentences
or questions using do as a full verb, we need another do as an auxiliary.
positive sentence:
She does her homework every day.
negative sentence:
She doesn't do her homework every day.
question:
Does she do her homework every day?
Sentences without the auxiliary "do"
In the following cases, the auxiliary do is not used in negative sentences/questions:
the full verb is "be"
Example:
I am not angry. / Are you okay?
the sentence already contains another auxiliary (e.g. have, be, will)
Example:
They are not sleeping. / Have you heard that?
the sentence contains a modal verb (can, may, must, need, ought to, shall, should)
Example:
We need not wait. / Can you repeat that, please?
the question asks for the subject of the sentence
Example:
Who sings that song?
Modal Verbs and their substitutes
Modal verbs are for example may, can, must, should, need. They express an ability,
permission, wish etc. to do something. (I may, can, must swim.) Many modal verbs
cannot be used in all of the English tenses. That's why we need to know the
substitutes to these modal verbs.
Modal Verb
Substitute
Example
must
to have to
I must swim. = I have to swim.
must not
not to be allowed to
I must not swim. = I am not allowed to
swim.
can
to be able to
I can swim. = I am able to swim.
may
to be allowed to
I may swim. = I am allowed to swim.
need
to have to
I need to swim. = I have to swim.
need not
not to have to
I need not swim. = I don't have to swim.
shall /
should/
ought to
to be supposed to / to
I shall / should / ought to swim. = I am
be expected to / to be to supposed to swim. / I am expected to swim.
/ I am to swim.
Conditional Sentences / If-Clauses Type I, II und III
Conditional Sentences are also known as Conditional Clauses or If Clauses. They are
used to express that the action in the main clause (without if) can only take place if a
certain condition (in the clause with if) is fulfilled. There are three types of Conditional
Sentences.
Conditional Sentence Type 1
→ It is possible and also very likely that the condition will be fulfilled.
Form: if + Simple Present, will-Future
Example: If I find her address, I’ll send her an invitation.
IF Clause Type 1
Form
if + Simple Present, will-Future
Example: If I find her address, I will send her an invitation.
The main clause can also be at the beginning of the sentence. In this case, don't use a
comma.
Example: I will send her an invitation if I find her address.
Note: Main clause and / or if clause might be negative. See Simple Present und willFuture on how to form negative sentences.
Example: If I don’t see him this afternoon, I will phone him in the evening.
Use
Conditional Sentences Type I refer to the future. An action in the future will only
happen if a certain condition is fulfilled by that time. We don't know for sure whether
the condition actually will be fulfilled or not, but the conditions seems rather
realistic – so we think it is likely to happen.
Example: If I find her address, I’ll send her an invitation.
I want to send an invitation to a friend. I just have to find her address. I am quite sure,
however, that I will find it.
Example: If John has the money, he will buy a Ferrari.
I know John very well and I know that he earns a lot of money and that he loves
Ferraris. So I think it is very likely that sooner or later he will have the money to buy a
Ferrari.
Conditional Sentence Type 2
→ It is possible but very unlikely, that the condition will be fulfilled.
Form: if + Simple Past, Conditional I (= would + Infinitive)
Example: If I found her address, I would send her an invitation.
IF Clause Type 2
Form
if + Simple Past, main clause with Conditional I (= would + Infinitive)
Example: If I found her address, I would send her an invitation.
The main clause can also be at the beginning of the sentence. In this case, don't use a
comma.
Example: I would send her an invitation if I found her address.
Note: Main clause and / or if clause might be negative. See Simple Past und
Conditional I on how to form negative sentences.
Example: If I had a lot of money, I wouldn’t stay here.
Were instead of Was
In IF Clauses Type II, we usually use ‚were‘ – even if the pronoun is I, he, she or it –.
Example: If I were you, I would not do this.
Use
Conditional Sentences Type II refer to situations in the present. An action could
happen if the present situation were different. I don't really expect the situation to
change, however. I just imagine „what would happen if …“
Example: If I found her address, I would send her an invitation.
I would like to send an invitation to a friend. I have looked everywhere for her address,
but I cannot find it. So now I think it is rather unlikely that I will eventually find her
address.
Example: If John had the money, he would buy a Ferrari.
I know John very well and I know that he doesn't have much money, but he loves
Ferraris. He would like to own a Ferrari (in his dreams). But I think it is very unlikely
that he will have the money to buy one in the near future.
Conditional Sentence Type 3
→ It is impossible that the condition will be fulfilled because it refers to the past.
Form: if + Past Perfect, Conditional II (= would + have + Past Participle)
Example: If I had found her address, I would have sent her an invitation.
IF Clause Type 3
Form
if + Past Perfect, main clause with Conditional II
Example: If I had found her address, I would have sent her an invitation.
The main clause can also be at the beginning of the sentence. In this case, don't use a
comma.
Example: I would have sent her an invitation if I had found her address.
Note: Main clause and / or if clause might be negative. See Past Perfect and
Conditional II on how to form negative sentences.
Example: If I hadn’t studied, I wouldn’t have passed my exams.
Use
Conditional Sentences Type III refer to situations in the past. An action could have
happened in the past if a certain condition had been fulfilled. Things were different
then, however. We just imagine, what would have happened if the situation had been
fulfilled.
Example: If I had found her address, I would have sent her an invitation.
Sometime in the past, I wanted to send an invitation to a friend. I didn't find her
address, however. So in the end I didn't send her an invitation.
Example: If John had had the money, he would have bought a Ferrari.
I knew John very well and I know that he never had much money, but he loved
Ferraris. He would have loved to own a Ferrari, but he never had the money to buy
one.
Exceptions
Sometimes Conditional Sentences Type I, II and III can also be used with other tenses.
Exceptions for Conditional Sentences
So far you have only learned the basic rules for Conditional Sentences. It depends on
the context, however, which tense to use. So sometimes it's possible for example that
in an IF Clause Type I another tense than Simple Present is used, e.g. Present
Progressive or Present Perfect.
Conditional Sentences Type I (likely)
Condition
IF Clause
Main Clause
refers to:
future action
action going
on now
finished
action
improbable
action
Simple
Present
Present
Progressive
Present
Perfect
should +
Infinitive
If the book is
interesting, …
If he is snoring, …
If he has moved into
his new flat, …
Simple
If he gets what he
Present
wants, …
Conditional Sentences Type II (unlikely)
Condition refers
IF Clause
to:
Simple
Past
…I will buy it.
Imperative
…buy it.
Modal
Auxiliary
…you can buy it.
Future I
…I will wake him
up.
Imperative
…wake him up.
Modal
Auxiliary
…you can wake
him up.
Future I
…we will visit him.
Imperative
…visit him.
Modal
Auxiliary
…we can visit
him.
If she should win this Future I
race, …
present facts
present / future
event
Future I
If I had a lot of
money, …
consequence in
Simple
If I knew him, …
the past
Past
Conditional Sentences Type II (impossible)
…I will
congratulate her.
Imperative
…congratulate
her.
Modal
Auxiliary
…we can
congratulate her.
Simple
Present
…he is very nice.
Main Clause
Conditional
I
…I would travel
around the world.
Conditional
II
…I would have said
hello.
Condition
refers to:
IF Clause
Main Clause
present
Past
Perfect
If I had known it, …
Conditional
I
…I would not be
here now.
past
Past
Perfect
If he had learned for
the test, …
Conditional
II
…he would not
have failed it.
Infinitive and Gerund
There are certain words in English that are usually followed by an infinitive or gerund.
If you are not sure whether to use the infinitive or gerund, check out our lists or look
the words up in a dictionary.
Infinitive
Use
Certain words are followed by an infinite verb with or without ‘to’.
Use and Word Lists
Example
as the subject of a clause
To know you is to love you.
after certain expressions (without ‘to’)
Why not go to the cinema?
after certain verbs (without ‘to’)
I can swim.
after certain verbs (with ‘to’)
He wants to swim.
after certain verbs with interrogatives
(infinitive constructions)
They don’t know how to swim.
after certain verbs with objects (without
‘to’)
He made her swim.
after certain verbs with objects (with ‘to’)
They wanted him to swim.
after certain adjectives and their
comparisons
It’s easier to swim downstream.
after nouns deriving from the verbs
We made a promise to swim. (derived from
mentioned above
the verb ‘to promise’)
Gerund
Form
ing form of the verb
Exceptions in Spelling
See → Present Progressive – Exceptions
Use
Certain words are followed by an Ing-Form.
Use and Word Lists
Example
as the subject of a clause
Cycling is good for your health.
after certain adjectives
He’s afraid of going by plane.
after certain prepositions
Before going to bed he turned off the lights.
after certain verbs
I enjoy cooking.
after certain verbs with prepositions I am looking forward to seeing you again.
after certain nouns
We had problems finding our way back home.
Words used with the Gerund
Adjectives (with Prepositions) followed by the Gerund
Example: I am interested in visiting the museum.
afraid of
angry about / at
bad at
busy
clever at
crazy about
disappointed about
excited
about
famous for
fond of
glad about
good at
impressed by
interested in
keen on
like
near
proud of
sick of
sorry about
tired of
worried about
worth
Präpositions followed by the Gerund
Example: Instead of studying for her exams, she went out every night.
about (in 'how/what about')
after
apart from
because of
before
by
in
in spite of
instead of
on
without
Verbs followed by the Gerund
Example: I enjoy enjoy cooking.
admit
advise
allow
appreciate
avoid
can't help
can't stand
consider
delay
deny
dislike
enjoy
escape
fancy
finish
go (in go swimming)
imagine
involve
keep
mention
mind
miss
permit
postpone
practise
reject
resist
risk
stop
suggest
understand
waste time / money
Verbs with Prepositions followed by the Gerund
Example: I'm looking forward to seeing you again soon.
accuse of
adjust to
agree with
apologize for
approve of
ask about
ask for
begin by
believe in
be
used to
blame for
care for
carry on
complain about
concentrate on
congratulate on consist of
cope with
decide against
decide
for
depend on
die of
dream about / of escape from
feel like
forgive for
give up
insist on
keep on
look forward to
object to
pay for
prevent sb. from protect from
put off
rely on
spend money on spend time on
succeed in
suspect of
take part in
talk about / of
thank for
think of
use for
warn against
worry about
Nouns / Nouns with Prepositions followed by the Gerund
Example: There's no point in waiting any longer.
advantage of
alternative of
chance of
choice
between
danger of
difficulty in
doubt about
experience in
fun
hope of
idea of
interest in
opportunity of
place for
pleasure in
point in
possibility of
problem
reason for
trouble
trouble in
waste of time
use
way of
waste of money
Words followed either by Infinitive or Ing-Form
Use and Word Lists
Example
same meaning
I started to read. / I started reading.
same meaning but different
use
She forbids us to talk. / She forbids talking.
different meaning
He stopped to smoke. / He stopped smoking.
infinitive or present participle I saw him go up the stairs. / I saw him going up the
stairs.
Words used either with the Infinitive or Gerund
Words with the same meaning
Example: I started to read. / I started reading.
attempt
begin
bother
cannot bear
cease
continue
hate
intend
love
prefer
start
Words with the same meaning but different use
Word
Infinitive - with an object
Gerund – without an object
advise
I advise you to go by bus.
I advise going by bus.
allow / permit
He allowed her to take the car.
He allowed taking the car.
forbid
She forbids us to smoke.
Words with a different meaning
Word
Infinitive meaning
She forbids smoking.
Gerund meaning
forget /
remember
with regard to the future
Remember to switch off the
lights.
with regard to the past
Do you remember switching off
the lights?
go on
start something new
Go on to read.
continue with the same action
Go on reading.
regret
with regard to the future
I regret to say that.
with regard to the past
I regret saying that.
stop
interrupt another action
I stopped to smoke.
terminate
I stopped smoking.
try
do something complicated
do it and see what happens
Try to solve this riddle.
Try talking to him.
Infinitive or Present Participle
Gerund and present participle are not exactly the same. As this chapter is about when
to use the infinitive and when to use the ing-form, however, we have also listed words
here that can be used either with the infinitive or the present participle. (for more
information on the present participle see participles)
Words
Infinitive meaning
Gerund meaning
feel
hear
see
Emphasises that the action is
completed.
Example: I saw him go up the
stairs.
Action can be completed, but not
necessarily.
Example: I saw him going up the
stairs.
go
come
expresses a purpose
Example: She is coming to show
us the pictures.
in connection with activities
Example: Let’s go shopping /
dancing.
Nouns - Articles, Plural und Possessive Case
Important things to keep in mind when using nouns are which article to use and how
to form the plural and how to form the possessive case.
Article
Direct article - the
example: the house
Indirect article a / an
a - if the first letter of the following word is pronounced like a consonant
example: a car, a university
an - if the first letter of the following word is pronounced like a vowel
example: an apple, an hour
Plural
general rule: singular form + s
example: a car - two cars
after s, ch, x, z the plural is formed by adding es
example: a box - two boxes
y after a consonant is changed to ie before the plural s
example: a city - two cities
But: y after a vowel is not changed
example: a boy - two boys
After o the plural is usually formed by adding es (this is not the case, however, with
words used for electric gadgets and music: radio, video, disco)
example: a tomato - two tomatoes
Possessive Case of Nouns
adding 's
of phrase
usually used for people
usually used for things
Ronny's brother
the name of the school
If there is a relation to people when using the possessive case with unanimated things,
often the s is added instead of using an of phrase.
example: Germany's economy or the ecomony of Germany
When using the possessive case with a time, s is added.
example: a three week's holiday
Passive Voice
Use of Passive
Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known,
however, who or what is performing the action.
Example: My bike was stolen.
In the example above, the focus is on the fact that my bike was stolen. I do not know,
however, who did it.
Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as the following
example shows:
Example: A mistake was made.
In this case, I focus on the fact that a mistake was made, but I do not blame anyone
(e.g. You have made a mistake.).
Form of Passive
Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle (3rd column of irregular verbs)
Example: A letter was written.
When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:
:- the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence
:- the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle)
:- the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is
dropped)
Examples of Passive
Tense
Subject
Verb
Object
Simple Present
Simple Past
Present Perfect
Future I
Hilfsverben
Active:
Rita
writes
a letter.
Passive: A letter
is written
by Rita.
Active:
wrote
a letter.
Passive: A letter
was written
by Rita.
Active:
has written
a letter.
Passive: A letter
has been written
by Rita.
Active:
will write
a letter.
Passive: A letter
will be written
by Rita.
Active:
can write
a letter.
can be written
by Rita.
Rita
Rita
Rita
Rita
Passive: A letter
Examples of Passive
Tense
Subject
Present
Progressive
Verb
Object
is writing
a letter.
is being written
by Rita.
was writing
a letter.
Passive: A letter
was being written
by Rita.
Active:
had written
a letter.
Passive: A letter
had been written
by Rita.
Active:
will have written
a letter.
Passive: A letter
will have been written
by Rita.
Active:
would write
a letter.
Passive: A letter
would be written
by Rita.
Active:
would have written
a letter.
Active:
Rita
Passive: A letter
Past Progressive Active:
Past Perfect
Future II
Conditional I
Conditional II
Rita
Rita
Rita
Rita
Rita
Passive: A letter
would have been written
by Rita.
Passive Sentences with Two Objects
Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one of the
two objects becomes the subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to
transform into a subject depends on what you want to put the focus on.
Subject
Verb
Object 1
Object 2
Active:
Rita
wrote
a letter
to me.
Passive:
A letter
was written
to me
by Rita.
Passive:
.
I
was written
a letter
by Rita.
As you can see in the examples, adding by Rita does not sound very elegant. That’s
why it is usually dropped.
Personal and Impersonal Passive
Personal Passive simply means that the object of the active sentence becomes the
subject of the passive sentence. So every verb that needs an object (transitive verb)
can form a personal passive.
Example: They build houses. – Houses are built.
Verbs without an object (intransitive verb) normally cannot form a personal passive
sentence (as there is no object that can become the subject of the passive sentence). If
you want to use an intransitive verb in passive voice, you need an impersonal
construction – therefore this passive is called Impersonal Passive.
Example: he says – it is said
Impersonal Passive is not as common in English as in some other languages (e.g.
German, Latin). In English, Impersonal Passive is only possible with verbs of
perception (e. g. say, think, know).
Example: They say that women live longer than men. – It is said that women live
longer than men.
Although Impersonal Passive is possible here, Personal Passive is more common.
Example: They say that women live longer than men. – Women are said to live longer
than men.
The subject of the subordinate clause (women) goes to the beginning of the sentence;
the verb of perception is put into passive voice. The rest of the sentence is added using
an infinitive construction with 'to' (certain auxiliary verbs and that are dropped).
Sometimes the term Personal Passive is used in English lessons if the indirect object
of an active sentence is to become the subject of the passive sentence.
Participles
There are three kinds of participles in English: present participle, past participle and
perfect participle. You probably know the first two from certain tenses and adjective
forms. Apart from that, participles are also used to shorten sentences.
Present Participle
The present participle is the ing-form. You surely know this form:
:- from progressive / continuous tenses (e. g. Present Progressive) – I am speaking.
:- as an adjective form – The film is interesting.
:- as a gerund – He is afraid of flying.
Not the exceptions in spelling when adding 'ing':
Exception
Example
final e dropped (but: ee is not changed)
come – coming (but: agree agreeing)
final consonant after short, stressed vowel is doubled sit – sitting
final consonant l after vowel is always doubled (in
British English)
travel – travelling
final ie becomes y
lie – lying
The present participle can be used to describe the following verbs:
come, go, sit
Example: The girl sat crying on the sofa.
The present participle can also be used after verbs of the senses if we do not want to
emphasise that the action was completed. (see Infinitive or Ing-Form)
feel, find, hear, listen to, notice, see, smell, watch
Example: Did you see him dancing?
Furthermore, the present participle can be used to shorten or combine active clauses
that have the same subject.
Example: She left the house and whistled. – She left the house whistling.
Past Participle
The past participle is the participle that you find in the third column of lists with
irregular verbs. You surely know this form:
:- from perfect tenses (z. B. Present Perfect Simple) – I have spoken.
:- from passive voice – The letter was written.
:- as an adjective form – I was bored to death.
For irregular participle forms see third column of irregular verbs. Regular verbs form
the past participle by adding ed, however, note the following exceptions in spelling:
Exceptions when adding ed
Example
after a final e, only add d
love – loved
final consonant after a short, stressed vowel
or l as final consonant after a vowel is doubled
admit – admitted
travel – travelled
final y after a consonant becomes i
hurry – hurried
The past participle can also be used to shorten or combine passive clauses that have
the same subject.
Example: The boy was given an apple. He stopped crying. – Given an apple, the boy
stopped crying.
Perfect Participle
The perfect participle can be used to shorten or combine clauses that have the same
subject if …
:- … one action (the one where the perfect participle is used) is completed before the
next action starts.
Example: She bought a bike and cycled home. – Having bought a bike, she cycled
home.
:- … one action has been going on for a period of time when another action starts.
Example: He had been living there for such a long time that he didn't want to move to
another town. – Having lived there for such a long time, he didn't want to move to
another town.
The perfect participle can be used for active and passive voice.
:- active voice: having + past participle (Having cooked, he set the table.)
:- passive voice: having been + past participle (Having been cooked, the food looked
delicious.)
Use of Participle Clauses
If a clause is shortened using a participle construction, the clause is called participle
clause.
Example: Watching TV, she forgot everything around her.
In English, participle clauses are mainly used in writing in order to put a lot of
information into one sentence.
When shortening or combining clauses with a participle construction, keep the
following rules in mind:
:- Both clauses should have the same subject.
:- The less important part becomes the participle clause. Important information
should always be in the main clause.
:- Make sure, you use the correct participle form (see above).
:- The conjunctions as, because, since and relative pronouns who, which are left out.
:- The conjunctions before, when are used in the participle clause.
:- The conjunctions after, while can be used or left out.
Participle Clauses with different Subjects
Sometimes participle clauses can be used even if the clauses to be combined do not
have the same subject. This is the case for example if the main clause contains one of
the following verbs + object:
feel, find, hear, listen to, notice, see, smell, watch
Example: I heard him playing the guitar.
Here, the participle clause must directly follow the object it is relating to. (Note: Some
of the verbs mentioned here can also be used with the infinitive. For further
information see Infinitive or Ing-Form)
A participle construction is also possible, if both subjects are mentioned (often the
word 'with' is put before the subject in the participle clause). This is very formal,
however, and not often used.
Example: Mrs Jones went to New York. Mr Smith took up her position.
→ (With) Mrs Jones going to New York, Mr Smith took up her position.
Incorrect Participle Clauses
Apart from the exceptions mentioned above, participle clause and main clause should
have the same subject. Otherwise the sentences might sound rather strange.
Example: I was driving on the motorway, when the baby started to cry.
→ Falscher Partizipialsatz: Driving on the motorway, the baby started to cry.
In this example you get the feeling that the baby has driven the car. So these
participle clauses are considered wrong in standard English. In colloquial English,
these 'incorrect participle clauses' are usually okay, and you can even find an example
in Shakespeare's Hamlet:
Now, Hamlet, hear. ’Tis given out that, sleeping in my orchard, a serpent stung me.
As the text goes, it is said that Hamlet's father was bitten by a snake. Strictly
speaking, however, the snake was asleep when it bit Hamlet's father.
Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal verbs are mainly used in spoken English and informal texts. (The more formal
a conversation or text, the less phrasal verbs are found.)
Phrasal verbs consist of a verb plus a particle (preposition, adverb). The particle can
change the meaning of the verb completely, e.g.:
:- look up – consult a reference book (look a word up in a dictionary)
:- look for – seek (look for her ring)
:- look forward – anticipate with pleasure (look forward to meeting someone)
There are no rules that might explain how phrasal verbs are formed correctly - all you
can do is look them up in a good dictionary and study their meanings. In our lists,
you will find some frequently used phrasal verbs and their meanings.
Position of the Particle
The particle is placed either after the verb or after the object.
Example:
Write down the word. / Write the word down.
If the object is a pronoun, however, the particle has to be placed after the pronoun
(object).
Example:
Write it down.
Frequently used Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal Verbs with: break, bring, call, carry, come, do, fall, get, go, keep, look, make,
put, run, set, take, turn
break
break down
fail to function
have a physical or mental collapse
break in
interrupt a discussion
burgle
soften with use (shoes)
break off
discontinue (therapy, relationship)
break out
escape from prison, begin suddenly
break up
end a relationship
bring
bring about
cause to happen
bring forth
give birth to
bring forward
draw attention to sth
bring on
cause to happen or appear
bring round
persuade
cause to recover consciousness
bring up
rear, educate a child
mention
vomit
call
call back
return a phone call
call for
require
call in
communicate by phone
consult a specialist
call off
cancel
call out
read names aloud
order workers to strike
call on
request sb to do sth
call up
reach by phone
summon for military services
carry
carry away
remove
inspire, affect emotionally
carry off
take away (by force)
win
remove, degrade (earth)
carry on
continue
carry out
accomplish, make
carry through
complete
bring out of difficulties
come
come about
happen, to be achieved
come across
find/meet by chance
come after
follow
come at
attack
reach, discover
come back
return
come by
pass, go past, visit
buy, get
come down
fall (price)
come down to
mean, signify
come down with
fall sick with
come in
enter, be received
prove to be
come in for
receive, be object of (criticism)
come off
become detached
come out
become known, be published
be removed (stain)
come over
come from a distance
come round
visit sb
recover consciousness
come to
amount to
arrive/reach a place
come up
be mentioned/discussed
(problem) arise
come up against
be faced with (problems)
come upon
find/meet by chance
come up to
match (a standard)
come up with
produce an idea
do
do away with
abolish
kill
do up
dress up
fasten, secure (clothing)
do with
need
do without
not require
fall
fall apart
fall into pieces
fall behind
fail to keep up pace
fall for
be in love with
be deceived by
fall in with
meet by chance
coincide with
fall off
decrease
drop from
fall out
quarrel
fall out with
quarrel with
fall through
fail, miscarry
fall to
start an activity eagerly
get
get across
communicate (an idea)
get along
be in good terms with somebody
get away
escape
get away with
escape (punishment)
get by
manage, cope
get down to
turn one's attention to sth
get in
enter (car, taxi)
get off
disembark (bus, train etc.)
get on
enter (bus, train etc.)
get out
disembark (car, taxi)
get over
recover (illness, upset)
get through
pass (an exam)
be connected on the phone
get to
reach
get up
rise from bed after sleeping
go
go against
be contrary to (principles, rules)
go along with
take the same view
go away
depart
go down
become less
decrese in price
sink (ship)
set (sun)
go for
pick up, go and get
go off
explode
deteriorate (food)
begin to sound (alarm)
go on
continue
go out
leave the house
strike
go over
inspect the details of sth
go past
pass
go round
visit informally
go through
deal with
discuss in detail
experience sth (usually bad)
go up
increase in price
explode
go with
match
keep
keep away
prevent from / avoid being near
keep back
withhold
keep down
not to increase
keep off
avoid (a topic)
stay away
keep on
not stopping doing sth
keep up
continue, carry on
keep up with
not to fall behind sb
look
look after
take care of
look down on
regard with a feeling of superiority
look for
seek
look forward to
anticipate with pleasure
look into
investigate (a crime)
look on
be a spectator
regard
look out
be careful
look over
inspect hastily
look through
pretend not to see
examine the contents of sth
look up
consult a reference book
look up to
respect
make
make for
have/produce a particular effect
make off
run away
make out
recognise, distinguish
make up
constitute, form
invent a lie
put together, prepare
apply cosmetics
make up for
compensate
regain (time)
put
put across
express in an understandable way
put back
put sth to its proper place
lay money aside for the future
move back the hands of a clock
put by
save for later use
put down
repress
write down
store (food)
put down to
give as a reason, attribute to
put forward
move forward the hands of a clock
suggest, propose
put in for
be a candidate for an election
put on
dress oneself with
tease
gain (weight)
put off
postpone
put out
extinguish (a fire, light)
put through
connect sb by phone
put up
build
raise (hand)
provide accomodation for
offer for sale
put up with
tolerate, accept
run
run after
chase
run away
escape, flee
run down
knock down, collide with
feel weak due to overwork
run in
imprison
run into
meet by chance
run off
escape, flee
run out
run outside
become used up
run out of
exhaust one's stock
run over
overflow
study quickly
pass over, knock down
run up against
meet with difficulties
set
set aside
reserve for later use
set back
hinder, slow down a progress
set down
write down
set off
cause to explode
start a journey
set up
start business
take
take after
follow sb as an example
resemble in appearance
take down
write down
take in
understand (meaning)
deceive
take off
undress
begin flight (plane)
take to
develop a habit
take up
continue, proceed
become interested in
take up with
begin to associate with
turn
turn down
diminish the intensity
reject
turn in
hand in
turn off
switch off
turn on
switch on
turn out
switch off
turn over
bring the reverse side up
turn up
increase the intensity
make an appearance
Prepositions
Prepositions are short words (on, in, to) that usually stand in front of nouns
(sometimes also in front of gerund verbs).
Even advanced learners of English find prepositions difficult, as a 1:1 translation is
usually not possible. One preposition in your native language might have several
translations depending on the situation.
There are hardly any rules as to when to use which preposition. The only way to learn
prepositions is looking them up in a dictionary, reading a lot in English (literature)
and learning useful phrases off by heart (study tips).
The following table contains rules for some of the most frequently used prepositions in
English:
Prepositions – Time
English
Usage
Example
on
days of the week
on Monday
in
months / seasons
time of day
year
after a certain period of time
(when?)
in
in
in
in
at
for night
for weekend
a certain point of time (when?)
at night
at the weekend
at half past nine
since
from a certain point of time (past
till now)
since 1980
for
over a certain period of time (past
till now)
for 2 years
ago
a certain time in the past
2 years ago
before
earlier than a certain point of time
before 2004
to
telling the time
ten to six (5:50)
past
telling the time
ten past six (6:10)
to / till /
until
marking the beginning and end of a from Monday to/till Friday
period of time
till / until
in the sense of how long something
is going to last
by
August / in winter
the morning
2006
an hour
He is on holiday until Friday.
in the sense of at the latest
up to a certain time
Prepositions – Place (Position and Direction)
English
Usage
I will be back by 6 o’clock.
By 11 o'clock, I had read five pages.
in
room, building, street, town,
country
book, paper etc.
car, taxi
picture, world
in
in
in
in
the
the
the
the
at
meaning next to, by an object
for table
for events
place where you are to do
something typical (watch a film,
study, work)
at
at
at
at
the door, at the station
the table
a concert, at the party
the cinema, at school, at work
Example
kitchen, in London
book
car, in a taxi
picture, in the world
English
Usage
Example
on
attached
for a place with a river
being on a surface
for a certain side (left, right)
for a floor in a house
for public transport
for television, radio
the picture on the wall
London lies on the Thames.
on the table
on the left
on the first floor
on the bus, on a plane
on TV, on the radio
by, next to,
beside
left or right of somebody or
something
Jane is standing by / next to /
beside the car.
under
on the ground, lower than (or
covered by) something else
the bag is under the table
below
lower than something else but
above ground
the fish are below the surface
over
covered by something else
meaning more than
getting to the other side (also
across)
overcoming an obstacle
put a jacket over your shirt
over 16 years of age
walk over the bridge
climb over the wall
above
higher than something else, but
not directly over it
a path above the lake
across
getting to the other side (also over)
getting to the other side
walk across the bridge
swim across the lake
through
something with limits on top,
bottom and the sides
drive through the tunnel
to
movement to person or building
movement to a place or country
for bed
go to the cinema
go to London / Ireland
go to bed
into
enter a room / a building
go into the kitchen / the house
towards
movement in the direction of
something (but not directly to it)
go 5 steps towards the house
onto
movement to the top of something
jump onto the table
from
in the sense of where from
Other important Prepositions
English
Usage
a flower from the garden
from
who gave it
a present from Jane
of
who/what does it belong to
what does it show
a page of the book
the picture of a palace
by
who made it
a book by Mark Twain
on
walking or riding on horseback
on foot, on horseback
entering a public transport vehicle get on the bus
in
entering a car / Taxi
get in the car
off
leaving a public transport vehicle
get off the train
out of
leaving a car / Taxi
get out of the taxi
Example
English
Usage
Example
by
rise or fall of something
travelling (other than walking or
horseriding)
prices have risen by 10 percent
by car, by bus
at
for age
she learned Russian at 45
about
for topics, meaning what about
we were talking about you
Pronouns (Personal, Possessive, Relative and Reflexive Pronouns)
Pronouns are words like I, me (personal pronouns) or my, mine (possessive pronouns).
Personal Pronouns
Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns
Reflexive
subject
possessive
possessive
Pronouns
object form
form
adjective
pronoun
I
me
my
mine
myself
you
you
your
yours
yourself
he
him
his
his
himself
she
her
her
hers
herself
it
it
its
its
itself
we
us
our
ours
ourselves
you
you
your
yours
yourselves
they
them
their
theirs
themselves
Personal Pronouns - Subject Form
example: We have got some books.
Personal Pronouns - Object Form
example: The books are for us.
Possessive Adjectives
example: These are our books.
Possessive Pronouns
example: The books are ours.
Reflexive Pronouns
example: He can carry the bags himself.
Relative Pronouns
example: This is the man who lives next door.
Question Tags
Question tags are used in conversation to get a (positive) reaction from the person you
are talking to. That’s not really difficult, is it? ;o)
Form
:- positive main clause → negative question tag
:- negative main clause → positive question tag
Examples
You are Tom, aren’t you?
He isn’t Joe, is he?
main clause with auxiliary verb → use auxiliary verb in question tag
You’ve got a car, haven’t you?
Relative Clauses
We use relative clauses to give additional information about something without
starting another sentence. By combining sentences with a relative clause, your text
becomes more fluent and you can avoid repeating certain words.
How to Form Relative Clauses
Imagine, a girl is talking to Tom. You want to know who she is and ask a friend
whether he knows her. You could say:
A girl is talking to Tom. Do you know the girl?
That sounds rather complicated, doesn't it? It would be easier with a relative clause:
you put both pieces of information into one sentence. Start with the most important
thing – you want to know who the girl is.
Do you know the girl …
As your friend cannot know which girl you are talking about, you need to put in the
additional information – the girl is talking to Tom. Use „the girl“ only in the first part
of the sentence, in the second part replace it with the relative pronoun (for people, use
the relative pronoun „who“). So the final sentence is:
Do you know the girl who is talking to Tom?
Relative Pronouns
relative
use
example
pronoun
who
subject or object pronoun for people
I told you about the woman
who lives next door.
which
subject or object pronoun for animals
and things
Do you see the cat which is
lying on the roof?
which
referring to a whole sentence
He couldn’t read which
surprised me.
whose
possession for people animals and things Do you know the boy whose
mother is a nurse?
whom
object pronoun for people, especially in
non-defining relative clauses (in defining
relative clauses we colloquially prefer
who)
I was invited by the professor
whom I met at the conference.
that
subject or object pronoun for people,
I don’t like the table that
animals and things in defining relative
stands in the kitchen.
clauses (who or which are also possible)
Subject Pronoun or Object Pronoun?
Subject and object pronouns cannot be distinguished by their forms - who, which,
that are used for subject and object pronouns. You can, however, distinguish them as
follows:
If the relative pronoun is followed by a verb, the relative pronoun is a subject pronoun.
Subject pronouns must always be used.
the apple which is lying on the table
If the relative pronoun is not followed by a verb (but by a noun or pronoun), the
relative pronoun is an object pronoun. Object pronouns can be dropped in defining
relative clauses, which are then called Contact Clauses.
the apple (which) George lay on the table
Relative Adverbs
A relative adverb can be used instead of a relative pronoun plus preposition. This
often makes the sentence easier to understand.
This is the shop in which I bought my bike.
→ This is the shop where I bought my bike.
relative
meaning
use
example
adverb
when
in/on
refers to a time expression
the day when we met
which
him
where
in/at which refers to a place
the place where we met
him
why
for which
the reason why we met
him
refers to a reason
Defining Relative Clauses
Defining relative clauses (also called identifying relative clauses or restrictive relative
clauses) give detailed information defining a general term or expression. Defining
relative clauses are not put in commas.
Imagine, Tom is in a room with five girls. One girl is talking to Tom and you ask
somebody whether he knows this girl. Here the relative clause defines which of the five
girls you mean.
Do you know the girl who is talking to Tom?
Defining relative clauses are often used in definitions.
A seaman is someone who works on a ship.
Object pronouns in defining relative clauses can be dropped. (Sentences with a
relative clause without the relative pronoun are called Contact Clauses.)
The boy (who/whom) we met yesterday is very nice.
Non-Defining Relative Clauses
Non-defining relative clauses (also called non-identifying relative clauses or nonrestrictive relative clauses) give additional information on something, but do not define
it. Non-defining relative clauses are put in commas.
Imagine, Tom is in a room with only one girl. The two are talking to each other and
you ask somebody whether he knows this girl. Here the relative clause is non-defining
because in this situation it is obvious which girl you mean.
Do you know the girl, who is talking to Tom?
Note: In non-defining relative clauses, who/which may not be replaced with that.
Object pronouns in non-defining relative clauses must be used.
Jim, who/whom we met yesterday, is very nice.
How to Shorten Relative Clauses?
Relative clauses with who, which, that as subject pronoun can be replaced with a
participle. This makes the sentence shorter and easier to understand.
I told you about the woman who lives next door. – I told you about the woman living
next door.
Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof? – Do you see the cat lying on the roof?
Reported Speech (Indirect Speech)
If we report what another person has said, we usually do not use the speaker’s exact
words (direct speech), but reported (indirect) speech. Therefore, you need to learn how
to transform direct speech into reported speech. The structure is a little different
depending on whether you want to transform a statement, question or request.
Statements
When transforming statements, check whether you have to change:
:- pronouns
:- present tense verbs (3rd person singular)
:- place and time expressions
:- tenses (backshift)
Type
Example
direct speech
“I speak English.”
reported speech
(no backshift)
He says that he speaks English.
Type
Example
reported speech
He said that he spoke English.
(backshift)
Statements in Reported Speech
Pronouns
In reported speech, you often have to change the pronoun depending on who says
what.
Example
She says, “My mum doesn’t have time today.” – She says that her mum doesn’t have
time today.
Tenses
No backshift
Do not change the tense if the introductory clause is in Simple Present (e. g. He says).
Note, however, that you might have to change the form of the present tense verb (3rd
person singular).
Example
He says, “I speak English.” – He says that he speaks English.
Backshift
You must change the tense if the introductory clause is in Simple Past (e. g. He said).
This is called backshift.
Example
He said, “I am happy.” – He said that he was happy.
Direct Speech
Reported Speech
Simple Present
Simple Past
Present Progressive
Past Progressive
Simple Past
Past Perfect Simple
Present Perfect Simple
Past Perfect Simple
Past Progressive
Past Perfect Progressive
Present Perfect Progressive
Past Perfect Progressive
Future I (going to)
was / were going to
Future I (will)
Conditional I (would)
Conditional I (would)
The verbs could, should, would, might, must, needn’t, ought to, used to do not normally
change.
Example:
He said, “She might be right.” – He said that she might be right.
Place and Time expressions
For place and time expressions you have to check whether place and time are the
same in direct and reported speech or not. Check out the following example:
It is Friday and you meet James at a restaurant. James tells you that he saw Caroline
in this restaurant today. (“I saw Caroline here today.”) A few minutes later, Helen joins
you and you want to report what James has told you. Place (here) and time (today) are
the same and you can say:
→ James said that he had seen Caroline here today.
One day later, you meet Mary at the same restaurant. Again, you want to report to her
what James has told you. The place is the same, but not the time (it happened
yesterday). So you would say:
→ James said that he had seen Caroline here yesterday.
Still a few days later, Tom rings you at home. Again, you want to report to him what
James has told you. However, now you are not at the restaurant (but at home) and a
few days have passed since then. So you would say:
→ James said that he had seen Caroline at the restaurant on Friday.
oder
→ I met James in a restaurant on Friday and he said that he had seen Caroline there
that day.
Therefore you always have to think which place and time expressions are logical in a
certain situation.
In the following table, you will find ways of transforming place and time expressions
into reported speech.
Direct Speech
Reported Speech
today
that day
now
then
yesterday
the day before
… days ago
… days before
last week
the week before
next year
the following year
tomorrow
the next day / the following day
here
there
Direct Speech
Reported Speech
this
that
these
those
Questions
When transforming questions, check whether you have to change:
:- pronouns
:- present tense verbs (3rd person singular)
:- place and time expressions
:- tenses (backshift)
Also note that you have to:
:- transform the question into an indirect question
:- use the interrogative or if / whether
Type
Example
with interrogative
without interrogative
direct speech
“Why don’t you speak English?”
reported speech
He asked me why I didn’t speak English.
direct speech
“Do you speak English?”
reported speech
He asked me whether / if I spoke
English.
Questions in Reported Speech
For pronouns, tenses and place / time expressions see statements in reported speech.
Besides, note that instead of ‚that‘ you use the interrogative. If there is no
interrogative, use ‚whether‘ / ‚if‘.
Direct Speech
Reported Speech
statement
He said: “She lives in
London.“
He said that she lived in
London
question with
interrogative
He asked:“Where does she
live?“
He asked where she lived.
question without
interrogative
He asked: “Does she live in
London?“
He asked whether she lived
in London.
He asked if she lived in
London.
It is also important that you use an indirect question in reported speech, i.e. after the
interrogative or ‚whether‘ / ‚if‘ you continue the sentence as if it were a statement
(subject-verb etc.). The auxiliary verb ‚do‘ is not used in indirect questions.
Example:
He asked: “Where does she live?“ – He asked where she lived.
Requests
When transforming questions, check whether you have to change:
:- pronouns
:- place and time expressions
Type
Example
direct speech
“Carol, speak English.“
reported speech
Requests in Reported Speech
He told Carol to speak English.
For pronouns and place / time expressions see statements in reported speech. Tenses
are not relevant for requests – simply use ‚to‘ + infinite verb.
Example:
She said, “Say hello to your mum.“ – She asked me to say hello to my mum.
For negative requests, use ‚not to‘ + infinite verb.
Example:
He said, “Don’t give up, Bob.“ – He advised Bob not to give up.
Additional Information and Exeptions
Apart from the above mentioned basic rules, there are further aspects that you should
keep in mind, for example:
:- main clauses connected with and / but
:- tense of the introductory clause
:- reported speech for difficult tenses
:- exeptions for backshift
:- requests with must, should, ought to and let’s
→ more on additional information and exeptions in reported speech
Advanced Points
Main Clauses connected with and / but
If two complete main clauses are connected with ‚and‘ or ‚but‘, put ‚that‘ after the
conjunction.
Example:
He said,“I saw her but she didn’t see me.“ – He said that he had seen her but that she
hadn’t seen him.“
If the subject is left out in the second main clause (the conjunction is followed by a
verb), do not use ‚that‘.
Example:
She said,“I am a nurse and work in a hospital.“ – He said that she was a nurse and
worked in a hospital.“
Tense of the Introductory Clause
The introductory clause usually is in Past Tense.
Example:
He said that …
Present Tense is often used to report a conversation that is still going on, e. g. during
a phone call or while reading a letter.
Example:
“I am fine.“ – Tom says / writes that he is fine.
The introductory clause can also be in another tense. In the following table you can
see, for which tense of the introductory clause you have to use backshift in reported
speech.
No Backshift
Backshift
if introductory clause is in …
if introductory clause is in …
Simple Present (He says …)
Present Perfect (He has said …)
Future I will (He will say …)
Future I going to (He is going to say …)
Simple Past (He said …)
Past Perfect (He had said …)
Future II ( He will have said …)
Conditional I (He would say …)
Conditional II (He would have said …)
Backshift in Reported Speech
The basic rules for backshift when transforming direct speech into reported speech
are:
Direct Speech
Reported Speech
Direct Speech
Reported Speech
Simple Present
Simple Past
Present Progressive
Past Progressive
Simple Past
Past Perfect Simple
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
Past Progressive
Past Perfect Progressive
Present Perfect Progressive
Past Perfect Progressive
Future I (going to)
was / were going to
Future I (will)
Conditional I
Conditional I
Future II
Conditional II
Conditional II
Exceptions
Backshift of Simple Present is optional if the situation is still unchanged or if you
agree with the original speaker.
Example:
“Canberra is the capital of Australia.“
She said that Canberra is / was the capital of Australia.
Backshift of Simple Past and Past Progressive is optional if they cannot be mistakenly
taken for backshift of Present Tense. So backshift is not necessary if there is a time
expression indicating past.
Example:
“She left Boston on Monday.“
He said that she left / had left Boston on Monday.
Simple Past and Past Progressive do not normally change in sentences with when / if.
Example:
“When I was having breakfast, the telephone suddenly rang.“
She said that when she was having breakfast, the telephone suddenly rang.
Example:
“If I had more time, I would learn French.“
He said that if he had more time, he would learn French.
Requests
The basic rule for requests is: introductory clause + ‚to‘ + infinite verb.
Example:
“Say hello to your mum.“
She asked me to say hello to my mum.
Advise expressions with must, should and ought are usually reported using advise /
urge.
Example:
“You must read that book.“
He advised / urged me to read that book.
The expression let’s is usually reported using suggest. In this case, there are various
possibilities for reported speech: gerund or statement with should.
Example:
“Let’s go to the cinema.“
He suggested going to the cinema.
He suggested that we should go to the cinema.
Short Answers
Saying ‘Yes, I do. / No, I don’t’ in English is more polite than just saying ‘Yes. / No.’
That’s why short answers are very commonly used.
To form the short answer, you use the first word from the question. (This is either an
auxiliary verb or a form of ‘be’.)
Use the long form (he does) in affirmative answers (yes).
Use the short form (he doesn’t) in negative answers (no).
Question
Affirmative
Negative
Do we know him?
Yes, we do.
No, we don’t.
Can she see me?
Yes, she can.
No, she can’t.
Have they read the book?
Yes, they have.
No, they haven’t.
Is he hungry?
Yes, he is.
No, he isn’t.
Mind: If ‘you’ is the subject of the question, ‘you’ must be replaced by ‘I’ or ‘we’.
Question
Affirmative
Negative
Do you know him?
Yes, I / we do.
No, I / we don’t.
If the question starts with ‘are you’, ‘are’ must sometimes be replaced by ‘am’.
Question
Affirmative
Negative
Are you hungry?
Yes, I am.
No, I’m not.
But: →
Yes, we are.
No, we aren’t.
Grammar Handbook: Nouns and Verb Phrases
Noun Phrases
A noun phrase is made up of a noun and all its modifiers. It can function in a
sentence as a subject, an object, or a complement. Some noun phrases begin with an
infinitive (to go) or a gerund (going); this type of noun phrase is always singular:
To sail the seven seas was her lifelong dream. (subject)
Dieters prefer green salad. (object)
A ham sandwich is a popular lunch. (complement)
Verb Phrases
A verb phrase consists of a main verb plus one or more helping verbs, its
complements, objects, or other modifiers, and functions syntactically as a verb.
Some common helping verbs are:
:- to be (am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been)
:- to have (has, have, had)
:- to do (do, does, did)
:- others: may, might, must, can, could, shall, should, will, would
Helping verbs add meaning to other verbs. Some helping verbs change the time
expressed by the key verb. Others, such as "should" and "might," are used to indicate
obligation, possibility, ability, or permission:
:- The student is going to Florida for Spring Break.
:- The firm will probably not hire an accountant today.
:- You should edit your own compositions.
Grammar Handbook: Prepositional Phrases
A prepositional phrase is a group of words including a preposition and a noun,
pronoun, or group of words used as a noun. They are fragments that usually do not
stand alone, except in commands like "At once!" or "On your feet!"
Kinds of Phrases
There are two kinds of prepositional phrases: adjective phrases and adverb phrases.
An adjective phrase modifies a noun or pronoun. It always comes immediately after
the noun or pronoun it modifies:
:- Joe is the student with the highest grade. ("with the highest grade" modifies
"student.")
An adverb phrase modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb. It is used to tell when, where,
how, or to what extent about the word it modifies:
:- Megan put her bird in its cage. ("in its cage" modifies the verb "put.")
Two or More Phrases
When two or more prepositional phrases follow each other, they may modify the same
word, or one phrase may modify the object in the preceding phrase:
:- They arrived at the airport on time. (Both phrases modify "arrived"; "at the airport"
tells where and "on time" tells when.)
:- Chicago is on the northeast tip of Illinois. ("on the northeast tip" modifies "is"; "of
Illinois" modifies "tip.")
Preposition or Adverb?
Many words can be either prepositions or adverbs; you can distinguish prepositions
by their objects.
:- Preposition: The bird flew out the window. ("window" is the object of "out.")
:- Adverb: We went out last night. ("out" has no object.)
Prepositional Phrase or Infinitive Phrase?
Prepositional phrases can be confused with infinitive phrases. "To" followed by a verb
is an infinitive, but "to" followed by a noun or pronoun is a prepositional phrase
Grammar Handbook: Verbals and Verb Phrases
Verbals are verb forms which act as another part of speech in a sentence (i.e. as
adjectives, nouns, and adverbs).
Verbal phrases are verbals and any of the verb form's modifiers, objects, or
complements. The three types of verbal phrases are participial, gerund, and
infinitive phrases.
Participial Phrases
Participial Phrases are present participles or past participles and any modifiers,
objects, or complements. Participial phrases contain verbs which act as adjectives in a
sentence.
Examples:
:- Singing very softly, the boy lulled his baby brother to sleep. (the participial phrase
works as an adjective, modifying "boy")
:- The girls, frightened by the police car's headlights, quickly came down from the
school's roof. (the participial phrase works as an adjective, modifying "girls")
Gerund Phrases
Gerund Phrases contain verbs ending in -ing and any modifiers, objects, or
complements. Gerund phrases act as nouns in a sentence. They can act as the
subject or object of a verb, as a predicate nominative, and as the object of a
preposition.
Examples:
:- Waiting for his grades drove him crazy. (the gerund phrase works as the subject of
the verb "drove")
:- The woman denied knowing her own husband. (the gerund phrase works as the
object of the verb "denied")
:- He thought he could escape from his problems by running away. (the gerund
phrase works as the object of the preposition "by")
:- Making many acquaintances is cultivating future friendships. (the gerund
phrases work as the subject and as the predicate nominative)
Infinitive Phrases
Infinitive Phrases contain verbals consisting of "to" followed by a verb and any
modifiers, objects, or complements. Infinitive phrases usually act as nouns, but they
can also act as adjectives and adverbs.
Examples:
:- To live in Boston eventually is his main goal in life. (the infinitive phrase works as
the subject of the sentence)
:- Quentin Tarentino loves to babble during interviews. (the infinitive phrase works
as the object of the verb "loves")
:- Do you have any clothes to donate to the homeless shelter? (the infinitive phrase
works as an adjective, modifying "clothes")
:- She went home to visit her family. (the infinitive phrase works as an adverb,
modifying "went")
Grammar Handbook: Independent and Dependent Clauses
A clause is a group of words that includes a subject and a predicate. There are two
types of clauses: independent and dependent. An independent clause can stand
alone as a sentence, while a dependent clause must be accompanied by an
independent clause.
Independent Clauses
Two independent clauses can be connected by:
:- A coordinating conjunction: Today is Tuesday and our papers are due Wednesday.
:- A conjunctive adverb or another transitional expression: I need to study for my
test; in fact I am going to the library now. (In this case, use a semicolon to separate
the two clauses.)
:- Correlative conjunction: George not only finished his paper on time, but he also
got an A+.
:- Semicolon: This is one of my English classes; Shakespeare is my other.
:- Colon (sometimes): She received the assignment: it is to be turned in next Friday.
Dependent Clauses
Dependent clauses can be either adjective, adverb, or noun clauses based on how
they are used in a sentence.
Adjective (or relative) clauses modify nouns or pronouns and, in order to make the
relationship clear, follow the noun or pronoun they modify.
Example:
:- Our class, which meets at nine in the morning, discusses the importance and use of
grammar in our schools. (An adjective clause modifies the noun "class".)
Adverb clauses modify single words (verbs, adjectives, or adverbs) or entire phrases
or clauses. They always begin with a subordinating conjunction. Adverb clauses
answer the questions how? where? when? why? and to what extent? Adverb clauses
appear in any of several places in the sentence as long as the relationship is clear and
its position conveys the intended purpose.
Example:
:- Confused, after class was over, Susan decided to meet with her group to discuss the
paper. (An adverb clause modifies the participle "confused.")
Noun clauses act as nouns in sentences (subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, or
compliments). They may begin with a relative pronoun or "by," "whether," "when,"
"where," "why," or "how."
Examples:
:- Whoever wins the race will receive the trophy. (A noun clause serves as the subject
of the sentence.)
:- This grade is what I deserve. (A noun clause serves as the subject complement.)
Grammar Handbook: Adjective, Adverb, and Noun Clauses
A clause is a group of related words which has both a subject and a predicate. A
clause is different from a phrase because a phrase is a group of related words which
lacks either a subject or a predicate or both.
Adjective Clauses
Adjective clauses modify nouns or pronouns. An adjective clause nearly always
appears immediately following the noun or pronoun.
To test for adjective clauses there are a couple of questions that you can ask. Which
one? What kind? Most adjective clauses begin with "who," "whom," "which," or "that."
Sometimes the word may be understood. The words "that" or "who," for example,
might not specifically be in the sentence, but they could be implied. To determine the
subject of a clause ask "who?" or "what?" and then insert the verb.
Example:
:- The book that is on the floor should be returned to the library.
Occasionally, an adjective clause is introduced by a relative adverb, usually "when,"
"where," or "why."
Example:
:- Home is the place where you relax.
Adverb Clauses
Adverb clauses usually modify verbs, in which case they may appear anywhere in a
sentence. They tell why, where, under what conditions, or to what degree the action
occurred or situation existed. Unlike adjective clauses, they are frequently movable
within the sentence.
Example:
:- When the timer rings, we know the cake is done. OR
:- We know the cake is done when the timer rings.
Adverb clauses always begin with a subordinating conjunction. Subordinating
conjunctions introduce clauses and express their relation to the rest of the sentence.
Noun Clauses
Noun clauses are not modifiers, so they are not subordinators like adjectives and
adverbs, and they cannot stand alone. They must function within another sentence
pattern, always as nouns. A noun clause functions as a subject, subject complement,
direct object, or object of a preposition.
A noun clause usually begins with a relative pronoun like "that," "which," "who,"
"whoever," "whomever," "whose," "what," and "whatsoever." It can also begin with the
subordinating conjunctions "how," "when," "where," "whether," and "why."
Example:
:- Whoever wins the game will play in the tournament.
Grammar Handbook: Relative Clauses
A relative clause acts as a clause that modifies a noun or pronoun. Relative clauses
begin with a relative pronoun (who, whom, which, that, whose). Relative clauses can
either be restrictive or nonrestrictive. Also see below for common usage problems.
Restrictive Relative Clauses
A restrictive relative clause is essential in order to complete the meaning of the main
clause.
Examples:
:- Where is the girl who is going?
:- That's the one that I like best.
:- Is he the one whose house is on fire?
Nonrestrictive Relative Clauses
A nonrestrictive relative clause adds definition to the main clause, but is not
necessary for meaning. Nonrestrictive relative clauses are set off by commas.
Examples:
:- That girl, who is going to the concert, has a green dress.
:- The orange car, which is my favorite, has seating for six.
:- The tuba player, whose house is on fire, just went to band practice.
Common Usage Problems
Beware of sentence fragments when trying to use a relative clause:
:- He was a loser. Who never thought he would win. [incorrect]
:- He was a loser who never thought he would win. [revised]
The relative pronoun should immediately follow the antecedent in a relative clause.
Violating this rule leads to confusion:
:- She saw the guy who dated Sheila who has a red mohawk. [unclear]
:- Does Sheila or the guy have a red mohawk? [confusing]
Revised:
:- She saw the guy, who has a red mohawk, who dated Sheila.
Grammar Handbook: Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses
A modifying clause can be either restrictive or nonrestrictive.
Restrictive Clause
A restrictive modifying clause (or essential clause) is an adjective clause that is
essential to the meaning of a sentence because it limits the thing it refers to. The
meaning of the sentence would change if the clause were deleted. Because restrictive
clauses are essential, they are not set off by commas.
:- All students who do their work should pass easily.
:- The car that I want is out of my price range.
:- The gas company will discontinue our service unless we pay our bills by Friday.
Nonrestrictive Clauses
A nonrestrictive modifying clause (or nonessential clause) is an adjective clause that
adds extra or nonessential information to a sentence. The meaning of the sentence
would not change if the clause were to be omitted. Nonrestrictive modifying clauses
are usually set off by commas.
:- Edgar Allan Poe, who wrote "The Raven," is a great American poet.
:- Puerto Rico was a Spanish colony until 1898, when it was ceded to the United
States.
Grammar Handbook: Sentence Types
Sentences can be either simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex.
The Simple Sentence
Simple sentences have only one independent clause. There are no dependent clauses,
and the sentence must be limited to one subject and one predicate. The sentence may
contain modifying words or phrases:
:- Grammar class is boring. "Magma" is a French progressive rock band.
The Compound Sentence
Compound sentences are composed of two or more independent clauses, which are
joined by a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon. One should always use a comma
before any coordinating conjunction that connects two independent clauses:
:- Sissy likes "Magma," but she thinks grammar class is boring. Timmy likes grammar
class, so he does not like "Magma."
The Complex Sentence
Complex sentences use one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses:
:- When Sissy is in grammar class, she often dreams of the next Magma show. ("When
Sissy..." is a dependent clause, "she often..." is an independent clause.)
The Compound-Complex Sentence
The compound-complex sentence joins a compound and a complex sentence together.
It should contain two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent
clauses:
:- Magma sings in a language they created, and they feel that proper grammar has no
place at their shows, which are often quite obnoxious.
Comma Usage
For proper comma usage with each sentence type, see Restrictive and Nonrestrictive
Clauses.
Grammar Handbook: Subjects and Predicates
In English, every sentence has two essential parts: a complete subject and a
complete predicate.
Subjects
The complete subject is the simple subject (a noun or a pronoun) plus any word or
group of words modifying the simple subject that tells who or what the sentence is
about:
:- The high from my Mountain Dew usually lasts about an hour.
To find the complete subject, ask Who? or What? insert the verb, and finish the
question. The answer is the complete subject:
:- What usually lasts about an hour? The high from my Mountain Dew.
The simple subject is the essential noun, pronoun, or group of words acting as a noun
that cannot be left out of the complete subject. In order to identify it, remove the
complements and modifiers and whatever is left is the simple subject:
article simple subject
prepositional phrase
predicate
The
high
from my Mountain Dew
usually lasts about an hour.
TIP: Does the sentence make sense with just the word ("high") identified as the simple
subject?
:- (The) high usually lasts about an hour.
Additional Facts About Subjects
The "Understood You"
Sometimes, as in the case of imperative sentences (see verb mood ), the subject does
not actually appear in the sentence. At such times the invisible subject is called the
"understood you":
:- (You) Rent The Last of the Mohicans from the video store.
Positioning
Although the subject most commonly appears before the verb, it can also appear
afterwards in sentences that begin with "there is" or "there are." "There" is an expletive
or empty word which simply gets the sentence started:
:- There are precious few hills in Illinois. vs. Precious few hills are in Illinois.
Sentences can also be inverted for effect:
:- Happy is the wife of Harrison Ford. vs. The wife of Harrison Ford is happy.
Predicates
The complete predicate is the verb plus its objects, complements, and adverbial
modifiers that tell what the complete subject does or is:
:- The high from my Mountain Dew usually lasts about an hour.
To find the complete predicate, ask "What does the subject (the high) do?" (It) usually
lasts about an hour.
Simple Predicate
The simple predicate is the essential verb or verb phrase that cannot be left out of the
complete predicate. Again, remove the modifiers and complements to identify it:
simple
simple
prepositional
article
prepositional phrase adverb
subject
predicate
phrase
The high
from my Mountain
usually lasts
about an hour
Dew
TIP: Does the sentence make sense with just the word identified as the simple
predicate?
:- The high from my Mountain Dew lasts.
Compound Subjects and Predicates
Although the examples so far have contained only one subject and one verb, a
sentence may contain a compound subject, a compound predicate, or both.
Compound Subject
The compound subject consists of two or more subjects that have the same verb and
are joined by a conjunction such as "and" or "or":
:- Spencer and Annie wagged their tails.
Compound Predicate
The compound predicate consists of two or more verbs that have the same subject and
are joined by a conjunction such as "and" or "or":
:- I came, saw, and conquered.
Grammar Handbook: Active and Passive Voice
The voice of a verb tells whether the subject of the sentence performs or receives the
action. In English there are two voices: active and passive.
Active Voice
In active voice, the subject performs the action expressed by the verb:
:- The student wrote a song.
Passive Voice
In passive voice, the subject receives the action expressed by the verb:
:- A song was written by the student.
Forming Tenses of Passive Verbs
The passive voice always consists of two parts: a form of the verb "to be" + past
participle:
Tense
Passive voice form
Present
it is cleaned
Past
it was cleaned
Future
it will be cleaned
Present perfect
it has been cleaned
Past perfect
it had been cleaned
Future perfect
it will have been cleaned
Uses of Passive Voice
Use the passive voice to:
:- Call attention to receiver of the action rather than the performer:
- The professor was hit by three snowballs.
:- Point out the receiver of the action when performer is unknown or unimportant:
-A love letter was slipped under the door.
- The signs will be posted.
:- Avoid calling attention to the performer of the action (known as the "institutional
passive"):
- The fines will be collected on Monday.
Active and Passive Voice in Writing
The choice between using the active or passive voice in writing is a matter of style, not
correctness. However, most handbooks recommend using active voice, which they
describe as more natural, direct, lively, and succinct. The passive voice is considered
wordy and weak (except when used in cases above). Examine the following examples.
:- weak, passive: The skater was slammed into the wall by Maria.
:- strong, active: Maria slammed the skater into the wall.
:- weak, passive: The book was enjoyed by me because the events of her childhood
were described so well by the author.
:- strong, active: I enjoyed the book because the author described the events of her
childhood so well.
Hints for Identifying the Passive Voice
:- An active verb may or may not have a direct object, but the passive verb almost
never does.
-"It is...That" construction (It is clear that... It is noted...)
:- Use of the verbs To Be, Make, or Have
-Passive: Your exits should be made quickly.
-Active: Leave quickly.
:- Endings that turn verbs into abstract nouns: -ion,-ing,-ment:
-Passive: When application of force is used, the lid will open.
-Active: Apply force to open the lid.
Grammar Handbook: Complements
A complement is called a complement because it completes the predicate in a
sentence. There are two kinds of complements: object complements and subject
complements.
Object Complements
An object complement follows the direct object and modifies or refers to the direct
object. An object complement can be an adjective, a noun, a word, or a group of words
which acts as an adjective or noun:
:- If you elect me president, I'll keep the unions satisfied. ("President" is an object
complement referring to the direct object "me." "Satisfied" is an object complement
modifying the direct object "unions.")
:- The students elected Mary president. ("President" is an object complement referring
to the direct object "Mary.")
:- Wool socks will keep your feet very warm. ("Very warm" is an object complement
modifying the direct object "your feet.")
Subject Complements
A subject complement follows a linking verb and modifies or refers to the subject. A
subject complement can be an adjective, a noun, a pronoun, a word, or a group of
words which acts as an adjective or noun:
:- I am a teacher, but I am not yet experienced. ("Teacher" and "experienced" are both
subject complements that modify the subject "I.")
Subject complements have two subgroups: predicate adjectives and predicate
nouns.
Predicate Adjectives
A predicate adjective is a subject complement that is an adjective (see appositives):
:- I am not yet experienced. ("Experienced" is a predicate adjective that modifies the
subject "I.")
Predicate Noun
A predicate noun (nominative) is a subject complement that is a noun:
:- I am a teacher. ("Teacher" is a predicate noun that refers to the subject "I.")
Grammar Handbook: Direct and Indirect Objects
A direct object is the word or words in a sentence designating the person or thing
receiving the action of a transitive verb:
:- The boy broke the dish.
An indirect object comes before the direct object. It tells to whom or for whom the
action of the verb is being done:
:- Sing me a song.
:- He feeds the turtle lettuce.
Grammar Handbook: Appositives
Appositives are two words or word groups which mean the same thing and are placed
together. Appositives identify or explain the nouns or pronouns which they modify:
:- Our teacher, Professor Lamanna, loves grammar.
We can say that "Professor Lamanna" is an appositive or is in apposition to "our
teacher." "Professor Lamanna" identifies or explains "teacher.'
Appositive Phrases
An appositive phrase includes an appositive and its modifiers:
:- My favorite place, the English building, is located on the Quad, a grassy square in
the middle of the campus.
Restrictive Appositives
A restrictive appositive is necessary to maintain the meaning of the sentence and does
not require commas. Usually, a restrictive appositive is a single word closely related to
the preceding word. It "restricts" or narrows the meaning of the word it modifies:
:- The musician Harry Connick will come to Champaign.
("Harry Connick" restricts the general term "musician.")
:- My sister Mary has four dogs.
Nonrestrictive Appositive
A nonrestrictive appositive may be omitted without changing the basic meaning of the
sentence. A nonrestrictive appositive is separated by commas. Commas are always
used when the word which the appositive modifies is a proper noun:
:- Harry Connick, the musician, will come to Champaign.
("Musician" offers additional information about the specific name "Harry Connick")
:- There are many parades for Mardi Gras, a religious festival celebrating the last day
before Lent, in New Orleans, a city in Louisiana.
Punctuation Note
A dash or colon, as well as a comma, can be used to set off appositives:
:- For the prisoner there was only one goal--escape.
Common usage problems
Grammar Handbook: Homophones
Homophones are words that sound alike but have different spellings and meanings.
As a result, these words are often
Examples:
:- Accept (to receive): "I accept your apology."
:- Except (excluded from): "I like everyone except her."
:- Capital (economic resources OR the city where lawmakers meet)
:- Capitol (the building where lawmakers meet)
:- Principal (head of a school): "The principal is your pal."
:- Principle (a moral or fundamental truth): "That is against my principles."
:- There (meaning "in that place"): "The book is over there."
:- Their (possessive pronoun "belonging to them"): "Their book"
:- They're (contraction for "they are"): "They're coming soon."
:- Its (possessive pronoun): "The dog lost its bone."
:- It's (contraction for "it is"): "It's a shame you can't come."
Grammar Handbook: Parallelism
Parallelism occurs when compound verbs or verbals express an action taking place at
the same time or in the same tense. When such is the case, the verb and/or verbals
must be in the same, or parallel, form.
Example:
:- Gail sings and dances. ("Sings" and "dances" are parallel forms of the verb.)
Types of Parallel Structure
:- Coordinated ideas of equal rank, connected by "and," "but," "or," or "nor."
-Correct:
--Earl loves bicycling and climbing. (A gerund is paired with a gerund.)
--Earl loves to bicycle and to climb. (An infinitive is paired with an infinitive.)
-Incorrect:
--Earl loves bicycling and to climb. (Here, a gerund is paired with an infinitive.)
:- Compared ideas
-Correct:
--I like officiating basketball more than playing basketball. (A gerund is paired with a
gerund.)
--I like to officiate basketball more than I like to play basketball. (An infinitive is
paired with an infinitive.)
-Incorrect:
--I like to officiate basketball more than I like playing basketball. (An infinitive is
paired with a gerund.)
:-Correlative ideas are linked with the correlative conjunctions both...and, either...or,
neither...nor, and not only...but also.
-Correct:
--Josh is talented not only as a basketball player, but also as a tennis player. (A noun
is paired with a noun.)
--Josh is talented not only at playing basketball, but also at playing tennis. (A gerund
is paired with a gerund.)
-Incorrect:
--Josh is talented not only as a basketball player, but also at playing tennis. (A noun
is paired with a gerund.)
Placement
Place correlative conjunctions immediately before the parallel terms:
:-Incorrect:
-Brad has both experienced the sweet taste of success and the bitterness of defeat.
:-Revised:
-Brad has experienced both the sweet taste of success and the bitterness of defeat.
Grammar Handbook: Misplaced Modifiers
Misplaced modifiers are single words, phrases, or clauses that do not point clearly to
the word or words they modify. As a rule, related words usually should be kept
together.
Six Helpful Tips for Placing Modifiers Correctly
Limiting modifiers (only, even, almost, nearly, just) should be placed in front of the
words they modify.
--Unclear: You will only need to plant one package of seeds.
--Revised: You will need to plant only one package of seeds. ("Only" modifies "one,"
not "need.")
Place modifying phrases and clauses so that readers can see at a glance what they
modify.
--Unclear: The robber was described as a tall man with a black moustache weighing
150 pounds.
--Revised: The robber was described as a six-foot-tall man weighing 150 pounds with
a black moustache. ("150 pounds" describes the man, not the moustache.)
Sentences should flow from subject to verb to object without lengthy detours along the
way. When adverbs separate subject from verb, verb from object, or helping-verb from
main-verb, the result can be awkward.
--Unclear: John, after trying to reach the ball, decided to get a ladder.
--Revised: After trying to reach the ball, John decided to get a ladder. (Subject and
verb are no longer separated.)
Infinitives ("to" + verb, such as "to go," "to catch," "to shout") usually should not be
split unless necessary, especially in formal writing.
--Unclear: The patient should try to, if possible, avoid going up and down stairs.
--Revised: If possible, the patient should try to avoid going up and down stairs.
Dangling modifiers are word groups (usually introductory) that may seem confusing to
some people if they fail to refer logically to any word in a sentence. Rewording a
sentence may help to clarify the meaning.
--Unclear: Deciding to join the navy, the recruiter happily pumped Joe's hand. (The
recruiter is not deciding to join the navy; Joe is.)
--Revised: The recruiter happily pumped Joe's hand after learning that Joe had
decided to join the navy.
--Unclear: Though only sixteen, UCLA accepted Martha's application. (UCLA is not
sixteen; Martha is.)
--Revised: Though Martha was only sixteen, UCLA accepted her application.
Dangling modifiers can be repaired by restructuring the sentence, but this
restructuring may vary according to the writer's stylistic preferences.
-Unclear:
--When watching films, commercials are especially irritating.
-Revised:
--One option would be to change the subject so that it names the actor that the
modifier implies:
---When watching films, I find commercials especially irritating.
--Another option would be to turn the modifier into a word group that includes the
actor:
---When I am watching films, commercials are especially irritating.
Grammar Handbook: Dangling Modifiers
A dangling modifier is a phrase or clause that does not connect grammatically with
what it is intended to modify. The problem is most common with adjective participial
phrases, especially when they open the sentence. Such open participial phrases can
be taken to modify the noun, but when the noun is not present in the sentence, then
the phrase becomes nonsensical.
Problems with Dangling Modifiers
There are two kinds of problems with dangling modifiers:
A word (often a pronoun) has been left out, so that the introductory phrase does not
complement what follows.
--Unclear: Running across the street, the bus left.
A phrase or word in a sentence is too far from the idea that it modifies.
--Unclear: A dependable car, the family decided to buy the mini-van.
Correcting the Problems
There are two ways to correct dangling modifiers.
The main clause can be left alone and the participial construction altered, usually to
an adverbial phrase.
--Unclear: Running down the street, the house was on fire.
--Revised: When the man ran down the street, the house was on fire.
The participial construction can be allowed to stand and the main clause modified so
that the modified object is in the subject position.
--Revised: Running down the street, the man saw the house was on fire.
Grammar Handbook: Sentence Fragments
A sentence fragment is a part of a sentence punctuated as if it were a complete
sentence. It is a group of words that begins with a capital letter and ends with a
period, exclamation point, or a question mark, but does not express a complete
thought.
Phrases as Sentence Fragments
:-A word group is a sentence fragment if it lacks a subject.
--Swam into the ocean. (Note: Sentences in the imperative mood (e.g., "Swim into the
ocean!") have, by convention, an understood "you" for a subject and are not
considered fragments.)
:-A word group is also a sentence fragment if it lacks a verb.
--The white plastic chair.
:-A word group missing both a subject and a predicate is a sentence fragment.
--As in the lives of many.
Clauses as Sentence Fragments
Warning: These are only guidelines for spotting a sentence fragment, not hard and
fast rules.
A clue that a group of words may be a sentence fragment is that it begins with a
subordinator. Often, when a group of words begins with a subordinator, it is a
dependent clause, a clause that cannot stand alone as a sentence. Some common
subordinators are: when, until, after, before, however, while, because, since, though,
although, if, so that, so, and where.
--Example: Until the day is over.
Another clue is that the word group begins with a relative pronoun. Some common
relative pronouns are: that, who, whose, whom, which, and when.
--Example: Whom Kelly had known since the third grade.
Using Sentence Fragments
Students should understand that sentence fragments can be used in writing, but that
they should be used rarely and cautiously. Pointing out these structures in literature
might be a good way to identify the difference between strong use of sentence
fragments and weak sentence fragments.
--Example: Every life is many days, day after day. We walk through ourselves, meeting
robbers, ghosts, giants, old men, young men, wives, widows, brothers-in-love. But
always meeting ourselves. (James Joyce)
The last word group is a sentence fragment. A sentence fragment is used here for
emphasis. In this example, the meaning of the fragment is clear.
Misusing Sentence Fragments
It is very easy to misuse sentence fragments. The following piece of writing shows how
this misuse can make writing unclear and disorganized.
--Example: It is my opinion that the baseball strike should end. A salary cap is not a
bad idea. After all, the players receive huge salaries. More money than the president.
The last word group is a sentence fragment.
Grammar Handbook: Fused Sentences, Run-ons, and Comma Splices
Fused Sentences
A fused sentence (also known as a run-on sentence) occurs when two independent
clauses are joined without any punctuation or connecting word between them.
--It was close to fall the trees were losing their leaves.
Comma Splices
A comma splice occurs when two independent clauses are joined only by a comma.
--It was close to fall, the trees were losing their leaves.
Six Ways to Eliminate Fused Sentences and Comma Splices
Separate the clause into two sentences:
---It was close to fall. The trees were losing their leaves.
Link the clauses with a semicolon:
---It was close to fall; the trees were losing their leaves.
Link the clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction:
---It was close to fall, so the trees were beginning to lose their leaves.
Recast the two independent clauses as one independent clause:
---It was the time of year when trees begin to lose their leaves.
Recast one of the independent clauses as a dependent clause:
---Because it was close to fall, the trees were losing their leaves.
Use a semicolon before a conjunctive adverb (also, anyway, besides, furthermore,
incidentally, moreover, otherwise, and thus) or a transitional expression (after all, by
the way, for example, in other words, and on the other hand) placed between
independent clauses:
---It was close to fall; consequently, the trees were losing their leaves.
THE 23 AUXILIARY VERBS
1. Twelve (12) verbs, when used as auxiliary verbs, combine with the base form only
(“base form” = infinitive minus “to”; for example: to go = infinitive; go = base form).
will
would
may
d
o
shall
should
might
do
es
can
could
must
di
d
OK: I will go. You can go. He should go. We may go. They do go.
Not OK: I will going. You can gone. He should goes. We may went. They do going.
2. Seven (7) verbs, when used as auxiliary verbs, combine with present participles
(base form plus ing: for example, going ) OR past participles (I have walked. I have
gone.)
am
is
are
was
were
be
been
OK: I am going. He is going. He is gone. You are going. You are gone. She was
going. She was gone. We were going. We were gone. They will be going. They will be
gone. It has been going. It has been gone.
Not OK: I am go. I am went. He is goes. He was wenting. She will be goning.
Note: Been is the past participle of to be.
But, none of the 7 verbs above combines
with been. In fact, only three auxiliaries combine with been: have, has, had. One of
these three is always immediately in front of been (for example: I have
been sick. He has been sick. I had been sick.), except in the negative and
interrogative (for example: I have not been sick. (negative) Has he been sick?
(interrogative)). Also Note: Been cannot stand alone. For example: Not OK: I
been here two years. OK: I have been here two years. Not OK: I
been living here two years. OK: I have been living here two years.
3. Four (4) verbs, when used as auxiliary verbs, combine with past participles only.
have
has
had
being
OK: I have gone. He has gone. I had gone. I was being robbed.
I have chased. He has chased. I had chased. I was being chased.
Not OK: I have go. I have going. He has go. He has going. I had go . I had going. I
was being rob. I was being robbing.
I have chase. I have chasing. He has chase. He has chasing. I had chase. I had
chasing. I was being chase. I was being chasing.
Note: Being works best in the continuous form of passive voice, simple present and
simple past only. For example: I am being chased (simple present). I was being
chased (simple past). Not OK: I will be being chased. I have been being chased. I
had been being chased. I will have been being chased. I am being tired = Not OK. I
am tired = OK. I was being lost = Not OK. I was lost = OK.
4. Of the 23 “auxiliaries,” nine (9) are auxiliary verbs ONLY.
will
shall
can
would
should could
must
may
might
OK: I will go. I shall go. I can go. I would go. I should go. I could go. I may go. I
might go. I must go.
Not OK: I will here. I shall there. I can this. I would that. I should him. I could
her. I may them. I might it. I must us.
Note: Many times every day you might hear people say: I do. She will. He does. We
might. You should. They might. I must. It could.
It seems like the
auxiliary verb is being used as a principal verb, but the principal verb is not
expressed. The examples above occur only in response to questions. Do you like
candy? Yes, I do (like candy). No, I don’t (like candy).
Will she come here? Yes, she
will (come here). No, she won’t (come here).
Does he study English? Yes, he
does (study English). No, he doesn’t (study English).
5. Of the 23 “auxiliaries,” fourteen (14) are auxiliary verbs OR principal verbs.
do
does
did
am
is
are
was
be
OK:
being
been
have
has
were
had
Auxiliary
Principal
I do not like cats.
I do my homework.
He does like cats.*
He does a good job.
Did you eat?**
You did the laundry.
I am reading.
I am poor.
She is not listening.
She isn’t rich.
It was running.
It was sunny.
We were robbed.
We were in New York
They will be kissed.
They will be here at noon.
I have been studying.
I have been sick.
I have talked to her.
I have some money.
He has driven a car.
He has a new car.
You had fallen down.
You had a cold.
She was being prepared. She was being polite.
*He does like cats. I do like cats. I did like cats. These sentences are in the
emphatic form, and they are used only in the simple present and simple past; they are
usually responses to statements or questions. For example: (1) John doesn’t like
cats. Yes, he does like cats. John doesn’t like cats, does he? Yes, he does like
cats. (2) You don’t like cats. Yes, I do like cats. You don’t like cats, do you? Yes, I
do like cats. (3) She didn’t like cats. Yes, she did like cats. She didn’t like cats,
did she? Yes, she did like cats. BUT: If the principal verb is a form of to be , dodoes-did is unnecessary. OK: He is rich. Yes, he is. No, he isn’t. He is rich, isn’t
he? Yes, he is. No, he isn’t. ALSO: If there is an auxiliary, do-does-did is
unnecessary. OK: She isn’t working. Yes, she is working. She isn’t working, is she?
Yes, she is working.
**In the interrogative and the negative, do, does, and did are auxiliaries for the simple
present and simple past--they are not emphatic. They are not used when the
principal verb is a form of to be or when there is an auxiliary verb. For example
(principal verb is a form of to be) : He is sick. Interrogative = Is he sick? Negative =
He isn’t sick.
For example (an auxiliary verb): I am talking. Interrogative = Am I talking? Negative
= I am not talking.
VERBS FOLLOWED BY GERUNDS, INFINITIVES
1. VERBS FOLLOWED BY A
GERUND: (e.g., I enjoy
swimming. NOT I enjoy to
swim. NOT I enjoy swim.)
2. VERBS FOLLOWED BY AN
INFINITIVE: (e.g., He wants to
swim. NOT He wants swimming.
NOT He wants swim.)
admit
advise
appreciate
avoid
believe
can’t help
choose
confess
consider
debate
delay
deny
discuss
dislike
enjoy
escape
favor
feel like
finish
get around to
get out of
give
go
imagine
include
keep on
know
look forward to
make
mention
mind
miss
picture
postpone
put off
decide
expect
forget
have
hope
know how
need
plan
promise
wait
want
would like
3. VERBS FOLLOWED BY
A GERUND OR AN INFINITIVE:
(e.g., She begins swimming. OR She
begins to swim. NOT She begins
swim.)
afford
attempt
begin
bother
choose
continue
dread
forget
hate
intend
like
love
hate
neglect
regret
protest
practice
quit
recall
recommend
regret
remember
resent
resist
risk
stop
succeed in
suggest
take up
work at
remember
stand
start
stop
try
ADVERBS
Adverbs tell how (“eagerly”), when (“lately,” “often”), where (“there,” “outside”), how
much (“very,” “too”), and why (“therefore”).
Adverbs usually modify verbs, other adverbs, or adjectives.
Bob drives carefully . (“Carefully” modifies the verb “drives.”)
Bob drives very carefully. (“Very” modifies the adverb “carefully.”)
Bob is quite tall. (“Quite” modifies the adjective “tall.”)
Adverbs are often “adjective + -ly”:
patient--patiently
careless--carelessly
expensive--expensively
probable--probably
certain--certainly
happy--happily
honest--honestly
personal--personally
real--really
direct--directly
fair-fairly
serious--seriously
But not all adverbs end in –ly:
again, ago, all, almost, also, always, any, anyhow, anymore, anyplace, anytime,
anyway, anywhere, better, best, enough, far, farther, fast, further, furthest, here, how,
inside, just, later, maybe, more, most, much, never, next, now, often, once, outside,
quite, rather, slow (also slowly), so, some, somehow, sometime, sometimes, somewhat,
still, straight, there, therefore, too, very, well, what, whatever, when, whence,
whenever, where, whereby, wherein, wherever, yet.
Not all words that end in -ly are automatically adverbs;
“friendly,” “likely,” “lonely,” and “lovely” are adjectives.
“Early” can be an adjective OR an adverb.
“Fast,” “slow,” “quick,” “early,” and “straight” are examples of other words that can be
adjectives AND adverbs, BUT have the same meaning:
Sara walks fast. (adverb) = Sara is a fast walker. (adjective).
The early bus (adjective) = the bus that arrives early (adverb).
Most adverbs, like adjectives, can be compared using “more” and “most”: sharply-more sharply--most sharply. One- syllable adverbs are compared using “-er” and “-est”:
straight--straighter--straightest.
Some adverbs are irregular:
well--better--best,
badly (ill)--worse--worst,
much--more--most,
little--less--least,
far--farther (further)--farthest (furthest).
TRANSITIONAL PHRASES
Transitional words and phrases keep the reader “on track.” They kep the reader
understand the relationship between one idea or statement and subsequent ones.
1. Adding ideas:
6. Degrees of certainty:
besides
for example (e.g.)
for instance
furthermore
in addition
in fact
indeed
likewise
moreover
once more
similarly
that is (i.e.)
then, too
anyhow
anyway
certainly
doubtless
in all likelihood
in all probability
in any case
indeed
perhaps
possibly
probably
surely
7. Qualification:
2. As expected:
as a matter of fact
for that matter
it follows that
naturally
obviously
of course
surely
to be sure
3. Cause and effect:
accordingly
especially
frequently
if
in case
in general
in particular
inasmuch
lest
occasionally
particularly
provided that
specifically
unless
and so
and that’s why
as a consequence
as a result
as might be expected
consequently
for this reason
hence
since
then
therefore
thus
8. Repetition:
as noted
as noted earlier
as we have seen
besides
in any case
in fact
in other words
indeed
to put it another way
to repeat
4. Contrast:
9. Summary:
at the same time
conversely
despite
however
in spite of
nevertheless
nonetheless
notwithstanding
not at all
on the contrary
on the other hand
still
unlike
yet
all in all
finally
in a word
in brief
in conclusion
in short
in summary
in summation
on the whole
therefore
to conclude
to make a long story short
to sum it up
to summarize
5. Concession:
although
but of course
certainly
doubtless
granted that
of course
though
to be sure
to doubt that
whereas
COMMON PHRASAL VERBS I
A. Separable Verbs
You can insert a noun or pronoun after the first word:
For example: “call back”
Noun: Call back John. = OK
Noun: Call John back. = OK
Pronoun: Call him back. = OK
ask in (to invite inside)
ask out (to invite on a date)
back away (to move away)
back down (to move back)
back off (to move back)
break down (to separate into basic parts)
break off (to snap; to cancel)
break in (a baseball glove)
break up (to separate)
bring about (a change)
bring back (the good old days)
bring down (the house)
bring up (the kids)
call back (to return a phone call)
call off (to cancel)
call up (to phone)
check off (to notate)
check out (to investigate)
cheer up (to make happy)
clean off (the countertop)
clean out (the closet)
clean up (the mess)
cross off (to delete)
cross out (to delete)
cross up (to deceive; to trick)
cut back (to diminish)
cut down (to diminish)
cut off (to remove)
cut out (to quit; to excise)
do in (to ruin; to exhaust)
do over (to repeat)
figure out (to solve)
fill in (the blank spaces)
fill out (the application form)
fill up (the tank with gasoline)
finish off (to complete)
get out (the tools)
give back (to return)
give up (to turn over; to surrender)
hand in (your homework)
hand out (the tests to the students)
hand over (all your money)
hang up (your jacket)
keep out (to prevent entry)
keep out of (trouble)
keep up (the good work)
kick out (to remove)
kick out of (to remove)
kill off (all the cockroaches)
leave out (to omit)
let in (to allow entry)
look over (to examine)
look up (a word in the dictionary)
make out (to discern)
make up (to fabricate)
name after (to give the same name to)
name for (to give the same name to)
pass by (to go past without stopping)
pass out (to distribute)
pass over (to hand over)
pay back (the money you borrowed)
pick out (to select)
pick up (the litter; the check)
point out (to show)
point out to (to show)
polish off (to finish)
put away (to remove)
put back (to replace)
put off (to delay)
put on (your shoes)
put out (the dog)
put up (the money)
quiet down (to be quiet)
rip off (to steal; to cheat)
run out (the base hit)
shut down (the assembly line)
shut off (the machine)
shut out (the other team)
shut up (to be quiet)
slow down (to reduce speed)
slow up (to reduce speed)
speed up (to increase speed)
stand up (to intentionally miss an appointment or date with someone)
start up (to start)
take down (to dismantle)
take off (your shoes)
take on (to confront)
take out (the trash)
take over (the organization)
take up (golf)
talk over (to discuss)
tear down (to dismantle)
tear off (a corner of the newspaper)
tear out (a page from your notebook)
tear up (the contract)
throw away (your old socks)
throw out (yesterday’s newspaper)
throw up (the ball)
try on (these shoes - maybe you’ll like them)
try out (this golf club - maybe you’ll like it)
turn down (the offer)
turn in (your homework)
turn off (the lights)
turn on (the lights)
turn out (the lights)
turn up (the volume)
use up (to use completely)
wake up (to awake)
warm up (the car engine)
wear out (to exhaust)
wipe off (the countertop)
wipe out (to annihilate)
write down (this information)
write off (to cancel)
write up (to report someone)
COMMON PHRASAL VERBS II
B. Inseparable Verbs
You cannot insert a noun or pronoun after the first word:
For example: “look for”
John looked for Mary. = OK
John looked Mary for. = Not OK
John looked for her. = OK
John looked her for. = Not OK
*break down (to stop working)
call on (to visit)
*catch up (to overtake)
catch up to (to overtake)
catch up with (to overtake)
check back with (to report to)
*check in (at a motel)
check in with (to notify)
check into (a motel)
check out of (a motel)
come across (to discover)
*come back (to return)
*come over (to visit)
*come through (to succeed)
*come to (to regain consciousness)
cut down on (to reduce use of)
cut in (to insert yourself into a line of people)
do without (to have none of)
*drop back (to move back)
drop by (to visit)
*drop in (to visit)
drop in on (to visit)
*drop out (to quit)
drop out of (school; sight)
*drop over (to visit)
fool around with (to
get along with (your coworkers)
*get back (move away from)
get in (the car)
get into (trouble; the car)
get off (the bus)
get off of (the bus)
get on (the bus)
get out of (the bus)
get over (the problem; the fence)
*get through (to finish)
get through with (to finish)
*get up (to wake up; to get out of bed)
*go back (to return)
*go on (to continue)
go over (to review)
*grow up (to mature)
*hang on (or you might fall off)
*hush up (to be quiet)
*keep on (to continue)
keep up with (to maintain progress with)
*let up (to ease off)
*lie down (to recline)
*listen up (to listen)
look after (to take care of)
look for (to search)
look into (to analyze)
*look out (the window)
*move away (to distance oneself)
move away from (to distance oneself)
*move back (to retreat)
move back to (to return)
move into (your new home)
*move out (to relocate)
move out of (your former apartment and move into your new apartment)
*pass away (to die)
*pass on (to die)
put up (or shut up)
put up with (to tolerate)
run across (to meet)
run into (to meet)
run out (the clock)
run out of (time; money)
*sit down (to sit)
*show up (to appear)
*stand up (to stand)
*stand out (to excel)
*stand up (to stand)
stay out of (trouble; jail)
take after (to mimic)
*take off (to depart)
talk about (to discuss)
*tear out of (to leave quickly)
think about (to consider; to ruminate; to cogitate)
*throw up (to vomit)
*turn in (to go to bed)
*turn out (to appear)
*turn up (to appear)
wait on (to serve)
*warm down (after exercising)
*warm up (before exercising)
watch out for (snakes)
*work out (to exercise)
work with (to help)
* = phrasal verb is not followed by an object (noun or pronoun)
SPELLING RULES
1. For a single syllable word, ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel
– double the consonant:
swim; swimmer; swimming
rob, robber, robbed, robbing
2. For a single syllable word, ending in a single consonant preceded by two vowels –
do NOT double the consonant:
meet, meeting
pair, paired, pairing
3. For a multiple syllable word, ending in a single consonant preceded by a single
vowel, if stress is on last syllable, double the consonant:
prefer, preferred, preferring
4. For most words, add -s to the singular form to make it plural:
cat, cats; bell, bells; rose, roses
5. If a word ends in vowel + o, usually add -s to form the plural:
monkey, monkeys (BUT money, moneys, OR monies). If a word ends in a consonant +
o, sometimes add -s:
piano, pianos
OR sometimes add -es:
potato, potatoes
OR sometimes add either:
zero, zeros, zeroes
6. If a word ends in f or fe, sometimes add -s to make it plural:
roof, roofs
OR sometimes change f or fe to -ves:
half, halves; wife, wives
OR sometimes add either:
scarf, scarfs, scarves
7. Add -es to the singular form when it ends in s, ss, ch, sh, x, z, or zz:
bus, buses
kiss, kisses
church, churches
bush, bushes
ax, axes
waltz, waltzes
fizz, fizzes
8. Drop the final -e if a suffix* begins with a vowel:
desire, desiring, desirable
9. Keep the final -e if a suffix begins with a consonant:
care + full = careful
complete + ly = completely
excite + ment = excitement
10. For a word that ends in a consonant + y, change the -y to -i for most suffixes:
pony, ponies
deny, denies
denied
11. If a word ends in -ay, -ey, -oy, form the plural by simply adding -s:
ray, rays
valley, valleys
toy, toys
12. Sometimes you change -ie to -y before -ing:
die, died, dying
lie, lied, lying
13. The sound of “shun” has several different spellings:
solution, occasion, mission, musician, Dalmatian, crucifixion
14. The following prefixes** give negative meaning to the original word:
unhappy
invisible
illegal
impolite
irregular
*A suffix is a word ending. It changes the part of speech of the word, but does not
change the meaning of the original (“root”) word entirely: see, seeing;
act, actor
beauty, beautiful
equip, equipment
** A prefix is a word beginning. It changes the meaning of the original (“root”) word:
review
preview
foresee
coworker
Singular, Plural of some words
alumna, alumnae
alumnus, alumni
analysis, analyses
auditorium, auditoriums
bacterium, bacteria
box, boxes
child, children
crisis, crises
crisis, crises
deer, deer/deers
fish, fish/fishes
foot, feet
fungo, fungoes
goose, geese
house, houses
man, men
milk, –
mother-in-law, mothers-in-law
mouse, mice
ox, oxen
–, pants
–, people
physics, –
–, scissors
sheep, –
sock, socks/sox
tooth, teeth
woman, women
PUNCTUATION MARKS
Punctuation marks on a page are similar to signs on a road. They guide you and
direct you.
1. A period ( . ) ends a declarative or imperative sentence.
I live in Pasadena. They don’t live in Pasadena.
Listen to me. Don’t drink and drive. Please come here. Eat your
vegetables.
2. A question mark ( ? ) ends an interrogative sentence.
Do you live in Pasadena? Don’t you like chocolate ice cream?
3. An exclamation mark ( ! ) ends an exclamatory sentence (a sentence that contains
a lot of emotion).
Help! Stop! Don’t call me again!
4. A comma ( , ) separates items in a list.
I like coffee, soda, milk, and tea.
Sara, Maria, Robert and Steven will eat
lunch.
5. A semicolon separates equal parts of a sentence.
Mary is at home; Bob is at school.
Give me a hamburger, with onions and lettuce; a coke, with a straw; and fries,
with ketchup.
6. A colon ( : ) usually precedes a list.
Bring these things with you: a book, a pencil, and a dictionary.
7. A dash ( – ) usually indicates a break in thought.
I’ll have a hot dog with mustard – no, make that ketchup.
8. A hyphen ( - ) separates syllables to make a word easier to read.
co-ordinate
re-elect
pray-er
A hyphen also separates syllables when it’s necessary to continue a word on
the following line.
9. Parentheses ( ) or a pair of dashes contain extra information.
John (my brother) is coming to the party.
John – my brother – is coming to the party.
10. An ellipsis (...) shows that information is missing or deleted.
“To be or not...the question.” (“To be or not to be. That is the question.”)
11. Quotation marks (“ ”) enclose the exact words of a person.
Maria said, “Where are the keys?”
12. An apostrophe ( ’ ) is a substitute for a letter or letters (in a contraction).
isn’t = is not can’t = cannot don’t = do not I’ll = I will I’m = I am He’s
sick. = He is sick.
Bob’s rich. = Bob is rich. What’s new? = What is new? They’ve worked. =
They have worked.
’99 = 1999
An apostrophe also shows possession.
This is Sara’s book. (Don’t say: This is the book of Sara.)
Where is the
dog’s dish?
14. Begin all sentences with a capital letter (i.e., capitalize the first word in all
sentences) and end all sentences with a punctuation mark. =
Capitalize the first word in a sentence and finish the sentence with a
punctuation mark.
MATHEMATICAl OPERATIONS
Remember what each sign signifies:
+ means plus, or and, or added to: 2 + 3 = 5 reads: 2 plus 3 is 5, or 2 and 3 is 5, or 2
plus 3 equals 5, or 3 added to 2 is 5, or 2 plus 3 is 5.
– means minus, or less, or subtracted from: 6 – 4 = 2 reads: 6 minus 4 is 2, or 6 less
4 is 2, or 4 subtracted from 6 is 2, or 6 minus 4 equals 2.
x means times, or multiplied by: 2 x 3 = 6 reads: 2 times 3 is 6, or 2 multiplied by 3
is 6, or 2 times 3 equals 6.
÷ means divided by, or goes into: 8 ÷ 2 = 4 reads: 8 divided by 2 is 4, or 2 goes into
8 4 times, or 8 divided by 2 equals 4.
1. Addition means to add. Add 2 and 2 and you get 4.
(2 AND 2 is 4)
2 + 2 = 4 (2 PLUS 2 is 4) or
2. Subtraction means to subtract. Subtract 4 from 9 and you get 5.
MINUS 4 is 5)
3. Multiplication means to multiply.
TIMES 3 is 12)
Multiply 3 by 4 and you get 12.
4. Division means to divide. Divide 18 by 6 and you get 3.
BY 6 is 3)
9 - 4 = 5 (9
4 X 3 = 12 (4
18 ÷ 6 = 3 (18 DIVIDED
5. = is the equals sign (say is or are or equal or equals)
+ is the plus sign (say plus or and)
- or – is the minus sign (say minus, or subtracted from: 4 subtracted from 9 is
5)
X or x is the times sign (say times, or multiplied by: 3 multiplied by 4 is 12)
÷ is the division sign (say divided by,or goes into: 6 goes into 18 three times)
. is the decimal point or decimal or point (say point: 3.7 = 3 POINT 7, NOT
3 decimal point 7,
NOT 3 decimal 7)
6. Fractions (e.g., 1/5) and Decimals (e.g., 0.2)
1/5 = one-fifth = .2 = two-tenths
1/4 = one-fourth = .25 = 25 hundredths
1/3 = one-third = .33 = 33 hundredths
1/2 = one-half = .5 = five-tenths
2/3 = two-thirds
3/4 = three-fourths
1 1/2 = one and a half OR one and one-half = 1.5 = one point five
TITLES
Mr. = Mister = man (married, single, divorced, widowed)
Mrs. (say Miss-uz) = woman (married, divorced, widowed)
Ms. (say Mizz) = woman (married, single, divorced, widowed)
Miss = woman (single) or girl
Master = boy
TIME
1. What time is it? I don’t know.
What time is it? It’s 7 o’clock.
2. Do you have the time? No, I don’t.
Do you have the time? Yes, it’s 7 o’clock.
3. Do you know what time it is? No, I don’t.
Do you know what time it is? Yes, it’s 7 o’clock.
4. It’s noon. = It’s 12 pm. = It’s 12:00 pm. = It’s high noon.
5. It’s midnight. = It’s 12 am. = It’s 12:00 am.
6. It’s 7 o’clock. = It’s 7:00.
7. am = before noon. It’s 7 am. = It’s 7 in the morning.
8. pm = after noon.
It’s 7 pm. = It’s 7 in the evening.
9. How to tell time
The easy way: number of complete hours + number of minutes
7 hours
+11 minutes = 7:11
(Do not say 7 hours :11 minutes. Say the numbers only: 7:11)
The hard way: number of minutes + a word + the number of hours
11 past 7 OR 11 after 7 = 7:11
. Say past or after when the minute hand points between 0 and 30 minutes. Say to,
of, till, until, or
before when the minute hand points between 30 and 60
minutes.
DIRECTIONS
- Excuse me. How do I get to Targit from CEC?
- Take Colorado Boulevard west to Lake Avenue. Targit is on the north side of
Colorado about 2 blocks past Lake.
- Pardon me. Do you know where Targit is?
- Yes. Go west on Colorado Boulevard past Lake Avenue. It’s about 2 blocks after
Lake, on the north side of Colorado.
...................................................
•San Francisco
N
NW
NE
•LA •Phoenix
W
E
SW
SE
•San Diego
S
San Francisco is north of Los Angeles.
San Diego is south of Los Angeles.
Phoenix is east of Los Angeles.
Los Angeles is west of Phoenix.
Phoenix is northeast of San Diego.
Phoenix is southeast of San Francisco.
San Diego is southwest of Phoenix.
San Francisco is northwest of Phoenix.
Union 88 •
Foss •
......................................
• Barco
• Moonbucks
Union 88 is on the northwest corner of the intersection.
Barco is on the northeast corner of the intersection.
Foss is on the southwest corner of the intersection.
Moonbucks is on the southeast corner of the intersection.
................................................
How do I get to the main office?
Go straight ahead. = It’s straight ahead.
Go down the hall and turn left. = Go down the hall and make a left.
Go past the library and turn right. = Go past the library and make a right.
Turn left at the end of the hall. = Make a left at the end of the hall.
MEASURES
12 inches = 1 foot
3 feet = 1 yard
5,280 feet = 1 mile
16 ounces = 1 pound
2,000 pounds = 1 ton
1 acre = 208.7 feet per side
8 ounces = 1 cup
2 cups = 1 pint
2 pints = 1 quart
4 quarts = 1 gallon
1 gallon of water = 8 pounds
MONEY
$ = dollar sign
¢ = cent sign
$1 = $1.00 = one dollar
50¢ = 50 cents = $ .50 = half a dollar = a half dollar
$1.50 = a dollar fifty = one fifty =one and a half dollars
$1.50¢
1¢ = a penny 5¢ = a nickel 10¢ = a dime 25¢ = a quarter
150¢
http://www.drgrammar.org/faqs/
Dr. Grammar's
Frequently Asked Questions
Located here are answers to questions previously asked of Dr. Grammar that may
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If after reading Dr. Grammar's response, you still want to learn more, click here and
follow the prompts to your question for additional explanations and examples.
A lot or Alot?
A lot should be written as two words. Although a lot is used informally to mean "a
large number" or "many," avoid using a lot in formal writing.
Example: The crook had many [not a lot of] chances to rob the stranger.
A or An?
"Use a before a consonant sound; use an before a vowel sound. Before a letter or an
acronym or before numerals, choose a or an according to the way the letter or
numeral is pronounced: an FDA directive, a U.N. resolution, a $5.00 bill" (MerriamWebster's Dictionary of English Usage). Please note: This is the basic rule. For a more
thorough presentation of the complexities of using a or an, see the source cited here.
Accept or Except?
Accept is a verb meaning "to receive" or "to approve."
Example: "I accept your offer of the book."
Except is a preposition meaning "excluding" or "leaving out."
Example: "He liked everything on the plate except the liver."
Except can also be a verb meaning "to leave out" or "to exclude."
Example: "He excepted all Corvettes from his list of favorite cars."
Acronyms and Initialisms?
"Acronyms are formed by combining the first letter or letters of several words; they
are pronounced as words and written without periods" (Alred, Brusaw, and Oliu, The
Business Writer's Handbook).
Examples: radar (radio detecting and ranging), COBOL (Common Business-Oriented
Language), scuba (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus).
"Initialisms are formed by combining the initial letter of each word in a multiword
term; they are pronounced as separate letters" (Alred, Brusaw, and Oliu).
Examples: e.o.m. (end of month), c.o.d. (cash on delivery), p.m. (post meridian).
Usage guidelines:
:- "Except for commonly used abbreviations (U.S., a.m.), spell out a term to be
abbreviated the first time it is used, followed by the abbreviation in parentheses.
Thereafter, the abbreviation may be used alone.
:- In long documents, repeat the full term in parentheses after the abbreviation at
regular intervals to remind readers of the abbreviation's meaning, as in "Remember to
submit the CAR (Capital Appropriations Request) by. . . ."
:- Do not add an additional period at the end of a sentence that ends with an
abbreviation (example: The official name of the company is DataBase, Inc.).
:- Write acronyms in capital letters without periods. The only exceptions are acronyms
that have become accepted as common nouns, which are written in lowercase letters,
such as scuba (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus).
:- Generally, use periods for lowercase initialisms (a.k.a., e.d.p., p.m.) but not for
uppercase ones (GDP, IRA, UFO). Exceptions include geographic names (U.S., U.K.,
E.U.) and formal expressions of academic degrees (B.A., M.B.A., Ph.D.).
:- Form the plural of an acronym or initialism by adding a lowercase s. Do not use an
apostrophe (CARs, DVDs).
Do not follow an abbreviation with a word that repeats the final term in the
abbreviation (ATM location not ATM machine location)" (Alred, Brusaw, and Oliu).
Active or Passive Verbs?
"The voice of a verb indicates the strength of the subject in a sentence. It tells us
whether that subject takes action or receives action. There are two possible voices:
active and passive. In the active voice, the stronger form, the subject of the sentence
takes the action of the verb.
Our army won the battle.
The subject army is strong since it takes action. This sentence uses the active voice.
In the passive voice, the weaker form, the subject is acted upon.
The battle was won by our army.
In this sentence, the subject battle is weak because it receives the action of the army.
It takes no action of its own —a battle cannot win itself — and so the sentence uses
the passive voice" (Strumpf and Douglas, The Grammar Bible 38).
Affect or Effect?
"Affect is a verb meaning 'to influence.' Effect is a noun meaning a result.' More
rarely, effect is a verb meaning 'to cause something to happen.'
[Examples:] CFCs may affect the deterioration of the ozone layer.
The effect of that deterioration on global warming is uncertain.
Lawmakers need to effect changes in public attitudes toward our environment"
(Anson, Schwegler, and Muth, The Longman Writer's Companion 475).
All Ready or Already?
All ready means "fully prepared."
Example: "The scouts were all ready for the test."
Already means "previously."
Example: "The children were already in the pool when the guests arrived."
Allusion or Illusion?
"An allusion is an indirect reference.
[Example:] Did you catch my allusion to Shakespeare?
An illusion is a misconception or false impression.
[Example:] Mirrors give the room an illusion of depth" (Hacker, A Writer's Reference
124).
Among or Amongst?
Both are correct and mean the same, but among is more common.
Among or Between?
"When only two are involved, the answer is easy: between.
[Example:] Miss Bennet sensed a barrier between her and Mr. Darcy.
With three or more, you have a choice. Use between if you're thinking of the
individuals and their relations with one another.
[Example:] There were several embarrassing exchanges between Lydia, Kitty, and
Jane.
Use among if you're thinking of the group.
[Example:] Darcy's arrival created a stir among the guests" (O'Connor, Woe Is I).
Amount or Number?
Amount should be used to refer to quantities that cannot be counted or cannot be
expressed in terms of a single number.
Example: "Repairing the Edsel took a great amount of work."
Number is used for quantities that can be counted.
Example: "A large number of deer ate the corn."
And or But to begin a sentence?
"Everybody agrees that it's all right to begin a sentence with and, and nearly
everybody admits to having been taught at some past time that the practice was
wrong" (Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage). In addition, "many of us were
taught that no sentence should begin with 'but. ' If that's what you learned, unlearn it
— there is no stronger word at the start. It announces total contrast with what has
gone before, and the reader is primed for the change" (William Zinsser qtd. in MerriamWebster's Dictionary of English Usage). Using and or but at the beginning of a
sentence makes the tone of the writing more informal — like a conversation. Care
needs to be taken to ensure a sentence beginning with and or but doesn't become a
sentence fragment (Fogarty, Grammar Girl's Quick and Dirty Tips for Better Writing 80).
Annotated Bibliography?
"An annotated bibliography is just like a regular bibliography [. . .] except that each
entry adds a description or summary of the work's aim, purpose, or contents.
Annotations are usually a paragraph or two [. . . .] Annotated bibliographies are
commonly assigned to help students survey and report on a body of scholarship or
prepare for a longer research paper.
Elements of an annotated bibliography
:- It briefly introduces the topic of the bibliography and perhaps the kinds of works it
covers.
:- It refers accurately to the literature cited and follows the expected documentation
style [. . . .]
:- It follows each reference with a clear description or summary, briefly but accurately
representing the work.
:- It arranges entries alphabetically, sometimes grouped in sections by date or by
general topic or focus" (Anson, Schwegler, and Muth, The Longman Writer's
Companion 97).
Apostrophes?
"The apostrophe has four main uses:
To show the omission of numbers in such expressions as Christmas '98 or letters in
expressions that imitate certain patterns of speech — finger lickin' good.
To form contractions (I'm, we've, can't, they'll).
To form plurals of single numbers and letters: 'Mary brought home a report card with
two A's and two B's.' (The apostrophe is not needed when letters or numbers appear
in groups of two or more: the 1920s, the ABCs, the rule of 78s, two Ph.D.s.)
To form possessives" (Lederer and Dowis, Sleeping Dogs Don't Lay 156).
Item 3 above can also be stated this way: "Get this straight once and for all: when the
"s" is added to a word simply to make it a plural, no apostrophe is used (except in
expressions where letters or numerals are treated like words, like 'mind your P's and
Q's and 'learn your ABC's')" (Brians, Common Errors in English Usage 15). As you can
tell from the explanation on how to form the plural of ABC in number 3 above and in
this paragraph, not all experts agree. What should you do? Select a style and be
consistent in using it.
Forming possessives is the most complicated use of the apostrophe. Again, not all
experts agree. You know what to do: Select a style and be consistent in using it.
Richard Lederer and Richard Dowis give the following information on forming
possessives:
:- "To form the possessive of a singular noun, add an apostrophe and an s even if the
noun ends in s."
Example: "He married the boss's daughter."
:- "To form the possessive of a plural noun, add an apostrophe only, except for nouns
such as men and people that have irregular plurals and are treated as if they were
singular when the possessives are formed."
Example: "Boston Market advertises 'New! Kid's Meal. Starting at $1.99.' [. . .]
When more than one child is involved, the possessive is not kid's. It's kids'. "
:- "Do not use an apostrophe to form the possessive of personal pronouns, except for the
pronoun one."
Example: "It is really pleasant to take one's time when playing golf." "This house is
ours."
:- "When two or more words, taken as a unit, show joint possession, use the possessive
form with the last only."
Example: "Let's all ride in John and Pedro's car." (Sleeping Dogs Don't Lay 156-159)
As per...?
"We find as per used in two ways. It is still in use in business correspondence and in
straightforward but somewhat stiff prose [. . . .] Your decision to use as per or not
would seem to be a matter of personal choice and taste; the tonal needs of a particular
passage may make it useful at times even if you avoid it ordinarily" (Merriam-Webster's
Dictionary of English Usage).
Assume or Presume?
"They're not identical. Assume is closer to support, or 'take for granted'; the much
stronger presume is closer to believe, dare, or 'take too much for granted.'
[Example:] I can only assume you are joking when you presume to call yourself a
plumber!" (O'Connor, Woe Is I 91).
Bad or Badly?
We use bad (an adjective) with linking verbs such as is, seems, feels, looks, or appears.
Example: "I feel bad that I missed the concern."
We use the adverb badly with action verbs.
Example: "He smells badly." This sentence means he can't detect the smell of his
girlfriend's perfume, but "He smells bad" means he needs to shower and use
deodorant.
Between you and I or Between you and me?
"Because the pronouns following between are objects of the preposition, the correct
phrase is between you and me. Yet the phrasing between you and I is appallingly
common" (Garner, The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style).
Bring and Take?
"Use bring when an object is being transported toward you, take when it is being
moved away.
[Examples:] 'Please bring me a glass of water. Please take these flowers to Mr. Scott'"
(Hacker, A Writer's Reference 126).
Can I or May I?
"Can implies ability; may implies permission or uncertainty.
[Example:] "Bart can drive now, but his parents may not lend him their new car'"
(Anson, Schwegler, Muth, The Longman Writer's Companion 477).
Cannot or Can Not?
"Both spellings are acceptable, but cannot is more frequent in current use" (MerriamWebster's Dictionary of English Usage).
Capitalization?
For a list of all the rules about capitalization, follow these instructions:
Go to the top of this page and use the "click here" feature to learn more.
Scroll down and click on "capitalization and spelling."
Click on "capitals," and you'll come to the rules of capitalization.
The two rules for capitalization listed below are asked most often.
Capitalization in Titles?
"In titles, capitalize the first word, the last word, and all words in between except
articles (a, an, the), prepositions under five letters (in, of, to), and coordinating
conjunctions (and, but). These rules apply to titles of long, short, and partial works as
well as your own papers" (Anson, Schwegler, and Muth. The Longman Writer's
Companion 240).
Capitalization of Titles of Persons?
"Capitalize titles of persons when used as part of a proper name but usually not when
used alone.
[Examples:] District Attorney Marshall was reprimanded for badgering the witness.
The district attorney was elected for a two-year term.
Usage varies when the title of an important public figure is used alone.
[Example:] The president [or President] vetoed the bill" (Hacker, A Writer's Reference
305).
Cite or Site?
Cite is a verb meaning "to quote for purposes of example, authority, or proof."
Example: "He cites many experts in his article."
Site is usually used as a noun meaning "place or scene."
Example: "Check the AARP website," and "We erected the wall on the site of our
future home."
Colon Use?
"A colon tells the reader that what follows is closely related to the preceding clause.
The colon has more effect than the comma, less power to separate than the semicolon,
and more formality than the dash. It usually follows an independent clause and
should not separate a verb from its complement or a preposition from its object. . . .
[Example:] Your dedicated whittler requires three props: a knife, a piece of wood, and
a back porch.
Join two independent clauses with a colon if the second interprets or amplifies the
first.
[Example:] But even so, there was a directness and dispatch about animal burial:
there was no stopover in the undertaker's foul parlor, no wreath or spray.
A colon may introduce a quotation that supports or contributes to the preceding
clause.
[Example:] The squalor of the streets reminded her of a line from Oscar Wilde: 'We are
all in the gutter, but some of us are looking at the stars.'
The colon also has certain functions of form: to follow the salutation of a formal letter,
to separate hour from minute in a notation of time, and to separate the title of a work
from its subtitle or a Bible chapter from a verse.
[Examples:]
Dear Mr. Montague:
departs at 10:48 P.M.
Practical Calligraphy: An Introduction to Italic Script
Nehemiah 11:7" (Strunk and White, The Elements of Style, 7-8).
Commas and Periods Inside Quotation Marks?
"Place periods and commas inside quotation marks.
[Example:] "This is a stick-up," said the well-dressed young couple. "We want all your
money."
This rule applies to single quotation marks as well as double quotation marks. It also
applies to all uses of quotation marks: for quoted material, for titles of works, and for
words used as words.
Exception: In the Modern Language Association's style of parenthetical in-text
citations . . ., the period follows the citation in parentheses.
[Example:] James M. McPherson comments, approvingly, that the Whigs were not
averse to extending the blessings of American liberty, even to Mexicans and Indians"
(48). (Hacker, A Writer's Reference 285)
Commas?
These are the basic comma rules. If you learn them or keep a copy of them with you
whenever you write, you will solve 98% of your comma problems.
1) Put a comma before and, but, for, or, nor, so, and yet when they connect two
independent clauses (sentences that can stand alone).
Example: "She hit the shot, and he cheered for her."
2) Separate three or more items in a series with a comma.
Example: "We want to protect cats, dogs, and horses."
3) Put a comma after an introductory word group.
Example: "Because I was hungry, I bought a hamburger."
4) Set off interrupters with pairs of commas, pairs of parentheses, or pairs of dashes.
Examples: "The hamburger, hot and juicy, tasted great."
"The hamburger — which was hot and juicy — tasted great."
"The hamburger (made from ground beef and tofu) tasted great."
5) Put commas around the name of a person or group spoken to.
Example: "I hope, Carlene, that you're going with me."
6) Put commas around an expression that interrupts the flow of the sentence.
Example: "We took our fishing rods, therefore, and got into the boat."
Complements?
"Linking verbs link the subject to a subject complement, a word or word group that
completes the meaning of the subject by renaming or describing it. If the subject
complement renames the subject, it is a noun or noun equivalent (sometimes call a
predicate noun).
[Example:] The handwriting on the wall [s] may be [v] a forgery [sc].
If the subject complement describes the subject, it is an adjective or adjective
equivalent (sometimes called a predicate adjective).
[Example:] Love [s] is [v] blind [sc]." (Hacker, A Writer's Reference 814).
"When a pronoun is used as a subject complement (a word following a linking verb),
your ear may mislead you, since the incorrect form is frequently heard in casual
speech. . . .
[Example:] During the Lindbergh trial, Bruno Hauptmann repeatedly denied that the
kidnapper was he [not him].
If kidnapper was he seems too stilted, rewrite the sentence: During the Lindbergh trial,
Bruno Hauptmann repeatedly denied that he was the kidnapper."(Hacker, The Bedford
Handbook 287).
Comprise?
"Nothing is ever 'comprised of' something. To comprise means 'to contain or to
embrace':
The jury comprises seven women and five men.
All of the following mean the same thing:
The jury is composed of seven women and five men.
The jury is made up of seven women and five men.
Seven women and five men constitute the jury.
Seven women and five men make up the jury.
Even when used correctly, in my humble opinion, comprise and constitute tend to
sound stilted. Some form of is made up of sounds better in most cases." (Walsh,
Lapsing into a Comma 122-123).
Continually or Continuously?
"Yes, there is a slight difference, although most people (and even many dictionaries)
treat them the same. Continually means repeatedly, with breaks in between.
Continuously means without interruption, in an unbroken stream. Heidi has to wind
the cuckoo clock continually to keep it running continuously. (If it's important to
emphasize the distinction, it's probably better to use periodically or intermittently
instead of continually to describe something that starts and stops.) The same
distinction, by the way, applies to continual and continuous, the adjective forms"
(O'Conner, Woe Is I 95-96).
Coordinate or Cumulative Adjectives?
"When two or more adjectives each modify a noun separately, they are coordinate.
[Example:] Roberto is a warm, gentle, affectionate father.
Adjectives are coordinate if they can be joined with and (warm and gentle and
affectionate).
Two or more adjectives that do not modify the noun separately are cumulative.
[Example:] Three large gray shapes moved slowly toward us." Hacker, A Writer's
Reference 262).
Data or Datum?
"In much informal writing, data is considered a collective singular noun. In formal
scientific and scholarly writing, however, data is generally used as a plural, with
datum as the singular form. Base your decision on whether your readers should
consider the data as a single collection or as a group of individual facts. Whatever you
decide, be sure that your pronouns and verbs agree in number with the selected
usage" (Alred, Brusaw, and Oliu, The Technical Writer's Companion 290-291).
Different From or Different Than?
"Different from is preferred to different than. I remember this by remembering that
different has two f's and only one t, so the best choice between than and from is the
one that starts with an f" (Fogarty, Grammar Girl's Quick and Dirty Tips 22).
Disinterested or Uninterested?
"They're not the same. Disinterested means impartial or neutral; uninterested
means bored or lacking interest. A good umpire should be disinterested, said Casey,
but certainly not uninterested" (O'Conner, Woe Is I 98).
Documenting Online Sources?
What documentation style are you required to use? Once this is determined, click on
Dr. Grammar's Documentation Resources, and go to the appropriate website for your
documentation style.
Internet sources come in two forms: articles that have been previously published in
the print media (Time, Newsweek, Chicago Tribune; scholarly journals; books; etc.)
and articles or websites that have life only on the World Wide Web (WWW).
Since the WWW is itself a work in progress, it is constantly changing as are the
systems which attempt to document material found there. Perhaps the easiest source
of information concerning each system of documentation is a book entitled Online! A
Reference Guide to Using Internet Sources by Andrew Harnack and Eugene Kleppinger
(can be found on Dr. Grammar's Documentation Resources).
Done or Finished?
"Today both done and finished are Standard, and you may use whichever one meets
the style requirements of your speech or writing" (Wilson, The Columbia Guide to
Standard American English).
Drank or Drunk?
"When in doubt about the standard English forms of irregular verbs, [. . .] look up the
base form of the verb in the dictionary, which also lists any irregular forms. (If no
additional forms are listed in the dictionary, the verb is regular, not irregular. [. . .]
Base Form: drink
Past Tense: drank
Past Participle: drunk" (Hacker, The Bedford Handbook 312-313).
Due to or Owing to?
"Due to is as impeccable grammatically as owing to, which is frequently
recommended as a substitute for it. There has never been a grammatical ground for
objection [. . . .] There is no solid reason to avoid using due to" (Merriam-Webster's
Dictionary of English Usage).
Each is or Each are?
"When each is used as a subject, it takes a singular verb or pronoun.
[Example:] Each of the reports is to be submitted ten weeks after it is assigned.
When each occurs after a plural subject with which it is in apposition, it takes a
plural verb or pronoun.
[Example:] The reports each have white embossed titles on their covers." (Alred,
Brusaw, and Oliu, The Technical Writer's Companion 291).
earth or Earth?
When you mean dirt, it's earth. When you mean the third planet from the sun, it's
Earth.
Etymology (Word Origin)?
"The origin and history of word or words, or the study of word origins" (Cambridge
Dictionary of American English). Dr. Grammar's Word Origins page has a list of online
sites and a list of books about etymologies (word origins).
Everybody and Everyone?
Everybody and everyone are interchangeable.
Anyone and anybody are also interchangeable.
Everyone/Everybody is/are happy?
"What's wrong with saying, Are everybody happy? After all, when you use the word
everybody, you're thinking of a crowd, right? Then why do we say, Is everybody happy?
In other words, just how many people do we mean when we say everybody or everyone?
The answer is one. Odd as it may seem, these pronouns are singular. We often use
them when talking about whole gangs of people, but we treat them grammatically as
individual gang members. The result is that each takes a singular verb: Everybody
loves a lover, but not everybody is one" (O'Conner, Who Is I 15).
Farther or Further?
Use farther to refer to physical distances.
Example: Indiana is farther than I thought.
Further refers to quantity, time, or degree.
Example: They progressed further on their research.
Fewer or Less?
Fewer is an adjective used to refer to people or items that can be counted.
Example: Because fewer cars showed up for the show, we required fewer categories.
Less is used to refer to amounts that cannot be counted.
Example: The small dogs required less space and less food than the large dogs.
Good or Well?
"Good is the adjective; well is the adverb. You do something well, but you give
someone something good. The exception is verbs of sensation in phrases such as "the
pie smells good' or 'I feel good.' Despite the arguments of nigglers, this is standard
usage. Saying 'the pie smells well' would imply that the pastry in question had a nose.
Similarly, 'I feel well' is also acceptable, especially when discussing health; but it is
not the only correct usage" (Brians, Common Errors in English Usage).
Have got or Have gotten?
"When we say, Fabio has got three Armani suits, we mean he has them. When we say,
Fabio has gotten three Armani suits, we mean he's acquired or obtained them. It's a
useful distinction" (O'Conner, Who Is I 191).
Hopefully?
"Hopefully is a sentence adverb that has raised the hackles of some conservatives,
but probably its overuse has made most of the trouble; it had been a perfectly good
sentence adverb for generations before the recent objections were heard. Those who
don't like it usually urge that I hope that or It is hoped that be used instead, but
hopefully is in fact Standard" (Wilson, The Columbia Guide to Standard American
English).
Hyphenation?
"Consult the dictionary to determine how to treat a compound word. The dictionary
will tell you whether to treat a compound word as a hyphenated compound (waterrepellent), one word (waterproof ), or two words (water table). If the compound word is
not in the dictionary, treat it as two words" (Hacker, A Writer's Reference 300).
The following rules are not all inclusive, but they are the most common uses of
hyphenation. Consult a writing manual for a more extensive explanation.
"Use a hyphen to connect two or more words functioning together as an adjective
before a noun.
[Examples:] Mrs. Douglas gave Toshiko a seashell and some newspaper-wrapped fish
to take home to her mother.
Richa Gupta is not yet a well-known candidate.
Generally, do not use a hyphen when such compounds follow the noun.
[Example:] After our television campaign, Richa Gupta will be well known.
Do not use a hyphen to connect -ly adverbs to the words they modify.
[Example:] A slowly moving truck tied up traffic.
Note: In a series, hyphens are suspended.
[Example:] Do you prefer first-, second-, or third-class tickets?
Hyphenate the written form of fractions and of compound numbers from twenty-one
to ninety-nine.
[Example:] One-fourth of my salary goes to pay my child care expenses.
Use a hyphen with the prefixes all-, ex-, and self- and with the suffix -elect.
[Examples:] The charity is funneling more money into self-help projects.
Anne King is our club's president-elect.
A hyphen is used in some words to avoid ambiguity or to separate awkward double or
triple letters. Without the hyphen, there would be no way to distinguish between
words such as re-creation and recreation.
[Examples:] Bicycling in the city is my favorite form of recreation.
The film was praised for its astonishing re-creation of nineteenth-century
London.
[. . . .]
If a word must be divided at the end of a line, divide it correctly " (Hacker, A Writer's
Reference 300-302). Consult a dictionary if you are unsure as to where a word should
be divided.
"I" before "E" except after "C"?
We have all been taught the rule, but Richard Lederer has compiled a list of 144
exceptions in his book Adventures of a Verbifore. When in doubt about the spelling of
a word, go to a dictionary.
(I.e.) or (E.g.)?
"Properly used, each of these is Standard. I.e. abbreviates Latin id est, 'that is'; use it
when you wish to repeat in different words what you've just finished saying: I'm
strongly opposed; i.e., I'm determined not to cooperate. E.g. abbreviates the Latin tag
exempli gratia, 'for the sake of example, for example.' [Eat foods containing a lot of
fiber, e.g., fruits, vegetables, and whole grains.] People sometimes say the names of
the letters i and e or e and g instead of saying the English that is or for example, but
the abbreviations aren't much shorter, and most of us would prefer the English words
in speech, no matter how familiar the Latin abbreviations are in writing....Most editors
put them in italics; all require a comma after the second period (The Columbia Guide
to Standard American English 165).
Idiom?
"Idioms are phrases that don't mean what they literally say, but have meaning to
native speakers. For example, the phrase under the weather is known by most native
English speakers to mean that someone isn't feeling well, but if you weren't a native
English speaker, you would probably have no idea what under the weather means by
just looking at the words" (Fogarty, Grammar Girl's Quick and Dirty Tips 55).
If or Whether?
"It's good practice to distinguish between these words. Use if for a conditional idea,
whether for an alternative or possibility. Thus, Let me know if you'll be coming means
that I want to hear from you only if you're coming. But Let me know whether you'll be
coming means that I want to hear from you about your plans one way or the other"
(Garner, The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style).
Imply or Infer?
"If you imply something, you hint or suggest it.
[Example:] Her email implied that the project would be delayed.
If you infer something, you reach a conclusion on the basis of evidence.
[Example:] The manager inferred from the email that the project would be delayed"
(Alred, Brusaw, and Oliu, The Technical Writer's Companion 294).
In regard(s) to?
"The use of the plural regards in the phrases in regards to and with regards to is
incorrect. Since each phrase shows its speaker regarding just one issue, the regard is
singular: in regard to and with regard to.
[Examples:] I am calling in regard to your memo.
With regard to our meeting, I cannot attend." (Strumpf and Douglas,
The Grammar Bible 220).
Independent vs Dependent Clauses?
"An independent clause is a complete sentence; it can stand alone.
[Example:] Tattooing was not known in the Western world.
A dependent (subordinate) clause is part of a sentence; it cannot stand alone.
[Example:] Until Captain Cooke returned from his voyage to Tahiti"
(Rozakis, The Complete Idiot's Guide to Grammar and Style 142).
If the above independent and dependent clauses were put together in a sentence, it
would read: Until Captain Cooke returned from his voyage to Tahiti, tattooing was not
known in the Western world.
Intensifiers? really, really tough?
"People are always looking for ways to emphasize how really, really special the subject
under discussion is. (The use of 'really' is one of the weakest and least effective of
these.) A host of words have been worn down in this service to near-meaninglessness.
It is good to remember the etymological roots of such words to avoid such absurdities
as 'fantastically realistic,' 'absolutely relative,' and 'incredibly convincing.' When you
are tempted to use one of these vague intensifiers consider rewriting your prose to
explain more precisely and vividly what you mean: 'Fred's cooking was incredibly bad'
could be changed to 'When I tasted Fred's cooking I almost thought I was back in the
middle-school cafeteria'" (Brians, Common Errors in English Usage).
Into or In to?
"Into is a preposition that has many definitions, but they all generally relate to
direction.
On the other hand, in by itself can be an adverb, preposition, or adjective (and to by
itself is a preposition or an adverb). Sometimes in and to just end up next to each
other.
Maybe examples will help!
He walked into the room.
(Which direction was he going? Into the room.)
We broke in to the room.
('Broke in' is a phrasal verb. What did you break in to? The room.)
(Fogarty, Grammar Girl's Quick and Dirty Tips 34-35).
Irony, Sarcasm, or Facetiousness?
Irony is "the use of words to express something different from and often opposite to
their literal meaning." Sarcasm is "a cutting, often ironic remark intended to wound. "
By contrast, facetiousness is "playfully jocular; humorous." (The American Heritage
Dictionary of the English Language)
It is I or It is me?
"Instead of the old choice between right and wrong we are now choosing a style; it is a
choice that is much closer to the reality of usage than the old one way. [. . .] Clearly,
both the it is I and it's me patterns are in reputable use and have been for a
considerable time. It is I tends to be used in more formal or more stuffy situations;
it's me predominates in real and fictional speech and in a more relaxed writing style"
(Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary of English Usage).
It's her or It's she?
"In all but the most formal circumstances, it's OK to use It is me, That's him, It's her,
and similar constructions, instead of the technically correct but stuffier It is I, That's
he, and It's she" (O'Conner, Woe Is I 186).
Its or It's?
This one is simple if you remember that it's is a contraction of it is or it has.
Example: It's a beautiful morning; however, it's been an ugly season.
Its is the possessive form of it.
Example: It appeared the squirrel couldn't make up its mind whether or not to run
across the street.
Lie or Lay ?
The verb lay means to place or to set down. It always takes a direct object, the thing
that is placed or set down.
Examples: Lay the magazine on the table.
I have laid the bike under the tree.
The verb lie means to recline. It does not take a direct object.
Examples: I will lie down around noon.
Let's go lie out on the grass.
Like or Such as?
"Writers whom we respect disagree on whether there is any significant difference
between like and such as. Wilson Follett and Theodore Bernstein say no. James J.
Kilpatrick says yes. We come down gingerly on the side of Kilpatrick. His argument
seems valid: 'When we are talking of large, indefinite fields of similarity, like properly
may be used. . . . When we are talking about specifically named persons [places or
things] . . . included in a small field, we ought to use such as.' In 'Books like this one
can help you write better,' like means similar to. In 'Cities such as Atlanta and
Birmingham are important to the economy of the Southeast,' the intent is to specify
those cities as examples, not merely to put them into a broad category of cities that
are important to the economy of the Southeast" (Lederer and Dowis, Sleeping Dogs
Don't Lay 79).
Linking Verbs?
"Linking verbs link the subject to a subject complement, a word or word group that
completes the meaning of the subject by renaming or describing it.
[Example:] The handwriting on the wall may be a forgery.
Linking verbs are usually a form of be: be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been. Verbs
such as appear, become, feel, grow, look, make, prove, remain, seem, smell, sound, and
taste are linking when they are followed by a word group that names or describes the
subject" (Hacker, A Writer's Reference 500).
Littler and Littlest?
"Although occasionally used, both these forms [littler, littlest] are regarded as
dialectical or perhaps as juvenile. When size is involved, the better forms are smaller
and smallest; when quantity or importance is involved, the better forms are less
(sometimes lesser) and least" (Bernstein, The Careful Writer).
Majority is or are?
"Many words that mean a group of things — total, majority, and number, for example
— can be singular or plural. Sometimes they mean the group acting as a whole,
sometimes the members of a group.
"As with the other two-faced words, ask yourself whether you are thinking of the
whole or the parts. A little hint: The before the word (the total, the majority) is usually
a tip-off that it's singular; while a (a total, a number), especially when of comes after,
usually indicates a plural.
[Examples:] The majority is in charge. Still, a majority of voters are unhappy"
(O'Conner, Woe Is I 26).
May or Might?
"These words occupy different places on a continuum of possibility. May expresses
likelihood {we may go to the party}, while might expresses a stronger sense of doubt
{we might be able to go if our appointment is cancelled} or a contrary-to-fact
hypothetical {we might have been able to go if George hadn't gotten held up} (Garner,
The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style).
Me, Myself, or I?
"In the old days when people studied traditional grammar, we could simply say, "The
first person singular pronoun is I when it's a subject and me when it's an object,' but
now few people know what that means. [. . .] The misuse of I and myself for me is
caused by nervousness about me. [. . .] But the notion that there is something wrong
with me leads people to overcorrect and avoid it where it is perfectly appropriate.
People will say, 'The document had to be signed by both Susan and I' when the
correct statement would be, 'The document had to be signed by both Susan and me.'
Trying even harder to avoid the lowly me, many people will substitute myself as in
'The suspect uttered epithets at Officer O'Leary and myself.' Myself is no better than I
as an object. Myself is not a sort of all-purpose intensive form of me or I . Use myself
only when you have used I earlier in the same sentence: 'I am not particularly fond of
goat cheese myself'" (Brians, Common Errors in English Usage).
Mid- or just Mid?
"In forming compounds, mid- is normally joined to the following word or element
without a space or hyphen: midpoint. However, if the second element begins with a
capital letter, it is separated with a hyphen: mid-May. It is always acceptable to
separate the elements with a hyphen to prevent possible confusion with another form,
as, for example, to distinguish mid-den (the middle of a den) from the word midden.
The adjective mid is a separate word, and as is the case with any adjective, it may be
joined to another word with a hyphen when used as a unit modifier: in the mid Pacific
but a mid-Pacific Island" (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language).
Mrs./Ms./Miss?
"Ms. is widely used in business and public life to address or refer to a woman,
especially if her marital status is either unknown or irrelevant to the context. More
traditionally, Miss is used to refer to an unmarried woman, and Mrs. is used to refer
to a married woman. Some women may indicate a preference for Ms., Miss, or Mrs.,
which you should honor. If a woman has an academic or professional title, use the
appropriate form of address (Doctor, Professor, Captain) instead of Ms., Miss, or Mrs."
(Alred, Brusaw, and Oliu, The Technical Writer's Companion 297).
None is or None are?
"None has been both singular and plural since Old English and still is. [. . .] If in
context it seems like a singular to you, use a singular verb; if it seems like a plural,
use a plural verb. Both are acceptable beyond serious criticism" (Merriam-Webster's
Dictionary of English Usage).
Numbers: When to spell out and When to write as numbers?
"Spell out numbers of one or two words or those that begin a sentence. Use figures for
numbers that require more than two words to spell out.
[Examples:] It's been eight years since I visited Peru.
I counted 176 DVDs on the shelf.
If a sentence begins with a number, spell out the number or rewrite the sentence.
[Example:] One hundred fifty children in our program need expensive dental
treatment.
Exceptions: In technical and some business writing, figures are preferred even when
spellings would be brief, but usage varies. When in doubt, consult the style guide of
the organization for which you are writing.
When several numbers appear in the same passage, many writers choose consistence
rather than strict adherence to the rule.
When one number immediately follows another, spell out one and use figures for the
other: three 100-meter events, 25 four-poster beds.
Generally figures are acceptable for dates, addresses, percentages, fractions, decimals,
scores, statistics and other numerical results, exact amounts of money, divisions of
books and plays, pages, identification numbers, and the time.
Dates July 4, 1776, 56 BC, AD 30
Addresses 77 Latches Lane, 519 West 42nd Street
Percentages 55 percent (or 55%)
Fractions, Decimals ½, 0.047
Scores 7 to 3, 21-18
Statistics average age 37, average weight 180
Surveys 4 out of 5
Exact Amounts of Money $105.37, $106,000
Divisions of Books volume 3, chapter 4, page 189
Divisions of Plays act 3; scene 3 (or act III, scene iii)
Identification Numbers serial number 10988675
Time of Day 4:00 p.m., 1:30 a.m. (Hacker, A Writer's Reference 310-311).
OK or Okay?
Both OK and okay are acceptable in informal writing; however, avoid them in formal
writing.
On or Upon?/In or Into?
On/upon and in/into are equally interchangeable according to the Merriam-Webster's
Dictionary of English Usage.
Parallelism?
"Parallelism is the expression of similar or related ideas in similar grammatical form.
Besides emphasizing the relationships of ideas, parallelism can create intriguing
sentence rhythms and highlights."
"Once you begin a parallel pattern, you need to complete it. If you mix structures,
creating incomplete or faulty parallelism, your sentences may disappoint readers'
expectations and be hard to read.
Mixed
fitness,
Consider swimming if you want an exercise that aids cardiovascular
develops overall muscle strength, and probably without causing
injuries.
Parallel
fitness,
Consider swimming if you want an exercise that aids cardiovascular
develops overall muscle strength, and causes few injuries."
(Anson, Schwegler, and Muth, The Longman Writer's Companion 396-397)
Parenthetical Documentation?
To obtain the information for your specific documentation style, go to Dr. Grammar's
Documentation Resources page and click on the appropriate website.
Plurals of Abbreviations, Letters, and Numbers?
"No two authorities seem to agree on how we should form the plurals of abbreviations
(GI, rpm, RBI), letters (x, y, z), and numbers (9, 10). Should we had s or 's? Where one
style maven sees UFO's, another sees UFOs. One is nostalgic for the 1950's, the other
for the 1950s. This is more a matter of taste and readability than of grammar, and
frankly, we have better things to worry about. For the sake of consistency and
common sense, here's what I recommend. To form the plurals of all numbers, letters,
and abbreviation (with or without periods and capitals) simply add 's" (O'Conner, Woe
Is I 30).
Plurals of Proper Names?
"Here are a few rules that will help the curious pluralize proper names. Please note
that, in every case, the spellings of the proper names should not change except for the
addition of -s or -es.
"With proper names ending in a sound that blends well with s, simply add -s.
Brown = the Browns
Lindberg = the Lindbergs
Ericson = the Ericsons
Shaw = the Shaws
Hogan = the Hogans
Whitlock = the Whitlocks
"With proper nouns ending in sounds that don't blend well with s, the sibilant sounds,
add -es.
Cox = the Coxes
Jones = the Joneses
Douglas = the Douglases
Martinez = the Martinezes
Firch = the Firches
Nemetz = the Nemetzes"
(Strumpf and Douglas, The Grammar Bible 15-16).
Possessive with a Gerund?
A gerund is a verb form ending in -ing that functions as a noun.
Example: Crying is good for you.
When a pronoun modifies a gerund or gerund phrase , use the possessive case (my,
our, your, his/her/its, their).
Example: Your crying made me sad.
Nouns may also modify gerunds; add -'s to form the possessive case.
Example: The dog's suffering angered me.
Preposition at end?
"If a sentence that ends with a preposition sounds fine and makes sense, by all means,
write the sentence. It is absolutely antiquated to forbid ending a sentence with a
preposition. However, it is always possible to reword the sentence" (Strumpf and
Douglas, The Grammar Bible 214-215).
Proportional or Proportionate?
Both are correct and neither is preferred.
Punctuation of Dates?
"Put a comma between the data and the year, between the day of the week and the
date, and after the year when you give a full date.
[Example:] I ordered a laptop on May 3, 2007, that arrived Friday, May 18.
You don't need commas when a date is inverted (5 July 1973) or contains only month
and year, month and day, or season and year.
[Example:] We installed the software after its June 2007 test.
(Anson, Schwegler, and Muth, The Longman Writer's Companion 429)
Quotation Marks and Other Punctuation
There are three basic rules.
All commas and periods should be placed inside the quotation marks.
All colons and semicolons should be placed outside the quotation marks.
Question marks and exclamation marks should be placed within the quotation
marks when they apply only to the quoted material; they should be placed outside
when the entire sentence, including the quoted material, is a question or exclamation.
Reason is because?
"Reason is because is a redundancy. Use reason is that . . . . The reason we
recommend 'reason is that' is that the grammatical subject, reason, is balanced by a
noun clause in the predicate, headed by that" (Lederer and Dowis, Sleeping Dogs Don't
Lay 51).
Regular and Irregular Verbs?
"A verb is regular when its past tense and past participle are formed by adding -ed or
-d to the base form.
[Example:] honor, honored, honored.
A verb is irregular when it does not follow the (-ed or -d pattern. If you are unsure
about whether a verb form is regular or irregular, or what the correct form is, consult
[. . .] a dictionary. Dictionaries list any irregular forms under the entry for the base
form" (Lunsford, The Everyday Writer 230).
Semicolon use?
"A semicolon creates a brief reading pause that can dramatically highlight a close
relationship or a contrast. The semicolon alone can't specify the relationship the way
words like because or however can. Be sure, therefore, that the relationship you are
signaling won't be puzzling to readers."
"Join two sentences with a semicolon. A semicolon joins main clauses that can stand
alone as complete sentences.
[Example:] The demand for paper is at an all-time high; businesses alone consume
millions of tons each year."
"Use a semicolon with words such as however and on the other hand. When you use a
semicolon alone to link main clauses, you ask readers to recognize the logical link
between the clauses. When you add words like however or on the other hand, you
create a different effect on readers by specifying how the clauses relate.
[Example:] I like apples; however, I hate pears."
"Use a semicolon with a complex series. When items in a series contain commas,
readers may have trouble deciding which commas separate parts of the series and
which belong within items. To avoid confusion, put semicolons between elements in a
series when one or more contain other punctuation.
[Example:] I interviewed Debbie Rios, the attorney; Rhonda Marron, the accountant;
and the financial director." (Anson, Schwegler, and Muth, The Longman Writer's
Companion 432-433)
Set or Sit?
Set is a verb meaning "to put" or "to place."
Example: He set the urn on the table.
Sit is a verb meaning "to be seated."
Example: He sat on the couch next to the dog.
Shall or Will?
"Will has almost entirely replaced shall in American English except in legal
documents and in questions like "Shall we have red wine with the duck?'" (Brians,
Common Errors in English Usage)
Sic?
"In scholarly writing you should copy quotations exactly as they appear in your source,
but you must also produce a paper free of grammatical and mechanical errors. So
how should you handle a source that contains an error? One way is to rephrase the
quotation in your own words, crediting your source for the idea. However, if the
quotation is so eloquent or effective that you decide to include it despite the error, use
[sic] (an abbreviation of the Latin sicut, meaning thus) to indicate that the original
source is responsible for the mistake.
[Example:] 'One taste tester reported that the Carb Charge energy bar was to [sic] dry;
she said it had the consistency of sawdust' (Cisco 22)." (Faigley, The Brief Penguin
Handbook 496)
Single quotation marks?
"Single quotation marks enclose a quotation within a quotation. Open and close the
quoted passage with double quotation marks, and change any quotation marks that
appear within the quotation to single quotation marks.
[Example:] Baldwin says, "The title 'The Uses of the Blues' does not refer to music; I
don't know anything about music." (Lunsford, The Everyday Writer 338)
Spacing after concluding marks of punctuation?
Until recently, there were two spaces after concluding punctuation. It is now common
to use one space after concluding punctuation. Either one space or two spaces is
correct; however, be consistent in whatever spacing you use.
Split infinitives?
"Today almost everyone agrees that it is OK to split infinitives, especially when you
would have to change the meaning of the sentence or go through writing gymnastics
to avoid the split." (Fogarty, Grammar Girl's Quick and Dirty Tips 56)
Than I/Than me?
"Some of the smartest people I know hesitate at the word than when it comes before a
pronoun. What goes next, I or me? he or him? she or her? they or them?
The answer: All of the above! This is easier than it sounds. Take I and me as examples,
since they're the pronouns we use most (egotists that we are). Either one may be
correct after than, depending on the meaning of the sentence.
:- Trixie loves spaghetti more than I means more than I do.
:- Trixie loves spaghetti more than me means more than she loves me."
(O'Conner, Woe Is I 12)
That or Which or Who?
Do not use which to refer to persons. Use who instead. That, though generally used
to refer to things, may be used to refer to a group or class of people.
[Examples:] The player who [not that or which] made the basket at the buzzer was
named MVP.
The team that scores the most points in this game will win the tournament (Hacker, A
Writer's Reference 136).
The faculty is or The faculty are?
Faculty is a collective noun. "A collective noun is singular in form yet identifies a
group of individuals (audience, mob, crew, troop, tribe, or herd). When the group acts
as a single unit, choose a singular verb. When group members act individually, choose
a plural verb.
[Examples:] One Single Unit: The staff is hardworking and well trained.
Individual Members: The staff have earned the respect of our clients."
(Anson, Schwegler, and Muth, The Longman Writer's Companion 355).
Then or Than?
Than is used to indicate comparison or degree.
Example: His drive was longer than mine.
Then is used to indicate time.
Example: Then he putted out and won the tournament.
Thru or Through?
Through is acceptable in all forms of writing. Thru, if used at all, should be used only
for informal writing.
To, Too, or Two?
"To generally shows direction. Too means 'also.' Two is the number.
[Example:] We, too, are going to the meeting in two hours." (Lunsford, The Everyday
Writer 313).
Toward(s), Forward(s), Backward(s)?
"No final s ('towards'), although that's how they say it in Britain. Similarly, in
American English, standard practice is not to add a final s to forward, backward,
upward, onward, downward, and so on.
[Example:] George and Karmer were last seen heading toward the buffet." (O'Conner,
Who Is I 117-118).
Transitive verb or Intransitive verb?
"Any verb that requires a direct object is known as a transitive verb.
[Example:] I trim the lawn. (The noun lawn receives the action of the verb, the
trimming. The verb trim is a transitive verb.)
[Example:] I taught the children. (The noun children receives the action of the verb, the
teaching. The verb taught is also a transitive verb.)
Verbs that do not take objects are intransitive verbs.
[Example:] We shall run when we get the chance. (No word receives the action of this
verb. Therefore, run is an intransitive verb.)
[Example:] We stayed at the Ritz. (No noun or pronoun receives the action of this verb
either. It is intransitive.)" (Strumpf and Douglas, The Grammar Bible 71).
Try and or Try to?
"The phrase try and is colloquial for try to. [. . .]
to
[Example:] Please try and finish the report on time." (Alred, Brusaw, and Oliu, The
Business Writer's Handbook).
Unique or More unique?
"The primary meaning of unique is 'one of a kind'; it's an absolute, so something can't
be more unique than something else." (Fogarty, Grammar Girl's Quick and Dirty Tips
66).
Who or Whom?
"The words who and whom are both pronouns [, . . . and] you use who when you are
referring to the subject of a clause and whom when you are referring to the object of a
clause. [. . . A] simple memory trick — we'll call it the 'him-lich' maneuver. It's as easy
as testing your sentence with the word him: if you can hypothetically answer your
question with the word him, you need a whom."
(Fogarty, Grammar Girl's Quick and Dirty Tips 50-51).
[Example:] Who/Whom do you love? You love him. Whom do you love? (51)
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Adverbs
An adverb modifies:
a verb:
John is a formula one driver. He drives fast (adverb).
an adjective:
John is a very (adverb) fast (adjective) driver.
another
John drives very (adverb) fast (adverb).
adverb:
Remember that an adjective modifies a noun: John is a fast driver and an adverb
modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb.
ADVERBS OF MANNER
They tell us how something is done: Ricky plays football badly. Sainz drives fast.
Position: They go after the verb if the verb is intransitive: Sainz drives fast. Otherwise,
they go after the object of the verb: My secretary types letters fast.
Some common adverbs of manner are: badly, well, carefully, clearly, easily, etc.
ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY
They tell us how often something happens,
Position: a) after the verb "to be" and auxiliary verbs. I am usually at home in the
evenings. I will always remember you.
b) before any other verb. I never have tea for breakfast.
Some common frequency adverbs are : always, often, frequently, sometimes, generally,
seldom, ever, rarely, never.
ADVERBS OF TIME
They tell us when something happens, happened, will happen, etc.
Position: these adverbs are usually placed at the very beginning or at the very end of a
sentence. He went home yesterday.
Some common adverbs of time are: now, yesterday, tomorrow, etc.
ADVERBS OF PLACE
They tell us where something is, where it happens, happened, etc.
Position: a) if there is no object they are placed after the verb. Jennifer is sleeping
upstairs.
b) otherwise they come after the object. Richard took left his books here.
Some common adverbs of place are: here, there, upstairs, downstairs, nearby, etc.
ADVERBS OF DEGREE
They are used when you want to give more information about the extent of an action
or the degree to which an action is performed.
Position: They can be used in the usual positions of adjuncts. Jim was deeply moved
by the sad fate of so many deprived children.
Some common adverbs of degree are: absolutely, deeply, entirely, fairly, quite, etc.
Question words
What is used to ask about a thing or an action: What is this? It's my new car. What
are you doing here? I am waiting for Mary.
Who is used to ask about a person: Who is that boy? My brother Tom.
Where is used to ask about a place: Where are my glasses? On the table.
When is used to ask about
time:
When do some trees lose their leaves? In
autumn.
Whose can be used as a determiner (before a noun) or as a pronoun. It is used to
ask which person something belongs to or is associated with: Whose car is this? Itดs
Sheilaดs.
Whose is this coat? It's Peter's.
Which can be used as a determiner or as a pronoun. It is used to ask about one
thing or person when the choice is restricted: There are three coats on the chair. Which
one is yours?
Why is used to ask the reason for something of the purpose of something: Why is
Sally crying? She is crying because she has cut herself.
How is used to ask about manner: How do you come to school? By bus.
How can be combined with other words at the beginning of questions:
How much is used to ask about the amount of something: How much milk is there in
the fridge? Two litres.
How many is used to ask about the number of things or people: How many bottles of
milk did you buy? Three bottles.
How long is used to ask about the length of a period of time: How long have you lived
here? For two years.
How far is used to ask about distance: How far is it to London from here? 500 km.
Relative clauses: an introduction
There are two types of relative clauses:
Defining relative clauses. They are used to identify who or what we are talking about:
The man who phoned a moment ago wanted to speak to Susan.
If we said, "the man wanted to speak to Susan," the person we are talking to would
not understand which man we are speaking about.
Non-defining relative clauses. They do not define their antecedent. They only give
more information about it but this information is not essential to understand who or
what we are talking about:
This aqueduct, which was built in the first century AD, is still in use.
We can say, This aqueduct is still in use, and there is no doubt what we are talking
about. A non-defining relative clause does not define its antecedent. It only gives us
more information about it.
Relative pronouns
List of relative pronouns:
who and whom refer to people
The man who is sitting at the head of the table is the manager of a
large car company.
whom is used when the relative pronoun goes after a preposition:
Jeremy does not like June, with whom he has worked for two years.
And, sometimes, in formal English when it is the object of a verb:
Mrs Johnson loves Mary, whom she adopted two years ago.
which refers to things: The car which you bought last year is very fast.
that can be used instead of who or which in defining relative clauses:
The novel that / which I am reading is very good.
The man that / who phoned this morning didnดt say what he wanted.
whose is used to show who or what something belongs to or is related to. It is not a
pronoun because it always goes before a noun, so it is a kind of possessive determiner.
But for the sake of clarity it is usually included in the list of relative pronouns:
Jane tried to console the woman whose husband died while he was helping rescue two
mountaineers.
A relative pronoun can be:
the subject of a relative clause: The man who phoned a moment ago wanted to
speak to Susan.
the object of a relative clause: The second-hand car which Paul bought last
year has not broken down yet.
The relative pronoun can be omitted when it is the object of a defining relative
clause:
The second hand car (that / which) Paul bought last year has not broken down yet.
the complement of a preposition: The boy with whom Jenny goes out is a very good
sportsman.
The preposition can be put at the end of the relative clause and then you can use
who instead of whom. If there is a time adverb / time expression, the preposition is
placed before the time adverb: June, who Peter has gone out with for three months, is
very nice.
:- If it is a defining relative clause, you can omit the relative pronoun:
The boy who Jenny goes out with is a very good sportsman.
The boy Jenny goes out with is a very good sportsman.
Defining relative clauses
When you want to use a relative clause you need a relative pronoun or a relative
adverb. Sometimes the relative pronoun can be omitted.
:- who / whom are used to refer to people: The man who lives upstairs is very noisy.
:- which is used to refer to things: The car which you bought last year is very fast.
:- that can be used to refer to people or things: The man that opened the door was tall.
The novel that I am reading is very good.
:- whose is used to show who or what something belongs to or is related to: The novel
that I am reading is about a woman whose husband dies in a car crash.
List of relative adverbs:
:- When can be used instead of (in / on which): I will always remember the day when
(on which) they left.
:- Where can be used instead of (in / at which): They do not like the house where (in
which) she lives.
:- who / whom are used to refer to people: The man who lives upstairs is very noisy.
:- which is used to refer to things: The car which you bought last year is very fast.
:- that can be used to refer to people or things: The man that opened the door was tall.
The novel that I am reading is very good.
:- whose is used to show who or what something belongs to or is related to: The novel
that I am reading is about a woman whose husband dies in a car crash.
List of relative adverbs:
:- When can be used instead of (in / on which): I will always remember the day when
(on which) they left.
:- Where can be used instead of (in / at which): They do not like the house where (in
which) she lives.
List of relative pronouns:
Defining relative clauses are used to identify which person or thing we are talking
about:
The man who is being greeted so warmly is the president of British Petroleum (BP).
If we said the man is the president of British Petroleum, nobody would
probably know who we are talking about because there are four men in the picture.
When the relative clause defines the subject of another clause, the usual word order
is broken and you find: Subj.+ relative clause + verb ...
The man who is being greeted is the president of British Petroleum (BP).
A relative pronoun, like most pronouns, can be:
the subject of a relative clause: The man who phoned a moment ago wanted to speak
to Susan.
the object of a relative clause: The second-hand car which Paul bought last year has
not broken down yet. (which is the object of bought)
when the relative pronoun is the object of the relative clause, it can be omitted: The
second-hand car Paul bought last year has not broken down yet.
the complement of a preposition. When the relative pronoun is not omitted and
placed after the preposition you can only use whom to refer to people and which to
refer to things:
The boy with whom Jenny goes out is a very good sporstman.
The key with which I opened the back door yesterday is very rusty.
When the relative pronoun is the complement of a preposition, it can be omitted.
Then the preposition must be placed at the end of the relative clause unless there is a
time adverb. If there is a time adverb, the preposition is placed before the time adverb.
The boy Jenny goes out with is a very good sporstman.
The key I opened the back door with yesterday is very rusty.
Non-defining relative clauses
A non-defining relative clause does not define its antecedent. It only gives us more
information about it. This information is not essential to understand who or what we
are talking about:
The astronaut, who is about to take off, is saying goodbye to his family
and friends.
We can say the astronaut is saying goodbye to his family and friends and there is no
doubt who we are talking about because there is only one astronaut in the picture .
But if we leave out a defining relative clause we do not know who or what we are
talking about: The man who lives next door is thinking of moving to Spain. The man is
thinking of moving to Spain. (which one?)
Non-defining relatives clauses:
are separated from their antecedent by commas: John does not like Peter, who has
been his boss for 5 years.
always need a relative pronoun. The relative pronoun is never omitted: Robert loves
Mary, who he has gone out with for 3 months.
always need who to refer to people and which to refer to things. "That" cannot be used
instead of "who" or "which": Every year millions of people visit the Eiffel Tower, which
was built at the end of the 19th century.
The relative pronoun, like other pronouns, can be the subject, object of a verb or the
complement of a preposition:
John does not like Peter, who has been his boss for 5 years. (who is the subject of
has been)
I have not met Sharon, who Paul loves so much. (who is the object of loves)
Robert loves Mary, with whom he has gone out for 3 months.
Reported speech: an introduction
Reported speech is used to report statements, questions or commands. It allows you
to express the meaning of what somebody has said without using the speaker's exact
words:
Sandy is talking to her hairdresser:
Oh, James is so romantic! He came into
my office
with a bouquet of roses and asked me to
marry him.
Will you
marry me?
When you use indirect speech to report someone's words, some changes in tenses,
pronouns, adverbs, etc. are often necessary.
Change of pronouns, adverbs, etc.
Personal pronouns, possessive pronouns, ajectives and adverbs may or may not
change depending on who the speaker is and when and where he is speaking:
Some time later, Mrs Roberts is talking to a friend
and says, I was very happy when the doctor told me
I had had a healthy baby.
After the birth of the baby, the doctor gets home
and says to his wife, Mrs Roberts felt very happy
when I told her she had had a healty baby.
In the first example Mrs Roberts is speaking about herself, so she uses me and I . But
in the second example the doctor is speaking to his wife about Mrs Roberts, so he has
to use third person pronouns: her and she.
It is important to use your common sense and to pay attention to who is reporting
what, where and when:
Some common changes in time expressions are:
Direct speech
Indirect speech
today
that day
yesterday
the day before
yesterday
last week / month,
etc.
a year / two years
ago,etc.
the day before
tomorrow
the day after
tomorrow
next week / month,
etc.
two days ago
the previous week
a year before / the
previous year
the next day / the
following day
in two daysด time
the following week /
year
Reported speech: tense changes
When the reporting verb is in the present, pesent perfect, or future tense, the verb/s
used in direct speech can be reported without any change of tense:
The man has asked if it is raining.
When the reporting verb is in a past tense, changes in tense forms are usually
necessary:
At school
Teacher: What are you eating?
At home
The student gets home and says:" Mum, the
teacher asked me what I was eating and I told him
Student: I am eating a chocolate bar. I was eating a bar of chocolate."
When the student is talking to his mother, the incident he is referring to is in the past.
The action expressed by "eat" is not in progress any longer. The chocolate bar is
finished, so he has to use past continuous instead of present continuous.
But the change of tense is optional when the time reference of the original remark is
still valid at the time we report it. Although it is optional, changes in tense forms are
often preferred for the sake of concord:
Sally: I am 15
years old.
If she is still 15 at the time her words are reported the
speaker can say:
Sally said that she was 15. Or Sally said that she is
15.
How to report statements
Statements are usually reported by means of: say (to somebody) / tell somebody +
"that-clause."
Some time later Mrs Roberts is talking to a
friend and says,
I was very happy when the doctor told me that I
had had
a healthy baby.
The conjunction that can be omitted after some common reporting verbs like say, tell,
etc.:
I was very happy when the doctor said (that) I had had a healthy baby.
I was very happy when the doctor said to me (that) I had had a healthy baby.
I was very happy when the doctor told me (that) I had had a healty baby.
How to report orders
Orders are usually reported as follows : Tell, order, etc.+ somebody + (not) to do sth:
Robert gets home and says to his wife:
This morning my boss got angry with me because I
was reading the newspaper and he told me to start
working at once.
Sheila to her dog : "Don't move."
Sheila told her dog not to move.
You can also use want, demand, etc.:
Teacher: Do the exercise on page 50.
Student: The teacher wants us to do the exercise on page 50.
You must be careful because tell can be used to report orders and statements and
the reported clauses are different in each case.
How to report questions
"yes/no" questions are reported as follows: ask (somebody) / want to know, etc. + if /
whether + subject + verb ...
Paul : " John, will you play tennis on Sunday?"
John is talking to his mother and says: "Paul asked (me) if I would play tennis on
Sunday"
"wh-questions" are reported as follows: ask (somebody) / want to know, etc. + whword + subject + verb ...
Sonia is talking to a friend about her holidays in Paris
and says:
I asked a policeman where the Eiffel Tower was and he
said it was
behind my back. It was so funny !
As you can see, when Sonia speaks to the policeman be is before the subject
(interrogative form) because she is asking a question, but in the reported question be
is not in the interrogative form because the speaker (Sonia) is not asking a question.
She does not want an answer. She is reporting a question.
ask (somebody) / want to know, etc. + wh-word + verb ... (when the "wh- word" is the
subject of the verb.)
Reporter to PC Smith: "Who killed Mr Rattle?"
PC Smith is speaking to his wife and says: "A reporter asked me who had killed Mr
Rattle."
How to report requests, suggestions, etc.
Requests are usually reported by means of : ask somebody (not) to do something:
The bear can see the hunter´s rifle and is begging for
mercy.
The hunter speaking to his companion: "The bear is asking
me not to kill him."
You must be careful because ask can be used to report questions and requests and
the reported clauses are different in each case.
Suggestions are often reported by means of: the verb suggest:
Paul to his girlfriend: Why don´t we go to the cinema?
Paulดs girlfriend to her mother: Paul suggested going to the cinema.
Common Words in American and
British English
Here are a few of the more common words which are different in American and British
English. This is only meant to highlight some of the variety which exists within
English, and is not a complete list by any means. It also does not address different
vocabulary which is used in Australia, Canada, South Africa and India as well as the
Caribbean, Africa, and the many other places in the world which use English as the
language of commerce or government.
American
British
apartment
flat
argument
row
baby carriage
pram
band-aid
plaster
bathroom
loo or WC
can
tin
chopped beef
mince
cookie
biscuit
corn
maize
diaper
nappy
elevator
lift
eraser
rubber
flashlight
torch
fries
chips
gas
petrol
guy
bloke, chap
highway
motorway
hood (car)
bonnet
jello
jelly
jelly
jam
kerosene
paraffin
lawyer
solicitor
license plate
number plate
line
queue
mail
post
motor home
caravan
movie theater
cinema
muffler
silencer
napkin
serviette
nothing
nought
overpass
flyover
pacifier
dummy
pants
trousers
parking lot
car park
period
full stop
pharmacist
chemist
potato chips
crisps
rent
hire
sausage
banger
sidewalk
pavement
soccer
football
sweater
jumper
trash can
bin
truck
lorry
trunk (car)
boot
vacation
holiday
vest
waistcoat
windshield (car)
windscreen
zip code
postal code
Spelling differences between American and British English
-or vs. -our
-ze vs. -se
American
British
American
British
color
colour
analyze
analyse
favorite
favourite
criticize
criticise
honor
honour
memorize
memorise
-ll vs. -l
-er vs. -re
American
British
American
British
enrollment
enrolment
center
centre
fulfill
fulfil
meter
metre
skillful
skilful
theater
theatre
-e vs. -oe or -ae
-og vs. -ogue
American
British
American
British
analog
analogue
encylopedia
encylycopaedia
catalog
catalogue
maneuver
manoeuvre
dialog
dialogue
medieval
mediaeval
-dg vs. -dge (or -g vs. -gu)
-ck or -k vs. -que
American
British
bank
banque
check
cheque
checker
chequer
American
British
aging
ageing
argument
arguement
judgment
judgement
Other
-ense vs. -enze
American
British
defense
defence
license
licence
American
British
jewelry
jewellery
draft
draught
pajamas
pyjamas
plow
plough
program
programme
tire
tyre
In British English, words that end in -l preceded by a vowel usually double the -l when
a suffix is added, while in American English the letter is not doubled. The letter will
double in the stress is on the second syllable.
Base Word
American
British
counsel
counseling
counselling
equal
equaling
equalling
model
modeling
modelling
quarrel
quarreling
quarrelling
signal
signaling
signalling
travel
traveling
travelling
excel
excelling
excelling
propel
propelling
propelling
Spelling of verbs
This is related to formation of the past participle for verbs. For a complete list of
irregular verb spellings, see Susan Jones' Complete List of English Irregular Verbs at
this web site. Below is a sampling of the three main categories of differeneces with
verbs.
-ed vs. -t
The first category involves verbs that use -ed or -t for the simple past and past
participle. Generally, the rule is that if there is a verb form with -ed, American
English will use it, and if there is a form with -t, British English uses it. However,
these forms do not exist for every verb and there is variation. For example, both
American and British English would use the word 'worked' for the past form of 'to
work', and in American English it is common to hear the word 'knelt' as the past tense
of 'to kneel'.
Base form
American
British
to dream
dreamed
dreamt
to leap
leaped
leapt
to learn
leareded
learnt
base form vs. -ed
The second category of difference includes verbs that use either the base form of the
verb or the -ed ending for the simple past.
Base form
American
British
to fit
fit
fitted
to forecast
forecast
forecasted
to wed
wed
wedded
irregular vs. -ed
The third category of difference includes verbs that have either an irregular spelling or
the -ed ending for the simple past.
Base form
American
British
to knit
knit
knitted
to light
lit
lighted
to strive
strove
strived
So what does tall his mean for learners of English? In the beginning, unfortunately, it
means a lot of memorization (or memorisation) and of course, a few mistakes. For
spoken English, the differences are barely audible, so forge ahead and don't be too
concerned with whether a word is spelled 'dwelled' or 'dwelt'. With written English,
however, if you are unsure about the spelling, better to ask your teacher or look the
word up in the dictionary and see what the experts say.
http://www.englishclub.com/writing/spelling_american-english.htm
English and American English Spelling
Here are the principal differences in spelling between English and American English.
English
American
English
Final -l is always doubled after one vowel in stressed
and unstressed syllables in English but usually only in
stressed syllables in American English, for example:
rebel >
rebelled
travel >
travelled
rebel >
rebelled
travel >
traveled
Some words end in -tre in English and -ter in American
English, for example:
centre
theatre
center
theater
Some words end in -ogue in English and -og in
American English, for example:
analogue
catalogue
analog
catalog
Some words end in -our in English and -or in American
English, for example:
colour
labour
color
labor
Some verbs end in -ize or -ise in English but only in -ize realise, realize realize
in American English, for example:
harmonise,
harmonize
harmonize
Common Differences
English
American English
all right
all right, alright (disputed)
analyse
analyze
centre
center
cheque
check
colour
color
counsellor
counselor
criticise, criticize
criticize
defence
defense
doughnut
donut
favour
favor
fibre
fiber
flavour
flavor
fulfil
fulfill
grey
gray
honour
honor
humour
humor
jewellery
jewellery, jewelry
judgement, judgment judgment
kerb
curb
labour
labor
license, licence (verb) license (verb)
licence (noun)
license (noun)
litre
liter
metre
meter
mould
mold
neighbour
neighbor
offence
offense
practise (verb)
practice (noun)
practice (verb)
practice (noun)
pretence
pretense
programme
program
pyjamas
pajamas
realise, realize
realize
savour
savor
speciality
specialty
theatre
theater
travelled
travelling
travelled, traveled
travelling, traveling
tyre
tire
valour
valor
The Conjunctive Adverb
Recognize a conjunctive adverb when you see one.
Conjunctions have one job, to connect. They join words, phrases, or clauses together
to clarify what the writer is saying. Their presence provides smooth transitions from
one idea to another.
When the job of an adverb is to connect ideas, we call it a conjunctive adverb. Here is a
list:
accordingly
also
besides
consequently
conversely
finally
furthermore
hence
however
indeed
instead
likewise
meanwhile
moreover
nevertheless
next
nonetheless
otherwise
similarly
still
subsequently
then
therefore
thus
A conjunctive adverb can join two main clauses. In this situation, the conjunctive
adverb behaves like a coordinating conjunction, connecting two complete ideas. Notice,
however, that you need a semicolon, not a comma, to connect the two clauses:
M A I N C L A U S E + ; + conjunctive adverb + , + M A I N C L A U S E .
Read these examples:
The dark skies and distant thunder dissuaded Clarice from her afternoon run;
moreover, she had thirty calculus problems to solve for her morning class.
Leon's apartment complex does not allow dogs over thirty pounds; otherwise, he
would have bought the gangly Great Dane puppy playing in the pet store window.
The cat ate a bowlful of tuna; then, to the squirrels' delight, the fat feline fell asleep in
the rocking chair.
A conjunctive adverb will also introduce, interrupt, or conclude a single main clause.
In this situation, you will often need commas to separate the conjunctive adverb from
the rest of the sentence.
Check out these examples:
At 10 a.m., Paul was supposed to be taking his biology midterm. Instead, he was
flirting with the pretty waitress at the coffee house.
Maria declined Jeff's third invitation to go out. This young man is determined,
nevertheless, to take her to dinner one night soon.
After mowing the yard in the hot sun, Pedro was too hungry to shower. He did wash
his dusty hands, however.
If the break is weak, do not use comma(s).
Anna called to say her car would not start. Rafael will therefore have to walk to
school.
Weak interruption = no commas.
The long noodles splashed tomato sauce all over the front of Brenda's shirt. Ordering
fettuccine was a mistake indeed.
Weak interruption = no comma.
Modal Verbs
Eveyone can understand Modal Verbs!
What are model verbs?
Model verbs are also called auxiliary verbs, helping verbs and model auxiliaries.
Model verbs are not complete verbs, and they can only be used with a verb.
The usage of model verbs:
Model verbs stay in the base form - bare infinitive - the bare infinitive is the infinitive
without "to" before the verb.
The following model verbs are used to with the present tense:
can, will, shall, ought to, must, need, may
The following model verbs are used in the past tense:
would, should, could, might
Model verbs are used to answer questions in the short form
yes, I do.
yes, we can.
No, I don't.
Model verbs can be used as part of the grammar structure of the sentence, such as
when used with the perfect tenses.
When are model verbs used:
Prediction - Will and Shall
Will and shall can be used to state predict that an event or an action will take place or
will occur The model verbs can used to make a prediction about an event or action
about the future.
I think we will be able to go and see the move tonight.
My mother thinks we will not get home be it starts to rain.
Requests - Offers - Suggestions - Can - Could - May - Shall
To make requests, offers or suggestions can be stated with the model verbs
Permission - Can - Could - May - Might
Can, could, may and might are model verbs that can be used to give permission or
deny permission to do something or to someone.
Can I help you cook dinner?
You may not watch T. V. after dinner.
Certainty - Possibility - Can - Might - may- Could - Shall -Can, might
- and could are model verbs that can be used to state certainty and possibility.
Do you think it might rain tomorrow night?
I might be home before midnight.
You can come over tonight if you would like to.
Ability - Inability - Can - Could - Able to
My father hopes that we will be able to go to the moves.
I can not go to Europe with you.
Usage Of The Modal Verb Tense
Rules for using verb tenses:
Sentences using verbs do not use "auxiliary verbs".
"Not" after the verb is used to make a verb negative, including when using the simple
verb tenses.
To make questions using verbs, the verb comes before the subject.
Modal verbs do not change there form.
"To" is not used after a verbs do have, except with "ought to".
The main verb is always in its base form when used with a verb
modal verbs stay in the base form - bare infinitive - the bare infinitive is the infinitive
without "to" before the verb.
The following modal verbs are used to with the present verb tense:
:- can, will, shall, ought to, must, need, may
The following modal verbs are used in the past tense:
:- would, should, could, might
modal verbs are used to answer questions in the short form
:- yes, I do.
:- yes, we can.
:- No, I don't.
Wishes & Verb Tenses
How do we use the grammar form "wish"?
Wishes is used to state the desire of a situation to be different. Wishes can be used to
used in the past, present and future.
Rules for wishes:
The verb tense is different then the time.
Past Tense - uses the Past Perfect Verb Tense
Examples:
:- I wish I had studied for my test last night.
:- I wish my car hadn't broken down.
Present Tense - uses the Past Tense (were is used for all subjects, was is not used).
Examples:
:- I wish it weren't raining all day.
:- I wish I were rich.
Future Tense - after wish would is used.
Examples:
:- I wish it would stop raining.
:- I wish the people next door would lower there radio.
Modal Verbs and Wishes - When verbs are used with wishes the sentence structure is
Modal Verb + Have + V3/Past Participle
http://englishplus.com/grammar/00000005.htm
Sentence Fragments (Incomplete Sentences)
1. A sentence must have a subject and a verb if it is to make sense.
Incorrect: John, being a friendly computer salesman and baseball fan.
(No verb)
Correct: John, being a friendly computer salesman and baseball fan, refused to argue.
(John--the subject--is doing something, namely, refusing.)
2. A subordinate clause (also sometimes called a dependent clause) is not a complete
sentence if it does not have a main clause even though it may have a subject and verb.
Incorrect: Because we are baseball fans.
Correct: We watched the All-Star Game because we are baseball fans.
There is nothing wrong with beginning a sentence with the word because as long as
the clause with because is followed by a main clause.
Correct: Because we are baseball fans, we watched the All-Star Game.
3. Sometimes in conversation only sentence fragments make sense.
OK, if you are recording a conversation, otherwise incorrect: She asked, "Why did you
watch that baseball game?"
"Because we are baseball fans."
Run-On Sentences
A run-on sentence consists of two or more main clauses that are run together without
proper punctuation. Sometimes even sentences which are technically correct are
easier to read if they are made into shorter sentences. We often speak in run-on
sentences, but we make pauses and change our tone so people can understand us.
But when we write, no one can hear us, so sometimes we must break our sentences
into shorter units so that they do not sound run-on.
Incorrect: The boy showed us his tickets someone gave them to him.
Correct: The boy showed us his tickets. Someone gave them to him.
Incorrect: We often speak in run-on sentences, but we make pauses and change our
tone so people can understand us, but when we write, no one can hear us, so
sometimes we must break our sentences into shorter units so that they do not sound
run-on.
(Technically punctuated OK, but too long to be easily understood. See better sentence
structure above.)
Dangling Modifiers
A dangling modifier is a phrase or clause which says something different from what is
meant because words are left out. The meaning of the sentence, therefore, is left
"dangling."
Incorrect: While driving on Greenwood Avenue yesterday afternoon, a tree began to fall
toward Wendy H's car.
(It sounds like the tree was driving! This actually appeared in a newspaper article. An
alert reader wrote, "Is the Department of Motor Vehicles branching out and issuing
licenses to hardwoods? Have they taken leaf of their senses?")
Adding a word or two makes the sentence clear.
Correct: While Wendy H was driving on Greenwood Avenue yesterday afternoon, a tree
began to fall toward her car.
When a modifier "dangles" so that the sentence is meaningless (or means something
other than your intent), restate it and add the words it needs in order to make sense.
Misplaced Modifiers
This is a common problem in American speech. Writing has to be more precise than
speaking, or it will be misunderstood.
A misplaced modifier is simply a word or phrase describing something but not placed
near enough the word it is supposed to modify. The modifying word or phrase is not
dangling; no extra words are needed; the modifier is just in the wrong place.
Incorrect: I had to take down the shutters painting the house yesterday.
It sounds like the shutters painted the house! Place the modifying phrase painting the
house near or next to the word it is meant to modify.
Correct: Painting the house yesterday, I had to take down the shutters.
Pronoun Case
Pronouns are words that Americans often carelessly use in their speech. The problem
is that the use of pronouns must be very clear when we write. Many times the writing
will be misunderstood; at best, the writer will appear uneducated.
A major problem with pronouns is the use of the wrong case. In English certain
pronouns are meant to be the subject or predicate nominative of a sentence. Other
words are meant to be the objects--whether direct, indirect, objects of prepositions, or
object complements.
Pronouns used as subjects or predicate nominatives (nominative case):
I, you, he, she, it, we, they, who
Pronouns used as objects (objective case):
me, you, him, her, it, us, them, whom
Some things are really obvious. All English speakers know we say "I like him," not "Me
like he." But there are four common problem areas with pronoun case: compounds,
appositives, predicate nominatives, and who/whom.
Compound Subjects and Objects with Pronouns
If we know that "Me like him" is incorrect, then that also means that "Katy and me like
him" is incorrect. The word I belongs in the subject. The sentence should read "Katy
and I like him." Similarly, the subject in "Katy and we like him" is correct.
Politeness says that the I, we, me or us comes last.
If the sentence had some kind of compound object the sentence would read: "Katy
likes Joe and me," not "Katy likes Joe and I."
After all, we would say "Katy likes me," not "Katy likes I." Similarly the object in "Katy
likes the Johnsons and us" is correct.
Pronouns with Appositives
Sometimes a descriptive noun phrase called an appositive will follow a personal
pronoun. Keep the proper case of the pronoun.
We do not say: "Us want ease of use."
We say: "We want ease of use."
Therefore we do not say: "Us computer users want ease of use."
Instead, we should say: "We computer users want ease of use."
The Chronicles of Narnia says: "Come in front with us lions." That is correct. We say
"with us," not "with we," so we should say "with us lions."
Pronouns in the Predicate Nominative
In standard written English, the personal pronouns in the predicate nominative are
the same as they would be in the subject. Most Americans do not speak this way, but
it is grammatically correct.
The nominative case follows a linking verb to rename the subject.
Incorrect: The winner was her. (Objective case)
Correct: The winner was she. (Nominative case)
She is a predicate nominative. It uses the same case as the subject since it simply
renames the subject.
Even though we may often say, "It's me" the grammatically correct way is "It's I."
Who and Whom
Who and whom correspond to he and him. Who is the subject or predicate nominative.
Whom is the object.
Correct: Who are you? (Subject)
Correct: Whom do you see? (Direct object)
Correct: Whom did you give it to?
(Object of preposition to)
Correct: Who did that? (Subject)
It may help you to recall that who follows the same pattern as he and they. When all
three are in the objective case, they end with m: whom, him, them.
This same pattern applies when you add the suffix -ever or -soever:
Correct: Whoever dies with the most toys wins.
(Subject)
Correct: He gave that ticket to whoever asked for one.
(Subject of asked)
Correct: Pick whomever I tell you to. (Direct object)
Possessive Pronouns
Certain pronouns called possessive pronouns show ownership. Some are used alone;
some describe a noun.
Used alone: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs, whose
Correct: That computer is hers.
Modify noun: my, your, his, her, its, our, their, whose
Correct: That is her computer.
Please note that none of the possessive pronouns are spelled with an apostrophe. See
Apostrophes with Pronouns for more on this.
Possessive Pronouns with Gerunds
Possessive pronouns are used to describe gerunds. Using the objective case confuses
the reader.
Incorrect: You winning in spite of the odds inspired us all.
(Ambiguous and awkward. Do you inspire or does the winning inspire?)
Correct: Your winning in spite of the odds inspired us all.
Incorrect: We could not stand him whining about everything.
(Which could you not stand? Him? or His whining?)
Because of the possible confusion, use possessive pronouns with gerunds.
Correct: We could not stand his whining about everything.
Pronouns with Than or As
When you use a pronoun in a comparison using the words than or as, use the proper
pronouns as if all the words were being said.
Most of the time when we use a comparison using than or as, we leave words out.
This is technically called an elliptical clause--a clause with an ellipsis. An ellipsis is
words left out.
Look at it this way. There is a difference between the two following sentences. Both are
grammatically correct; they just mean two different things.
He likes you more than me.
He likes you more than I.
Think of what words are left out:
He likes you more than I do.
(I is the subject)
He likes you more than he likes me.
(Me is the direct object)
When a pronoun follows than or as in a comparison, make sure you understand what
words are missing and then use the correct pronoun.
Incorrect: He is taller than her.
(i.e., than her is?)
Correct: He is taller than she.
(i.e., than she is. Much better!)
Incorrect: He is as happy as them.
(i.e., as happy as them are?)
Correct: He is as happy as they.
(i.e., as happy as they are.)
Correct with one meaning:
He sees you more often than I. (i.e., than I see you.)
Correct with another meaning:
He sees you more often than me. (i.e., than he sees me.)
The case of the pronoun makes the difference!
For more, see Pronoun Case.
Subject Agreement with the Verb
It is usually pretty easy to match the verb with the subject in English. Only in the
present tense does the verb have more than one form. And except for one verb, only
the third person singular is different. Besides, the third person singular present tense
always ends in an s. We understand this most of the time.
Verb: To speak
I, you, we, they speak
he, she, it speaks
Verb: To do
I, you, we, they do
he, she, it does
Verb: To be (the only exception)
I am
you, we, they are
he, she, it is
The verb to be is also the only verb with more than one form in the past tense. See
also the subjunctive mood.
Verb: To be, past
I, he, she, it was
you, we, they were
Normally, none of this is a problem. However, there are a few cases that confuse
writers and speakers.
Separated Subjects and Verbs
A phrase or clause often separates the subject and the verb. The verb must still agree
with the subject.
Incorrect: The climate in both places are mild.
Correct: The climate in both places is mild.
(Climate is the subject, not places. It takes the verb is.)
Keep track of the subject, especially when there is a singular pronoun or collective
noun for the subject and a plural element in the phrase that separates the subject
and verb.
Collective noun: A group of senators was calling for an investigation.
Singular pronoun: One of the many galaxies was proven to be near a black hole.
Compound Subjects
Two or more singular subjects joined by or or nor take a singular verb.
Correct: Neither John nor Mary knows what happened.
Two or more plural subjects joined by any conjunction (including and, or, but, or nor)
take a plural verb.
Correct: Both men and women are allowed to enter.
If one or more singular subject is joined to one or more plural subject by or or nor, the
verb agrees with the subject closest to the verb.
Incorrect: Neither Mary nor her brothers knows what happened.
(Brothers is closer to the verb and is plural; the verb should agree with brothers).
Correct: Neither Mary nor her brothers know what happened.
Correct: Neither her brothers nor Mary knows what happened.
A compound subject whose parts are joined by and normally takes a plural verb.
Correct: Joe and his brother know what happened.
A compound subject whose parts are joined by and takes a singular verb in two
special instances.
1. When the parts of the subject combine to form a single item.
Correct: One and one equals two.
Correct: Cookies and cream is my favorite flavor.
2. When the compound subject is modified by the words each or every.
Correct: Every boy and girl has to participate.
See also British vs. American Grammar, The Verb To Be, and Indefinite Pronouns.
Using Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite pronouns are words which replace nouns without specifying which noun
they replace.
Singular: another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone,
everything, little, much, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, other, somebody,
someone, something
Plural: both, few, many, others, several
Singular or Plural: all, any, more, most, none, some
Singular indefinite pronouns take singular verbs or singular personal pronouns.
Correct: Each of the members has one vote.
(The subject, each, is singular. Use has.)
Incorrect: One of the girls gave up their seat.
Correct: One of the girls gave up her seat.
(Her refers to one, which is singular.)
Plural indefinite pronouns take plural verbs or plural personal pronouns.
Correct: A few of the justices were voicing their opposition.
(Few is plural, so are were and their.)
For indefinite pronouns that can be singular or plural, it depends on what the
indefinite pronoun refers to.
Correct: All of the people clapped their hands.
(All refers to people, which is plural.)
Correct: All of the newspaper was soaked.
(Here all refers to newspaper, which is singular.)
A Gender-Sensitive Case
The pronouns ending with -body or -one such as anybody, somebody, no one, or
anyone are singular. So are pronouns like each and every. Words like all or some may
be singular. That means that a possessive pronoun referring to these singular words
must also be singular. In standard written English the possessive pronoun his is used
to refer to a singular indefinite pronoun unless the group referred to is known to be all
female.
Incorrect: Is everyone happy with their gift?
Correct: Is everyone happy with his gift?
(Is and everyone are singular. The possessive pronoun must be singular, too)
Most languages, including English, observe the standard of using the masculine
pronoun in situations like this. However, in some circles today the idea of choosing
the masculine pronoun sounds discriminatory against women. If this usage bothers
you, or if you think it may bother your audience, there are two possible ways to work
around this and still use standard English.
1. Use the phrase his or her. It is a little awkward, but OK.
Correct: Is everyone happy with his or her gift?
2. Rewrite the sentence using a plural pronoun or antecedent. Plural personal
pronouns in English no longer distinguish between masculine and feminine.
Correct: Are all the people happy with their gifts?
Use of Pronouns Ending in -self
Words ending in -self or -selves are called reflexive or intensive pronouns. They should
always refer to another word that has already been named. In grammatical terms,
they need an antecedent.
Incorrect: The president named myself to the committee.
(Myself is not previously named)
Correct: The president named me to the committee.
Correct: I did it all by myself.
(Myself refers to I)
Correct: John talks to himself when he is nervous.
(Himself refers to John)
General Antecedent Agreement
The antecedent of a pronoun is the word the pronoun refers to. There are several style
problems which writers and speakers sometimes have when they do not match the
pronoun and the noun it replaces correctly.
Missing or Mismatched Antecedent
A pronoun, unless it is an indefinite pronoun, must have an antecedent, a word it
refers to. The pronoun must match the word it replaces--singular or plural, and,
sometimes, masculine or feminine.
Incorrect: Every student must have their pencils.
(Both every and student are singular; therefore, his, her, or his or her must be used.
Their is plural and cannot refer to a singular noun.)
Unclear Antecedent
A pronoun's antecedent must be clear.
Incorrect: I never go to that place because they have stale bread.
(What does they refer to? Both I and place are singular.)
Correct: I never go to that place because it has stale bread.
When the antecedent is a different gender, person, or number than the pronoun it is
supposed to replace; this is sometimes called a "faulty co-reference."
Incorrect: Politics is my favorite subject. They are such fascinating people.
Correct: Politics is my favorite subject. Politicians are such fascinating people.
Faulty co-reference may also occur with adverbs that do not replace an adverbial
expression or pronouns that do not replace nouns.
Incorrect: He ought to speak French well. He lived there for twenty years.
Correct: He ought to speak French well. He lived in France for twenty years.
Ambiguous Antecedent
A pronoun's antecedent must be unambiguous. Sometimes there may be more than
one word the pronoun could refer to. In a case like that, it may be better not to use
the pronoun.
Incorrect: The suitcase was on the plane, but now it's gone.
(What is gone? The suitcase or the plane?)
Correct: The suitcase was on the plane, but now the suitcase is gone.
OR
The suitcase was on the plane, but now the plane is gone.
(Depends on which you mean...)
Faraway Antecedent
The pronoun must be close enough to the word it is replacing so that your reader
knows whom or what you are talking about.
Unclear: Buford saw Longstreet's division coming toward his men. Reynolds' troops
responded quickly to the calls for assistance, and soon he found himself in the midst
of a deadly battle.
(Who is he? Buford, Reynolds, or Longstreet?)
Clear: Buford saw Longstreet's division coming toward his men. Reynolds' troops
responded quickly to the calls for assistance, and soon Buford found himself in the
midst of a deadly battle.
See also Using Indefinite Pronouns.
The Subjunctive Mood
A verb is in the subjunctive mood when it expresses a condition which is doubtful or
not factual. It is most often found in a clause beginning with the word if. It is also
found in clauses following a verb that expresses a doubt, a wish, regret, request,
demand, or proposal.
These are verbs typically followed by clauses that take the subjunctive:
ask, demand, determine, insist, move, order, pray, prefer, recommend, regret, request,
require, suggest, and wish.
In English there is no difference between the subjunctive and normal, or indicative,
form of the verb except for the present tense third person singular and for the verb to
be.
The subjunctive for the present tense third person singular drops the -s or -es so that
it looks and sounds like the present tense for everything else.
The subjunctive mood of the verb to be is be in the present tense and were in the past
tense, regardless of what the subject is.
Incorrect: If I was you, I would run.
Correct: If I were you, I would run.
(The verb follows if and expresses a non-factual condition.)
Incorrect: I wish he was able to type faster.
Correct: I wish he were able to type faster.
(The second verb is in a clause following a verb expressing a wish. It also suggests a
non-factual or doubtful condition.)
Incorrect: His requirement is that everyone is computer literate.
Correct: His requirement is that everyone be computer literate.
(Subordinate clause follows main clause with a demand.)
Incorrect: He recommended that each driver reports his tips.
Correct: He recommended that each driver report his tips.
Sometimes we may use the conditional auxiliary verbs of could, should, or would to
express the same sense.
Subjunctive:I wish he were kinder to me.
Conditional: I wish he would be kinder to me.
Note: In modern English, the subjunctive is found only in subordinate clauses.
Comparatives and Superlatives
Use words ending in -er or modified by the word more to compare two items. This is
known as the comparative degree.
Use words ending in -est or modified by the word most to compare three or more items.
This is known as the superlative degree.
Correct: K2 is taller than Annapurna.
Incorrect: Annapurna is the taller of the three peaks.
(Three or more requires superlative.)
Correct: Annapurna is the tallest of the three peaks.
Normally, -er and -est are added to one-syllable words.
-er and -est are added to two-syllable words unless the new word sounds awkward.
Correct: fairer prettier handsomest
Awkward: famousest readier
Correct: most famous more ready
Use the modifiers more or most with all root words longer than two syllables as well as
with two syllable words that sound awkward. Always use more or most with adverbs
that end in -ly.
Incorrect: beautifuller smoothliest
Correct: more beautiful most smoothly
Correct: friendliest beastliest (adjectives, not adverbs)
Less and least form comparisons of a lesser degree in a similar manner. Less is used
when comparing two items, least with three or more.
See also Irregular Comparisons and Comparison Problems.
Irregular Comparisons
A few of the comparatives and superlatives in English do not follow the usual pattern.
Here is a list of common exceptions.
Positive
Comparative Superlative
bad
worse
worst
badly
worse
worst
far(distance) farther
farthest
far(extent)
further
furthest
good
better
best
ill
worse
worst
late
later
latest or last
less
lesser
least
little(amount) less
least
many
more
most
much
more
most
well
better
best
The comparisons for well apply to both the adjective meaning "healthy" and the adverb
meaning "in a good manner."
For more on how to use some of these see the Common Mistakes section on good/well
and bad/badly. Also see Common Mistakes section for the difference between further
and farther and between littlest and least.
Farther or Further?
Farther refers to length or distance. It is the comparative form of the word far when
referring to distance.
Further means "to a greater degree," "additional," or "additionally." It refers to time or
amount. It is the comparative form of the word far when meaning "much."
Correct: London is farther north than Juneau.
(Refers to distance)
Correct: This plan requires further study.
(Meaning "additional study," refers to amount)
Correct: According to my timetable, we should be further along.
(Refers to time)
Using Little, Littlest, and Least
The word little can be used in two different senses--meaning "small in size" or "small
amount of."
Examples: He was still a little boy. (small in size)
Please give me a little milk. (small amount of)
This becomes trickier in the comparative and superlative because little has two
different forms.
If little means "small in size," the comparative is littler or more little, and the
superlative is littlest.
If little means "small amount of," the comparative is less, and the superlative is least.
Examples: He was the littlest boy in the class.
Please give me less milk than he has.
He drank the least amount of milk of anyone there.
Bad or Badly?
Bad is an adjective. It describes nouns or pronouns. It is often used with descriptive
linking verbs like look, feel, sound, or to be.
Incorrect: She felt badly about missing the date.
Correct: She felt bad about missing the date.
(Bad describes the pronoun she.)
Incorrect: Things looked badly for the Mudville nine.
Correct: Things looked bad for the Mudville nine.
(Bad describes the noun Things.)
Badly is an adverb (like well). It describes verbs and should be used with all verbs
other than linking verbs.
As many adverbs do, it usually answers the question "How?"
Incorrect: Mudville played bad last night.
Correct: Mudville played badly last night.
(Badly describes the verb played.)
Good or Well?
Good is an adjective. It describes nouns or pronouns. It may be used with descriptive
linking verbs like look, feel, sound, taste, or be to describe the subject.
Incorrect: The coffee tasted well this morning.
Correct: The coffee tasted good this morning.
Correct: The pitcher is looking good today.
Well is normally an adverb. It describes verbs (sometimes adjectives) and is used with
most other verbs.
Well as an adjective means "healthy."
Incorrect: He pitches good.
Correct: He pitches well.
Incorrect: I do not feel very good.
Correct: I do not feel very well. (healthy)
Comparison Problems
There are five problems writers sometimes have with comparisons.
1. Make sure you are comparing similar items.
Incorrect: The tusk of a mastodon is bigger than an elephant.
(It sounds as if the writer is comparing the tusk with an elephant.)
Correct: The tusk of a mastodon is bigger than the tusk of an elephant.
2. Make sure your comparison is balanced. Use the same pattern on both sides of the
comparison to make it readable and clear.
Unbalanced: The tusk of a mastodon is bigger than an elephant's.
Correct: The tusk of a mastodon is bigger than that of an elephant.
(Or "than the tusk of an elephant"; either choice keeps the pattern of using the
prepositional phrase.)
Correct: A mastodon's tusk is bigger than an elephant's.
(Or "than an elephant's tusk"; either choice keeps the pattern of using the possessive
noun.)
3. When comparing people or items that are grouped together, it may be necessary to
use the word other or else to make the meaning clear.
Incorrect: The X-15 was faster than any airplane.
(The X-15 is an airplane. The sentence makes it sound as though it were some other
kind of aircraft.)
Correct: The X-15 was faster than any other airplane.
Incorrect: Manute was taller than anyone on the team.
(This suggests that he either was not on the team or that he is being compared to
himself.)
Correct: Manute was taller than anyone else on the team.
4. The words major and minor are comparative forms that have lost some of their
original usage. However, it is nonstandard to add -ly to them just as it is to add -ly to
any comparative adjective or adverb that ends in -er.
Incorrect: He was majorly disappointed.
Correct: He was greatly disappointed.
Correct: He was more greatly disappointed than we thought.
5. Avoid the double comparison. Words that end in -er or -est and certain irregular
comparisons do not need to be modified with the words more, most, less, or least
since they are already comparative or superlative.
Similarly, do not add an -er or -est to an irregular comparison for the same reason.
Incorrect: That film was more funnier than the one we saw last week.
Correct: That film was funnier than the one we saw last week.
Incorrect: She felt worser yesterday. (Worse is already comparative.)
Correct: She felt worse yesterday.
The word lesser is accepted by most authorities when used as an adjective meaning
smaller or less significant.
Using Negatives
There are a few rules to keep in mind when making a sentence say "No."
1. Double negatives are nonstandard. Avoid two negative words in the same clause.
Incorrect: I don't want no seconds.
(Both don't and no are negatives.)
Correct: I don't want any seconds.
Correct: I want no seconds.
This rule does not include negative interjections at the beginning of a sentence or
clause, since those are grammatically separate.
Correct: No, I don't want any seconds.
2. Do not use but in a negative sense with another negative.
Incorrect: He didn't want but one good manuscript.
Correct: He wanted but one good manuscript.
Correct: He wanted only one good manuscript.
3. Words like barely, hardly, and scarcely have a negative sense and should not be
used with another negative. In effect, this creates a double negative.
Incorrect: He couldn't hardly speak.
Correct: He could hardly speak.
Incorrect: We were not barely able to see the stage.
Correct: We were barely able to see the stage.
Tricky Plurals
There are four groups of words which some speakers and writers have difficulty with.
In each case it has to do with the agreement of plurals or plural-looking words with
the verbs or other words they go with.
Plural-looking Nouns
Some nouns that end in -s look like they are plural, but they really are singular. This
is particularly true of branches of knowledge, certain foods or dishes, and certain
diseases.
Branches of knowledge like mathematics, physics, ethics, politics, or social studies
are singular.
Names of foods, while plural, are treated singularly when they are treated as a single
dish.
Some diseases, while plural in origin, are treated singularly because just one disease
is discussed: measles, mumps, rickets, or pox.
Examples: Politics is a rough life.
Baked beans is one of my favorite dishes.
Mumps has been nearly eradicated in the U.S.
A few words, though singular in nature, are made of paired items and generally
treated as plural: scissors, pants, trousers, glasses, pliers, tongs, tweezers, and the
like. Many are often used with the word pair as in pair of pants or pair of scissors.
Example: These scissors are too dull to cut with.
Nouns Expressing Measurement
A noun expressing an amount or measurement is normally singular.
If the unit of measurement refers to a number of individual items, then it treated as a
plural.
Examples: Two spoons of sugar is too much for me.
(A single measurement)
Twelve dollars is less than what I want to sell it for.
(A single sum of money)
Four-fifths of the country is satisfied with its health insurance.
(One part of a whole)
Four-fifths of the people are satisfied with their health insurance.
(Four-fifths refers to many individuals.)
Titles
Titles of books and other works of art are always considered singular even if the title
sounds plural.
The Alfred Hitchcock film The Birds was successfully advertised with a campaign that
said, "The Birds is coming!" Unlike so many ads, that one was grammatically correct.
Plurals That Do Not End in -s
A number of plurals, mostly derived from Latin, do not end in -s. Nevertheless, they
are plural and should be treated as such. Words such as criteria, phenomena,
memoranda, and media are plural. Their singular forms are criterion, phenomenon,
memorandum, and medium.
The word data is also technically plural, but the singular form, datum, is rare in
English, so using data as singular is tolerated, but not precisely correct. Say "piece of
data" or "item of data" for the singular if datum sounds too affected.
See also "Alumni" and other listings in Spelling Slammer.
The Verb To Be
The verb to be is the most irregular verb in the English language. It is normally a
linking verb showing existence or the condition of the subject. It can also be used as
an auxiliary verb when forming the passive voice.
The forms of the verb to be in English are as follows:
Infinitive
Present
Past
Present Participle
Past Participle
Present Subjunctive
Past Subjunctive
Imperative
to be
am, is, are
was, were
being
been
be
were
be
Defining a Phrase
When we looked at nouns and pronouns, we said that a pronoun can sometimes
replace a noun in a sentence. One of the examples we used was this:
[Children] should watch less television
~[They] should watch less television
Here it is certainly true that the pronoun they replaces the noun children. But
consider:
[The children] should watch less television
~[They] should watch less television
In this example, they does not replace children. Instead, it replaces the children, which
is a unit consisting of a determiner and a noun. We refer to this unit as a NOUN
PHRASE (NP), and we define it as any unit in which the central element is a noun.
Here is another example:
I like [the title of your book]
~I like [it]
In this case, the pronoun it replaces not just a noun but a five-word noun phrase, the
title of your book. So instead of saying that pronouns can replace nouns, it is more
accurate to say that they can replace noun phrases.
We refer to the central element in a phrase as the HEAD of the phrase. In the noun
phrase the children, the Head is children. In the noun phrase the title of your book, the
Head is title.
Noun phrases do not have to contain strings of words. In fact, they can contain just
one word, such as the word children in children should watch less television. This is
also a phrase, though it contains only a Head. At the level of word class, of course, we
would call children a plural, common noun. But in a phrase-level analysis, we call
children on its own a noun phrase. This is not simply a matter of terminology -- we
call it a noun phrase because it can be expanded to form longer strings which are
more clearly noun phrases.
From now on in the Internet Grammar, we will be using this phrase-level terminology.
Furthermore, we will delimit phrases by bracketing them, as we have done in the
examples above.
PHRASES
The Basic Structure of a Phrase
PAGE 2/5
Phrases consist minimally of a Head. This means that in a oneword phrase like [children], the Head is children. In longer
phrases, a string of elements may appear before the Head:
[the small children]
For now, we will refer to this string simply as the pre-Head
string.
A string of elements may also appear after the Head, and we
will call this the post-Head string:
[the small children in class 5]
So we have a basic three-part structure:
pre-Head string Head
[the small
post-Head string
children in class 5]
Of these three parts, only the Head is obligatory. It is the only
part which cannot be omitted from the phrase. To illustrate
this, let's omit each part in turn:
pre-Head string Head
post-Head string
[--
children in class 5]
*[the small
--
[the small
children --]
in class 5]
Pre-Head and post-Head strings can be omitted, while leaving
a complete noun phrase. We can even omit the pre- and postHead strings at the same time, leaving only the Head:
pre-Head string Head
[--
post-Head string
children --]
This is still a complete noun phrase.
However, when the Head is omitted, we're left with an
incomplete phrase (*the small in class five). This provides a
useful method of identifying the Head of a phrase. In general,
the Head is the only obligatory part of a phrase.
PHRASES
PAGE 3/5
More Phrase Types
Just as a noun functions as the Head of a noun phrase, a verb
functions as the Head of a verb phrase, and an adjective
functions as the Head of an adjective phrase, and so on. We
recognise five phrase types in all:
Phrase Type
Head
Example
Noun Phrase
Noun
[the children in class 5]
Verb Phrase
Verb
[play the piano]
Adjective Phrase
Adjective
[delighted to meet you]
Adverb Phrase
Adverb
[very quickly]
Prepositional Phrase Preposition [in the garden]
For convenience, we will use the following abbreviations for the
phrase types:
Phrase Type
Abbreviation
Noun Phrase
NP
Verb Phrase
VP
Adjective Phrase
AP
Adverb Phrase
AdvP
Prepositional
Phrase
PP
Using these abbreviations, we can now label phrases as well as
bracket them. We do this by putting the appropriate label
inside the opening bracket:
[NP the small children in class 5]
Now we will say a little more about each of the five phrase
types.
Noun Phrase (NP)
As we've seen, a noun phrase has a noun as its Head.
Determiners and adjective phrases usually constitute the preHead string:
[NP the children]
[NP happy children]
[NP the happy children]
In theory at least, the post-Head string in an NP can be
indefinitely long:
[NP the dog that chased the cat that killed the mouse that ate
the cheese that was made from the milk that came from the cow
that...]
Fortunately, they are rarely as long as this in real use.
The Head of an NP does not have to be a common or a proper
noun. Recall that pronouns are a subclass of nouns. This
means that pronouns, too, can function as the Head of an NP:
[NP I] like coffee
The waitress gave [NP me] the wrong dessert
[NP This] is my car
If the Head is a pronoun, the NP will generally consist of the
Head only. This is because pronouns do not take determiners
or adjectives, so there will be no pre-Head string. However,
with some pronouns, there may be a post-Head string:
[NP Those who arrive late] cannot be admitted until the
interval
Similarly, numerals, as a subclass of nouns, can be the Head
of an NP:
[NP Two of my guests] have arrived
[NP The first to arrive] was John
Verb Phrase (VP)
In a VERB PHRASE (VP), the Head is always a verb. The preHead string, if any, will be a `negative' word such as not [1] or
never [2], or an adverb phrase [3]:
[1] [VP not compose an aria]
[2] [VP never compose an aria]
[3] Paul [VP deliberately broke the window]
Many verb Heads must be followed by a post-Head string:
My son [VP made a cake] -- (compare: *My son made)
We [VP keep pigeons] -- (compare: *We keep)
I [VP recommend the fish] -- (compare: *I recommend)
Verbs which require a post-Head string are called TRANSITIVE
verbs. The post-Head string, in these examples, is called the
DIRECT OBJECT.
In contrast, some verbs are never followed by a direct object:
Susan [VP smiled]
The professor [VP yawned]
These are known as INTRANSITIVE VERBS.
However, most verbs in English can be both transitive and
intransitive, so it is perhaps more accurate to refer to
transitive and intransitive uses of a verb. The following
examples show the two uses of the same verb:
Intransitive: David smokes
Transitive: David smokes cigars
We will return to the structure of verb phrases in a later
section.
PHRASES
Adjective Phrase (AP)
PAGE 4/5
In an ADJECTIVE PHRASE (AP), the Head word is an adjective.
Here are some examples:
Susan is [AP clever]
The doctor is [AP very late]
My sister is [AP fond of animals]
The pre-Head string in an AP is most commonly an adverb
phrase such as very or extremely. Adjective Heads may be
followed by a post-Head string:
[AP happy to meet you]
[AP ready to go]
[AP afraid of the dark]
A small number of adjective Heads must be followed by a postHead string. The adjective Head fond is one of these. Compare:
My sister is [AP fond of animals]
*My sister is [fond]
Adverb Phrase (AdvP)
In an ADVERB PHRASE, the Head word is an adverb. Most
commonly, the pre-Head string is another adverb phrase:
He graduated [AdvP very recently]
She left [AdvP quite suddenly]
In AdvPs, there is usually no post-Head string, but here's a
rare example:
[AdvP Unfortunately for him], his wife came home early
Prepositional Phrase (PP)
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES usually consist of a Head -- a
preposition -- and a post-Head string only. Here are some
examples:
[PP through the window]
[PP over the bar]
[PP across the line]
[PP after midnight]
This makes PPs easy to recognise -- they nearly always begin
with a preposition (the Head). A pre-Head string is rarely
present, but here are some examples:
[PP straight through the window]
[PP right over the bar]
[PP just after midnight]
PHRASES
Phrases within Phrases
PAGE 5/5
We will conclude this introduction to phrases by looking briefly
at phrases within phrases. Consider the NP:
[NP small children]
It consists of a Head children and a pre-Head string small. Now
small is an adjective, so it is the Head of its own adjective
phrase. We know this because it could be expanded to form a
longer string:
very small children
Here, the adjective Head small has its own pre-Head string
very:
[AP very small]
So in small children, we have an AP small embedded with the
NP small children. We represent this as follows:
[NP [AP small] children]
All but the simplest phrases will contain smaller phrases
within them. Here's another example:
[PP across the road]
Here, the Head is across, and the post-Head string is the road.
Now we know that the road is itself an NP -- its Head is road,
and it has a pre-Head string the. So we have an NP within the
PP:
[PP across [NP the road]]
When you examine phrases, remember to look out for other
phrases within them.
PAGE
1/7
So far we have been looking at phrases more or less in
isolation. In real use, of course, they occur in isolation only in
very restricted circumstances. For example, we find isolated
NPs in public signs and notices:
[Exit]
[Sale]
[Restricted Area]
[Hyde Park]
We sometimes use isolated phrases in spoken English,
especially in responses to questions:
Q: What would you like to drink?
A: [NP Coffee]
Q: How are you today?
A: [AP Fine]
Q: Where did you park the car?
A: [PP Behind the house]
In more general use, however, phrases are integrated into
longer units, which we call CLAUSES:
Q: What would you like to drink?
A: [I'd like coffee]
Q: How are you today?
A: [I'm fine]
Q: Where did you park the car?
A: [I parked the car behind the house]
The Clause Hierarchy
The clause I'd like coffee is a SUBORDINATE CLAUSE within
the sentence I think I'd like coffee. We refer to this larger
clause as the MATRIX CLAUSE:
The matrix clause is not subordinate to any other, so it is, in
fact, co-extensive with the sentence.
We say that the matrix clause is SUPERORDINATE to the
subordinate clause.
The terms subordinate and superordinate are relative terms.
They describe the relationship between clauses in what is
called the CLAUSE HIERARCHY. We can illustrate what this
means by looking at a slightly more complicated example:
He said I think I'd like coffee
Here the matrix clause is:
He said I think I'd like coffee
This matrix clause contains two subordinate clauses, which
we'll refer to as Sub1 and Sub2:
Sub1 is both subordinate and superordinate. It is subordinate
in relation to the matrix clause, and it is superordinate in
relation to Sub2.
Subordinate and superordinate, then, are not absolute terms.
They describe how clauses are arranged hierarchically relative
to each other.
We can bracket and label clauses in the same way as phrases.
We will use the following abbreviations:
Matrix Clause: MC
Subordinate Clause: SubC
Applying these labels and brackets to our first example, we
get:
[MC I think [SubC I'd like coffee]]
Just as we've seen with phrases, we can have embedding in
clauses too. Here, the subordinate clause is embedded within
the matrix clause.
There is a greater degree of embedding in our second
example, where there are two subordinate clauses, one within
the other:
[MC He said [SubC I think [SubC I'd like coffee]]]
Finite and Nonfinite Clauses
CLAUSES &
SENTENCES
PAGE 2/7
As a working definition, let us say that clauses contain at least
a verb phrase:
[MC [VP Stop]]
[MC David [VP composed an aria] when he was twelve]
[MC My solicitor [VP sent me a letter] yesterday]
As these examples show, clauses can also contain many other
elements, but for now we will concentrate on the VP. We have
already seen that verbs (and therefore the VPs that contain
them) are either FINITE or NONFINITE, so we can use this
distinction to classify clauses. Clauses are either finite or
nonfinite.
Finite verb phrases carry tense, and the clauses containing
them are FINITE CLAUSES:
[1] She writes home every day (finite clause -- present tense
verb)
[2] She wrote home yesterday (finite clause -- past tense verb)
On the other hand, nonfinite verb phrases do not carry tense.
Their main verb is either a to-infinitive [3], a bare infinitive [4],
an -ed form [5], or an -ing form [6]:
[3] David loves [to play the piano]
[4] We made [David play the piano]
[5] [Written in 1864], it soon became a classic
[6] [Leaving home] can be very traumatic
These are NONFINITE CLAUSES.
Matrix clauses are always finite, as in [1] and [2]. However,
they may contain nonfinite subordinate clauses within them.
For example:
[MC David loves [SubC to play the piano]]
Here we have a finite matrix clause -- its main verb loves has
the present tense form. Within it, there is a nonfinite
subordinate clause to play the piano -- its main verb play has
the to-infinitive form.
On the other hand, subordinate clauses can be either finite or
nonfinite:
Finite: He said [SubC that they stayed at a lovely hotel] -- past
tense
Nonfinite: I was advised [SubC to sell my old car] -- to-infinitive
CLAUSES &
SENTENCES
PAGE 3/7
Subordinate Clause Types
Subordinate clauses may be finite or nonfinite. Within this
broad classification, we can make many further distinctions.
We will begin by looking at subordinate clauses which are
distinguished by their formal characteristics.
Many subordinate clauses are named after the form of the verb
which they contain:
TO-INFINITIVE CLAUSE:
You must book early [to secure a seat]
BARE INFINITIVE CLAUSE:
They made [the professor forget his notes]
-ING PARTICIPLE CLAUSE:
His hobby is [collecting old photographs]
-ED PARTICIPLE CLAUSE:
[Rejected by his parents], the boy turned to a life of crime
For convenience, we sometimes name a clause after its first
element:
IF-CLAUSE:
I'll be there at nine [if I catch the early train]
As we'll see on the next page, if-clauses are sometimes called
conditional clauses.
THAT-CLAUSE:
David thinks [that we should have a meeting]
The that element is sometimes ellipted:
David thinks [we should have a meeting]
Relative Clauses
An important type of subordinate clause is the RELATIVE
CLAUSE. Here are some examples:
The man [who lives beside us] is ill
The video [which you recommended] was terrific
Relative clauses are generally introduced by a relative
pronoun, such as who, or which. However, the relative
pronoun may be ellipted:
The video [you recommended] was terrific
Another variant, the REDUCED RELATIVE CLAUSE, has no
relative pronoun, and the verb is nonfinite:
The man [living beside us] is ill
(Compare: The man [who lives beside us]...)
Nominal Relative Clauses
NOMINAL RELATIVE CLAUSES (or independent relatives)
function in some respects like noun phrases:
[What I like best] is football
(cf. the sport I like best...)
The prize will go to [whoever submits the best design]
(cf. the person who submits...)
My son is teaching me [how to use email]
(cf. the way to use email)
This is [where Shakespeare was born]
(cf. the place where...)
The similarity with NPs can be further seen in the fact that
certain nominal relatives exhibit number contrast:
Singular: [What we need] is a plan
Plural: [What we need] are new ideas
Notice the agreement here with is (singular) and are (plural).
Small Clauses
Finally, we will mention briefly an unusual type of clause, the
verbless or SMALL CLAUSE. While clauses usually contain a
verb, which is finite or nonfinite, small clauses lack an overt
verb:
Susan found [the job very difficult]
We analyse this as a unit because clearly its parts cannot be
separated. What Susan found was not the job, but the job very
difficult. And we analyse this unit specifically as a clause
because we can posit an implicit verb, namely, a form of the
verb be:
Susan found [the job (to be) very difficult]
Here are some more examples of small clauses:
Susan considers [David an idiot]
The jury found [the defendant guilty]
[Lunch over], the guests departed quickly
All of the clause types discussed here are distinguished by
formal characteristics. On the next page, we will distinguish
some more types, this time on the basis of their meaning.
CLAUSES &
SENTENCES
PAGE 4/7
Subordinate Clauses: Semantic Types
Here we will look at subordinate clauses from the point of view
of their meaning. The main semantic types are exemplified in
the following table:
Subordinate
Clause Type
Example
Temporal
I'll ring you again [before I leave]
David joined the army [after he graduated]
[When you leave], please close the door
I read the newspaper [while I was waiting]
Conditional
I'll be there at nine [if I can catch the early
train]
[Provided he works hard], he'll do very well
at school
Don't call me [unless its an emergency]
Concessive
He bought me a lovely gift, [although he
can't really afford it]
[Even though he worked hard], he failed
the final exam
[While I don't agree with her], I can
understand her viewpoint
Reason
Paul was an hour late [because he missed
the train]
I borrowed your lawn mower, [since you
weren't using it]
[As I don't know the way], I'll take a taxi
Result
The kitchen was flooded, [so we had to go
to a restaurant]
I've forgotten my password, [so I can't
read my email]
Comparative
This is a lot more difficult [than
I expected]
She earns as much money [as I do]
I think London is less crowded [than it
used to be]
The table does not cover all the possible types, but it does
illustrate many of the various meanings which can be
expressed by subordinate clauses.
Notice that the same word can introduce different semantic
types. For instance, the word while can introduce a temporal
clause:
I read the newspaper [while I was waiting]
or a concessive clause:
[While I don't agree with her], I can understand her viewpoint.
Similarly, the word since can express time:
I've known him [since he was a child]
as well as reason:
I borrowed your lawn mower, [since you weren't using it]
In the following exercise, be aware of words like these, which
can introduce more than one type of subordinate clause.
CLAUSES &
SENTENCES
Sentences
PAGE 5/7
Most people recognise a sentence as a unit which begins with a
capital letter and ends with a full stop (period), a question
mark, or an exclamation mark. Of course, this applies only to
written sentences. Sentences have also been defined notionally
as units which express a "complete thought", though it is not
at all clear what a "complete thought" is.
It is more useful to define a sentence syntactically, as a unit
which consists of one or more clauses. According to this
definition, the following examples are all sentences:
[1] Paul likes football
[2] You can borrow my pen if you need one
[3] Paul likes football and David likes chess
Sentence [1] is a SIMPLE SENTENCE -- it contains only one
clause.
Sentence [2] consists of a matrix clause You can borrow my pen
if you need one, and a subordinate clause if you need one. This
is called a COMPLEX SENTENCE. A complex sentence is
defined as a sentence which contains at least one subordinate
clause.
Finally, sentence [3] consists of two clauses which are
coordinated with each other. This is a COMPOUND sentence.
By using subordination and coordination, sentences can
potentially be infinitely long, but in all cases we can analyse
them as one or more clauses.
CLAUSES &
SENTENCES
PAGE 6/7
The Discourse Functions of Sentences
Sentences may be classified according to their use in
discourse. We recognise four main sentence types:
declarative
interrogative
imperative
exclamative
Declarative
Declarative sentences are used to convey information or to
make statements:
David plays the piano
I hope you can come tomorrow
We've forgotten the milk
Declarative sentences are by far the most common type.
Interrogative
Interrogative sentences are used in asking questions:
Is this your book?
Did you receive my message?
Have you found a new job yet?
The examples above are specifically YES/NO
INTERROGATIVES, because they elicit a response which is
either yes or no.
ALTERNATIVE INTERROGATIVES offer two or more alternative
responses:
Should I telephone you or send an email?
Do you want tea, coffee, or espresso?
Yes/no interrogatives and alternative interrogatives are
introduced by an auxiliary verb.
WH- INTERROGATIVES, on the other hand, are introduced by
a wh- word, and they elicit an open-ended response:
What happened?
Where do you work?
Who won the Cup Final in 1997?
Questions are sometimes tagged onto the end of a declarative
sentence:
David plays the piano, doesn't he?
We've forgotten the milk, haven't we?
There's a big match tonight, isn't there?
These are known as TAG QUESTIONS. They consist of a main
or auxiliary verb followed by a pronoun or existential there
Imperative
Imperative sentences are used in issuing orders or directives:
Leave your coat in the hall
Give me your phone number
Don't shut the door
Stop!
Tag questions are sometimes added to the end of imperatives:
Leave your coat in the hall, will you?
Write soon, won't you?
In an imperative sentence, the main verb is in the base form.
This is an exception to the general rule that matrix clauses are
always finite.
Exclamative
Exclamative sentences are used to make exclamations:
What a stupid man he is!
How wonderful you look!
The four sentence types exhibit different syntactic forms,
which we will be looking at in a later section. For now, it is
worth pointing out that there is not necessarily a one-to-one
relationship between the form of a sentence and its discourse
function. For instance, the following sentence has declarative
form:
You need some help
But when this is spoken with a rising intonation, it becomes a
question:
You need some help?
Conversely, rhetorical questions have the form of an
interrogative, but they are really statements:
Who cares? ( = I don't care)
CLAUSES &
SENTENCES
The Grammatical Hierarchy: Words, Phrases, PAGE 7/7
Clauses, and Sentences
Words, phrases, clauses, and sentences constitute what is
called the GRAMMATICAL HIERARCHY. We can represent this
schematically as follows:
sentences
consist of one or more...
clauses
consist of one or more...
phrases
consist of one or more...
words
Sentences are at the top of the hierarchy, so they are the
largest unit which we will be considering (though some
grammars do look beyond the sentence). At the other end of
the hierarchy, words are at the lowest level, though again,
some grammars go below the word to consider morphology, the
study of how words are constructed.
At the clause level and at the phrase level, two points should
be noted:
1. Although clauses are higher than phrases in the hierarchy,
clauses can occur within phrases, as we've already seen:
The man who lives beside us is ill
Here we have a relative clause who lives beside us within the
NP the man who lives beside us.
2. We've also seen that clauses can occur within clauses, and
phrases can occur within phrases.
Bearing these two points in mind, we can now illustrate the
grammatical hierarchy using the following sentence:
My brother won the lottery
As a means of illustrating the grammatical hierarchy, the
labelled brackets we have used here have at least one major
drawback. You've probably noticed it already -- they are very
difficult to interpret. And the problem becomes more acute as
the sentence becomes more complex. For this reason,
linguists prefer to employ a more visual method, the TREE
DIAGRAM.
Sentence Patterns from a Functional Perspective
FORM AND
FUNCTION
PAGE 8/9
In order to summarise what we have learned, we will now look at some
typical sentence patterns from a functional perspective. We will then
conclude this section by looking at some untypical patterns, on the next
page.
As we've seen, the Subject is usually (but not always) the first element
in a sentence, and it is followed by the verb:
Pattern 1
Subject Verb
David
sings
The dog barked
Susan
yawned
In this pattern, the verb is not followed by any Object, and we refer to
this as an intransitive verb. If the verb is monotransitive, it takes a
Direct Object, which follows the verb:
Pattern 2
Subject
Verb
Direct Object
David
sings
ballads
The professor wants to retire
The jury
found the defendant guilty
In the ditransitive pattern, the verb is followed by an Indirect Object and
a Direct Object, in that order:
Pattern 3
Subject
Verb
Indirect Object Direct Object
The old man
gave
the children
some money
My uncle
sent
me
a present
The detectives
asked Amy
lots of questions
Adjuncts are syntactically peripheral to the rest of the sentence. They
may occur at the beginning and at the end of a sentence, and they may
occur in all three of the patterns above:
Pattern 4
(Adjunct)
[1] Usually
Subject
Verb
David
sings
[2] Unfortunately the
wants
Indirect Direct
Object Object
(Adjunct)
in the
bath
to retire
this year
professor
[3] At the start of the judge showed the jury the
in a
the trial
photographs private
chamber
Pattern 4 is essentially a conflation of the other three, with Adjuncts
added. We have bracketed the Adjuncts to show that they are optional.
Strictly speaking, Objects are also optional, since they are only required
by monotransitive and ditransitive verbs, as in the examples [2] and [3]
above.
Some Untypical Sentence Patterns
FORM AND
FUNCTION
PAGE 9/9
The sentence patterns we looked at on the previous page
represent typical or canonical patterns But you will often come
across sentences which do not conform to these patterns. We
will look at some of these here.
Extraposition
The Subject is sometimes postponed until the end of the
sentence. Here are some examples:
In first place is Red Rum
Inside the house were two detectives
More important is the question of compensation
Here, the typical declarative order has been disrupted for
stylistic effect. In these examples, the Subject comes after the
verb, and is said to be EXTRAPOSED. Compare them with the
more usual pattern:
In first place is Red ~Red Rum is in first
Rum
place
Inside the house
were two detectives
~Two detectives were
inside the house
More important is
~The question of
the question of
compensation is
compensation
more important
The Subject is also extraposed when the sentence is
introduced by anticipatory it:
It is a good idea to book early
It is not surprising that he failed his exams
In the more typical pattern, these constructions may sound
stylistically awkward:
To book early is a good idea
That he failed his exams is not surprising
Extraposition is not always just a matter of style. In the
following examples, it is obligatory:
It seems that he'll be ~*That he'll be late
late again
again seems
It turned out that
his secretary had
stolen the money
~*That his secretary
had stolen the
money turned out
Direct Objects, too, can be extraposed. Recall that their typical
position is after the verb (Pattern 2). However, when
anticipatory it is used, the Direct Object is extraposed:
He made it very clear that he would not be coming back
Again, the canonical pattern is stylistically very awkward:
*He made that he would not be coming back very clear
Cleft Sentences
A declarative sentence, such as David studied English at
Oxford can be reformulated as:
It was David who studied English at Oxford
This is called a CLEFT SENTENCE because the original
sentence has been divided (or "cleft") into two clauses: It was
David and who studied English at Oxford. Cleft sentences focus
on one constituent of the original sentence, placing it after it
was (or it is). Here we have focussed on the Subject David, but
we could also focus on the Direct Object English:
It was English that David studied at Oxford
or on the Adjunct at Oxford
It was at Oxford that David studied English
Cleft constructions, then, exhibit the pattern:
It + be + focus + clause
Adjuncts
FORM AND
FUNCTION
PAGE 7/9
Certain parts of a sentence may convey information about
how, when, or where something happened:
He ate his meal quickly (how)
David gave blood last week (when)
Susan went to school in New York (where)
The highlighted constituents here are ADJUNCTS. From a
syntactic point of view, Adjuncts are optional elements, since
their omission still leaves a complete sentence:
He ate his meal quickly ~He ate his meal
David gave blood last week ~David gave blood
Susan went to school in New York ~Susan went to school
Many types of constituents can function as Adjuncts, and we
exemplify these below.
Realisations of Adjuncts
Noun Phrases functioning as Adjuncts
David gave blood last week
Next summer, we're going to Spain
We've agreed to meet the day after tomorrow
NPs as Adjuncts generally refer to time, as in these examples.
Adverb Phrases functioning as Adjuncts
They ate their meal too quickly
She walked very gracefully down the steps
Suddenly, the door opened
Prepositional Phrases functioning as Adjuncts
Susan went to school in New York
I work late on Mondays
After work, I go to a local restaurant
PPs as Adjuncts generally refer to time or to place -- they tell
us when or where something happens.
Clauses functioning as Adjuncts
Subordinate clauses can function as Adjuncts. We'll begin with
some examples of finite subordinate clauses:
Clauses
functioning as
Adjuncts
EXAMPLES
Finite
While we were crossing the park, we
heard a loud explosion
I was late for the interview because
the train broke down
If you want tickets for the concert, you
have to apply early
My car broke down, so I had to walk
Nonfinite
To-infinitive
clause
Bare infinitive
clause
-ing clause
-ed clause
Small clause
To open the window, you have to
climb a ladder
Rather than leave the child alone, I
brought him to work with me
Being a qualified plumber, Paul had
no difficulty in finding the leak
Left to himself, he usually gets the job
done quickly
His face red with rage, John stormed
out of the room
You will notice that these clauses express the range of
meanings that we looked at earlier (in Subordinate Clauses:
Semantic Types). In all cases, notice also that the Adjuncts
express additional and optional information. If they are
omitted, the remaining clause is still syntactically complete.
FORM AND
FUNCTION
PAGE 6/9
The Indirect Object
Some verbs occur with two Objects:
We gave [John] [a present]
Here, the NP a present undergoes the "action" (a present is
what is given). So a present is the Direct Object. We refer to the
NP John as the INDIRECT OBJECT.
Indirect Objects usually occur with a Direct Object, and they
always come before the Direct Object. The typical pattern is:
Subject -- Verb -- Indirect Object -- Direct Object
Here are some more examples of sentences containing two
objects:
Indirect Object Direct Object
Tell
me
a story
He showed
us
his war medals
We bought
David
a birthday cake
Can you lend your colleague
a pen?
Verbs which take an Indirect Object and a Direct Object are
known as DITRANSITIVE verbs. Verbs which take only a Direct
Object are called MONOTRANSITIVE verbs. The verb tell is a
typical ditransitive verb, but it can also be monotransitive:
Indirect Object Direct Object
Ditransitive
David told the children
Monotransitive David told
a story
a story
As we've seen, an Indirect Object usually co-occurs with a
Direct Object. However, with some verbs an Indirect Object
may occur alone:
David told the children
although we can usually posit an implicit Direct Object in such
cases:
David told the children the news
Realisations of the Indirect Object
NPs are the most common realisations of the Indirect Object. It
is a typical function of pronouns in the objective case, such as
me, him, us, and them.
Less commonly, a clause will function as Indirect Object:
David told whoever saw her to report to the police
FORM AND
FUNCTION
PAGE 5/9
Inside the Predicate
Now we will look inside the Predicate, and assign functions to
its constituents. Recall that the Predicate is everything apart
from the Subject. So in David plays the piano, the Predicate is
plays the piano. This Predicate consists of a verb phrase, and
we can divide this into two further elements:
[plays] [the piano]
In formal terms, we refer to the verb as the PREDICATOR,
because its function is to predicate or state something about
the subject. Notice that Predicator is a functional term, while
verb is a formal term:
FORM
FUNCTION
Verb
Predicator
However, since the Predicator is always realised by a verb, we
will continue to use the more familiar term verb, even when we
are discussing functions.
The Direct Object
In the sentence David plays the piano, the NP the piano is the
constituent which undergoes the "action" of being played (by
David, the Subject). We refer to this constituent as the DIRECT
OBJECT.
Here are some more examples of Direct Objects:
We bought a new computer
I used to ride a motorbike
The police interviewed all the witnesses
We can usually identify the Direct Object by asking who or
what was affected by the Subject. For example:
We bought a new computer
Q. What did we buy?
A. A new computer ( = the Direct Object)
The Direct Object generally comes after the verb, just as the
Subject generally comes before it. So in a declarative sentence,
the usual pattern is:
Subject -- Verb -- Direct Object
The following table shows more examples of this pattern:
Subject
Verb
Direct Object
The tourists
visited
the old cathedral
She
sent
a postcard
The detectives examined the scene of the crime
Realisations of the Direct Object
The Direct Object is most often realised by an NP, as in the
examples above. However, this function can also be realised by
a clause. The following table shows examples of clauses
functioning as Direct Objects:
CLAUSES
functioning as
DIRECT
OBJECTS
Finite
That-clause
Nominal relative
clause
Nonfinite
To-infinitive
clause
Bare infinitive
clause
-ing clause
-ed clause
EXAMPLES
[1] He thought that he had a perfect
alibi
[2] The officer described what he
saw through the keyhole
[3] The dog wants to play in the
garden
[4] She made the lecturer laugh
[5] Paul loves playing football
[6] I'm having my house painted
Subjects and Objects, Active and Passive
A useful way to compare Subjects and Direct Objects is to
observe how they behave in active and passive sentences.
Consider the following active sentence:
Active: Fire destroyed the palace
Here we have a Subject fire and a Direct Object the palace.
Now let's convert this into a passive sentence:
The change from active to passive has the following results:
1. The active Direct Object the palace becomes the passive
Subject
2. The active Subject fire becomes part of the PP by fire (the
by-agent phrase).
Realisations of the Subject
FORM AND
FUNCTION
PAGE 4/9
In the sentence, Jim was in bed, the Subject is the NP Jim.
More precisely, we say that the Subject is realised by the NP
Jim. Conversely, the NP Jim is the realisation of the Subject in
this sentence. Remember that NP is a formal term, while
Subject is a functional term:
FORM
FUNCTION
Noun Phrase
Subject
Subjects are typically realised by NPs. This includes NPs which
have pronouns [1], cardinal numerals [2], and ordinal
numerals [3] as their Head word:
[1] [We] decided to have a party
[2] [One of my contacts lenses] fell on the floor
[3] [The first car to reach Brighton] is the winner
However, other constituents can also function as Subjects, and
we will examine these in the following sections.
Clauses functioning as Subject
Clauses can also function as Subjects. When they perform this
function, we refer to them generally as Subject clauses. The
table below shows examples of the major types of Subject
clauses:
CLAUSES
functioning as
SUBJECTS
EXAMPLE
Finite
That-clause
[1] That his theory was flawed
soon became obvious
Nominal Relative
clause
[2] What I need is a long holiday
Nonfinite
To-infinitive
clause
[3] To become an opera singer takes
years of training
-ing clause
[4] Being the chairman is a huge
responsibility
Notice that some of these Subject clauses have Subjects of
their own. In [1], the Subject clause that his theory was
flawed, has its own Subject, his theory. Similarly, in [2], the
Subject of what I need is I.
Among nonfinite clauses, only to-infinitive clauses and -ing
participle clauses can function as Subject. Bare infinitive
clauses and -ed participle clauses cannot perform this
function. In the examples above -- [3] and [4] -- the nonfinite
Subject clauses do not have Subjects of their own, although
they can do:
[3a] For Mary to become an opera singer would take years of
training
[4a] David being the chairman has meant more work for all of
us
Prepositional Phrases functioning as Subject
Less commonly, the Subject may be realised by a prepositional
phrase:
After nine is a good time to ring
Prepositional phrases as Subject typically refer to time or to
space.
Some Unusual Subjects
Before leaving this topic, we will point out some grammatical
Subjects which may at first glance be difficult to recognise as
such. For example, can you work out the Subject of the
following sentence?
There is a fly in my soup
As we've seen, the most reliable test for identifying the Subject
is Subject-verb inversion, so let's try it here:
Declarative: There is a fly in my soup
Interrogative: Is there a fly in my soup?
The inversion test shows that the subject is there. You will
recall that this is an example of existential there, and the
sentence in which it is the Subject is an existential sentence.
Now try the same test on the following:
It is raining
The inversion test shows that the Subject is it:
Declarative: It is raining
Interrogative: Is it raining?
These two examples illustrate how limited the notional
definition of the Subject really is. In no sense can we say that
there and it are performing an "action" in their respective
sentences, and yet they are grammatically functioning as
Subjects.
On this page, we've seen that the function of Subject can be
realised by several different forms. Conversely, the various
forms (NP, clause, PP, etc) can perform several other functions,
and we will look at these in the following pages.
In each of the following sentences, identify the Subject by
clicking before and after it.
1. Your new neighbours are very noisy
2. Drinking beer is not permitted
3. Without thinking, the professor stepped off the pavement
4. To ensure confidentiality, we will conceal your name and address
5. There was a storm last night
Characteristics of the Subject
FORM AND
FUNCTION
PAGE
3/9
The grammatical Subject has a number of characteristics
which we will examine here.
1. Subject-Verb Inversion
In a declarative sentence, the Subject comes before the verb:
Declarative: David is unwell
When we change this into a yes/no interrogative, the Subject
and the verb change places with each other:
If an auxiliary verb is present, however, the Subject changes
places with the auxiliary:
Declarative: Jim has left already
Interrogative: Has Jim left already?
In this interrogative, the Subject still comes before the main
verb, but after the auxiliary. This is true also of interrogatives
with a do-auxiliary:
Declarative: Jim left early
Interrogative: Did Jim leave early?
Subject-verb inversion is probably the most reliable method
of identifying the Subject of a sentence.
2. Position of the Subject
In a declarative sentence, the Subject is usually the first
constituent:
Jim was in bed
Paul arrived too late for the party
The Mayor of New York attended the banquet
We made a donation to charity
However, there are exceptions to this. For instance:
Yesterday the theatre was closed
Here, the first constituent is the adverb phrase yesterday,
but this is not the Subject of the sentence. Notice that the
theatre, and not yesterday, inverts with the verb in the
interrogative:
Declarative: Yesterday the theatre was closed
Interrogative: Yesterday was the theatre closed?
So the Subject here is the theatre, even though it is not the
first constituent in the sentence.
3. Subject-verb Agreement
Subject-verb AGREEMENT or CONCORD relates to number
agreement (singular or plural) between the Subject and the
verb which follows it:
Singular Subject: The dog howls all night
Plural Subject: The dogs howl all night
There are two important limitations to Subject-verb
agreement. Firstly, agreement only applies when the verb is
in the present tense. In the past tense, there is no overt
agreement between the Subject and the verb:
The dog howled all night
The dogs howled all night
And secondly, agreement applies only to third person
Subjects. There is no distinction, for example, between a first
person singular Subject and a first person plural Subject:
I howl all night
We howl all night
The concept of NOTIONAL AGREEMENT sometimes comes
into play:
The government is considering the proposal
The government are considering the proposal
Here, the form of the verb is not determined by the form of
the Subject. Instead, it is determined by how we interpret the
Subject. In the government is..., the Subject is interpreted as
a unit, requiring a singular form of the verb. In the
government are..., the Subject is interpreted as having a
plural meaning, since it relates to a collection of individual
people. Accordingly, the verb has the plural form are.
4. Subjective Pronouns
The pronouns I, he/she/it, we, they, always function as
Subjects, in contrast with me, him/her, us, them:
I left early
*Me left early
He left early
*Him left early
We left early
*Us left early
They left early
*Them left early
The pronoun you can also be a Subject:
You left early
but it does not always perform this function. In the following
example, the Subject is Tom, not you:
Tom likes you
Subject and Predicate
FORM AND
FUNCTION
PAGE 2/9
The most familiar grammatical function is the SUBJECT. In
notional terms, we can think of the Subject as the element
which performs the "action" denoted by the verb:
[1] David plays the piano
[2] The police interviewed all the witnesses
In [1], the Subject David performs the action of playing the
piano. In [2], the Subject the police performs the action of
interviewing all the witnesses. In these terms, this means that
we can identify the Subject by asking a wh-question:
[1] David plays the piano
Q. Who plays the piano?
A. David ( = Subject)
[2] The police interviewed all the witnesses
Q. Who interviewed all the witnesses?
A. The police (= Subject)
Having identified the Subject, we can see that the remainder of
the sentence tells us what the Subject does or did. In [1], for
example, plays the piano tells us what David does. We refer to
this string as the PREDICATE of the sentence. In [2], the
Predicate is interviewed all the witnesses.
Here are some more examples of sentences labelled for Subject
and Predicate.
Subject
Predicate
The lion
roared
He
writes well
She
enjoys going to the cinema
The girl in the blue dress arrived late
In each of these examples, the Subject performs the action
described in the Predicate. We've seen, however, that there are
problems in defining verbs as "action" words, and for the same
reasons, there are problems in defining the Subject as the
"performer" of the action. The Subject in John seems unhappy
is John, but we would hardly say he is performing an action.
For this reason, we need to define the Subject more precisely
than this. We will look at the characteristics of the Subject on
the next page.
PAGE
1/9
We have used the word "form" quite often in the Internet
Grammar. It was one of the criteria we used to distinguish
between word classes -- we saw that the form or "shape" of a
word is often a good clue to its word class.
When we looked at phrases, too, we were concerned with
their form. We said that phrases may have the basic form
(Pre-Head string) - Head - (Post-Head string).
And finally, we classified clauses according to the form (finite
or nonfinite) of their main verb.
In all of these cases, we were conducting a FORMAL analysis.
Form denotes how something looks -- its shape or
appearance, and what its structure is. When we say that the
old man is an NP, or that the old man bought a newspaper is
a finite clause, we are carrying out a formal analysis.
We can also look at constituents -- phrases and clauses -from another angle. We can examine the FUNCTIONs which
they perform in the larger structures which contain them.
PAGE
1/5
The syntactic functions which we looked at in the last section
-- Subject, Object, Predicate, Adjunct, etc -- are all functions
within sentences or clauses. We saw, for instance, that most
sentences can be divided into two main functional
constituents, the Subject and the Predicate:
Subject
Predicate
[1] The lion
roared
[2] He
writes well
[3] She
enjoys going to the cinema
[4] The girl in the blue dress arrived late
Within the Predicate, too, constituents perform various
functions -- in [3], for example, going to the cinema performs
the function of Direct Object, while in [4], late performs the
function of Adjunct. In each of these cases, we are referring
to the roles which these constituents perform in the sentence
or clause.
We can also assign functions to the constituents of a phrase.
Recall that we have said that all phrases have the following
generalised structure:
(pre-Head string) --- Head --- (post-Head string)
where the parentheses denote optional elements.
In this section, we will consider the functions of these parts
of a phrase -- what roles do they perform in the phrase as a
whole?
We will begin by looking at functions within verb phrases.
Complements
PAGE 2/5
Consider the bracketed verb phrase in the following sentence:
David [VP plays the piano]
In formal terms, we can analyse this VP using the familiar
three-part structure:
pre-Head string Head post-Head string
--
plays the piano
Let us now consider the functions of each of these three
parts.
Actually, we already know the function of one of the parts -the word plays functions as the Head of this VP. The term
"Head" is a functional label, indicated by the capital (upper
case) letter. Remember that we also capitalize the other
functions -- Subject, Object, Predicate, etc.
Turning now to the post-Head string the piano, we can see
that it completes the meaning of the Head plays. In
functional terms, we refer to this string as the COMPLEMENT
of the Head. Here are some more examples of Complements
in verb phrases:
pre-Head string Head
Complement
never
needs money
--
eat
vegetables
not
say
what he is doing
In each case, the Complement completes the meaning of the
Head, so there is a strong syntactic link between these two
strings.
At this point you may be wondering why we do not simply
say that these post-Head strings are Direct Objects. Why do
we need the further term Complement?
The string which completes the meaning of the Head is not
always a Direct Object. Consider the following:
She [VP told me]
Here the post-Head string (the Complement) is an Indirect
Object. With ditransitive verbs, two Objects appear:
We [VP gave James a present]
Here, the meaning of the Head gave is completed by two
strings -- James and a present. Each string is a Complement
of the Head gave.
Finally, consider verb phrases in which the Head is a form of
the verb be:
David [VP is a musician]
Amy [VP is clever]
Our car [VP is in the carpark]
The post-Head strings here are neither Direct Objects nor
Indirect Objects. The verb be is known as a COPULAR verb. It
takes a special type of Complement which we will refer to
generally as a COPULAR COMPLEMENT. There is a small
number of other copular verbs. In the following examples, we
have highlighted the Head, and italicised the Complement:
Our teacher [VP became angry]
Your sister [VP seems upset]
All the players [VP felt very tired] after the game
That [VP sounds great]
It is clear from this that we require the general term
Complement to encompass all post-Head strings, regardless
of their type. In verb phrases, a wide range of Complements
can appear, but in all cases there is a strong syntactic link
between the Complement and the Head. The Complement is
that part of the VP which is required to complete the meaning
of the Head.
Complements in other Phrase Types
PAGE 3/5
Complements also occur in all of the other phrase types. We
exemplify each type in the following table:
Phrase Type
Head
Typical
Complements
Noun Phrase
(NP)
noun
PP
respect for
human rights
clause
the
realisation
that nothing
has changed
NP
David plays
the piano
clause
They realised
that nothing
has changed
Verb Phrase
(VP)
verb
PP
Examples
She looked at
the moon
Adjective
adjective
clause
easy to read
Phrase (AP)
Adverb Phrase adverb
(AdvP)
Prepositional
Phrase (PP)
PP
fond of
biscuits
PP
luckily for me
preposition NP
PP
in the room
from behind
the wall
Adverb phrases are very limited in the Complements they can
take. In fact, they generally occur without any Complement.
Noun phrases which take Complements generally have an
abstract noun as their Head, and they often have a verbal
counterpart:
the pursuit of happiness
~we pursue happiness
their belief in ghosts
~they believe in ghosts
the realisation that
nothing has changed
~they realise that nothing
has changed
In each of the following phrases, identify the Complement by
clicking before and after it.
1. unable to swim
2. the fact that the money
was stolen
3. below the horizon
4. learning to drive
5. aware of his potential
Adjuncts in Phrases
PAGE 4/5
The term "Complement" is not simply another word for the "post-Head
string" -- post-Head strings are not always Complements. This is because
the post-Head string is not always required to complete the meaning of the
Head. Consider:
[NP My sister, who will be twenty next week,] has got a new job.
Here the relative clause who will be twenty next week is certainly a postHead string, but it is not a Complement. Notice that it contributes
additional but optional information about the Head sister. In this example,
the post-Head string is an ADJUNCT. Like the other Adjuncts we looked at
earlier, it contributes additional, optional information.
Adjuncts can occur in all the phrase types, and they may occur both before
and after the Head. The following table shows examples of each type:
Phrase Type
Head
Typical
Adjuncts
Examples
Noun Phrase (NP)
noun
PP
the books on the shelf
AP
clause
the old lady
cocoa, which is made
from cacao beans
AdvP
she rapidly lost interest
PP
he stood on the patio
AdvP
it was terribly difficult
Verb Phrase (VP)
verb
Adjective Phrase
(AP)
adjective
Prepositional
Phrase (PP)
preposition AdvP
completely out of control
Complements and Adjuncts Compared
Complements differ from Adjuncts in two important respects:
1. Complements immediately follow the Head
In most phrases, the Complement must immediately follow the Head:
David [VP plays [Complement the piano] [Adjunct beautifully ]]
In contrast, the reverse order is not possible:
*David [VP plays [Adjunct beautifully] [Complement the piano]]
Similarly:
fond [Complement of biscuits] [Adjunct with coffee]
~*fond [Adjunct with coffee] [Complement of biscuits]
Complements, then, bear a much closer relationship to the Head than
Adjuncts do.
2. Adjuncts are "stackable"
In theory at least, we can "stack" an indefinite number of Adjuncts, one
after another, within a phrase. For example, consider the NP:
Adjunct
Adjunct
Adjunct
Adjunct
the book on the shelf by Dickens with the red cover that you gave me...
In contrast with this, phrases are limited in the number of Complements
that they can take. In fact, they usually have only one Complement.
Ditransitive verb phrases are an exception to this. Recall that they take two
Complements:
We [VP gave [Complement James] [Complement a present]]
Specifiers
PAGE 5/5
Adjuncts can appear before the Head of a phrase, as well as
after the Head. For example, in the following NP, the Adjunct
sudden is part of what we have been calling the pre-Head
string:
?
Adjunct
Head
Complement
the
sudden
realisation
that nothing has
changed
In this section we will look at the function of the remaining
part of the pre-Head string. In this example, what is the
function of the in the phrase as a whole?
We refer to this part of the phrase as the SPECIFIER of the
phrase. Again, Specifiers may occur in all the major phrase
types, and we exemplify them in the following table:
Phrase Type
Head
Typical
Specifiers
Noun Phrase
(NP)
noun
determiners
the vehicle
an objection
some people
Verb Phrase
(VP)
verb
`negative'
elements
not arrive
never plays
the piano
Adjective
Phrase (AP)
adjective
AdvP
quite
remarkable
very fond of
animals
Prepositional
Phrase (PP)
preposition AdvP
Examples
just across
the street
An important point about Specifiers is that they relate to the
Head + Complement sequence, and not to the Head alone.
For example, in the AP very fond of animals , the Specifier
very relates to fond of animals, not just to fond:
Amy is very fond of animals
Q. Amy is very what?
A. *Fond
A. Fond of animals
In functional terms, then, the three-part structure of a
phrase can be summarised as:
(Specifier) -- [Head -- (Complement)]
Bbcskillwise
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Rs/L1.1
How to put simple sentences together
Constant use of short sentences can be a bit strange to read.
To make your writing more interesting, you can use two other sorts of longer
sentences. The simplest of these is the compound sentence.
How do I make a compound sentence?
When you have two or more short, independent, simple sentences which are of equal
weight you can join them together using special words called conjunctions.
e.g. 'I hate curry.' is a simple sentence.
'I like Thai food.' is also a simple sentence.
You can put these together to make one, longer and more interesting compound
sentence using a conjunction 'I hate curry' + but + 'I like Thai food' = 'I hate curry, but I like Thai food.'
Junctions join two or more roads together, so we use conjunctions to join two or more
short sentences together
Commas are not conjunctions and they should never be used to join short sentences
together (commas aren't sticky, so you can't use them to stick information together!).
These are the most common conjunctions:
and, as, but, or, so
Try to avoid using the same conjunction over and over again. It is much better to 'mix
and match'.
BEWARE!
The conjunction that you use may change the meaning of your sentence!
Conjunctions don't just stick sentences together, they show the relationship between
the pieces of information.
e.g. Note the slightly different meaning in these sentences:
I walked home. I was tired.
I walked home and I was tired.
I walked home as I was tired.
I walked home but I was tired.
I walked home so I was tired.
I walked home or I was tired.
The final sentence, using or doesn't really make sense. You can't use every
conjunction everywhere - so choose wisely!
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Rs/L1.1
Complex sentences
Constant use of short sentences can be a bit strange to read.
To make your writing more interesting, you can use two other sorts of longer
sentences. Factsheet 1 looked at 'compound' sentences. This factsheet looks at
'complex' sentence.
How do I make a complex sentence?
When you make a compound sentence (see factsheet 1) you are joining two or more
simple sentences together with a conjunction. If you took the conjunction away, the
sentences would be complete and they would still make sense.
e.g. 'I hate curry, but I like Thai food.'= 'I hate curry' + but + 'I like Thai food'
This isn't the same for complex sentences. Complex sentences don't just divide into
neat, complete, simple sentences if you take out the conjunctions. In complex
sentences the conjunction is used to join together clauses. A clause is a group of
words that contains a subject and a verb. Some of these clauses might be complete
short sentences, but in a complex sentence at least one of them will depend on the
conjunction for its meaning.
In other words, if you take the conjunction away, the sentence won't divide into
complete units that make sense by themselves.
e.g. 'The dinner was burned because she had forgotten it.'
= 'The dinner was burned' + 'because' + 'she had forgotten it.'
This is a complex sentence:
'The dinner was burned' = complete, short sentence
'because' = conjunction (joining word)
'she had forgotten it' = subordinate clause. This doesn't make sense on its own. What
had she forgotten? This is called a 'subordinate clause' because without the rest of the
sentence it doesn't really make sense.
'Although I'm not very good, I really enjoy playing football.'
= 'Although' + 'I'm not very good' + 'I really enjoy playing football.'
Again, this is a complex sentence:
'Although' = conjunction (joining word). Yes, sometimes conjunctions can appear at the
beginning of a sentence!
'I'm not very good' = subordinate clause. This doesn't make sense on its own. What are
you not very good at? This is called a 'subordinate clause' because without the rest of
the sentence it doesn't really make sense.
'I enjoy playing football' = complete short sentence
BEWARE!
As for compound sentences, commas are not conjunctions and they should never be
used to join short sentences or clauses together (commas aren't sticky, so you can't
use them to stick information together!).
e.g. 'The dinner was burned, she had forgotten it.' = incorrect
'The dinner was burned because she had forgotten it.' = correct
The important joining words
Factsheets 1 and 2 told you about making more interesting sentences by using
compound and complex sentences.
For both of these, you need a good selection of conjunctions, or joining words.
The 'magnificent seven' conjunctions (the most commonly used) are:
and, although, as, because, but, if, or
There are a number of other important conjunctions that you can use.
These can be put into categories of time, place, or agreement.
TIME =
before, after, until, since, when, whenever, while
e.g.
We all went home before a fight broke out.
She went to bed after she put the cat out.
There will be no peace until somebody says that they are sorry.
It has not been the same around here since our friends moved away.
They put the television off when the programme had finished.
He washes his new car whenever it gets mucky.
The children go to the crèche while Mum goes to work.
PLACE =
where
e.g.
Remember that restaurant where you ate a huge steak.
AGREEMENT =
though, although, whether
e.g.
He could play the violin though he was only five years old.
I would invite you to come in although the place is a mess.
It was a great show whether you wanted to join in or just watch.
Remember!
Try to avoid using the same conjunction over and over again. It is much better to 'mix
and match'.
The conjunction you use can change the meaning of the sentence. You can't use
every conjunction everywhere - so choose wisely!
Can
We use 'can' to talk about 'possibility'.
Can you do that?
I can't manage to do that.
You can leave your car in that parking space.
You cannot smoke in here.
Notice that there are two negative forms: 'can't' and 'cannot'. These mean exactly the
same thing. When we are speaking, we usually say 'can't'.
We use 'can' to talk about 'ability'.
I can speak French.
I can't drive.
We use 'can' to ask for and give permission. (We also use 'may' for this but is more
formal and much less common.)
Can I speak to you or are you too busy?
You can use my phone.
You can't come in.
We use 'can' in offers, requests and instructions.
Can I help?
Can you give me a hand?
When you finish that, you can take out the garbage.
We use 'can' with 'see' 'hear' 'feel' 'smell' 'taste' to talk about something which is
happening now . (Where you would use the present continuous with most other verbs.)
I can smell something burning.
Can you hear that noise?
I can't see anything.
We can use 'can't' for deduction. The opposite of 'can't' in this context is 'must'.
You can't be hungry. You've just eaten.
You must be hungry. You haven't eaten anything all day.
He was in London one hour ago when I spoke to him. He can't be here yet.
Could
'Could' can be used to talk about the past, the present or the future.
'Could' is a past form of 'can'
When I was living in Boston, I could walk to work.
He phoned to say he couldn't come.
I could see him clearly but I couldn't hear him and then the videoconference line went
dead.
'Could' is used to make polite requests. We can also use 'can' for these but 'could' is
more polite.
Could you help me, please?
Could you lend me some money?
Could I have a lift?
Could I bother you for a moment?
If we use 'could' in reply to these requests, it suggests that we do not really want to do
it. If you agree to the request, it is better to say 'can'.
Of course I can.
I could help you if it's really necessary but I'm really busy right now.
I could lend you some money but I'd need it back tomorrow without fail.
I could give you a lift as far as Birmingham.
'Could' is used to talk about theoretical possibility and is similar in meaning to 'might'.
It could rain later. Take an umbrella.
He could be there by now.
Could he be any happier?
It could be Sarah's.
May / might
may
We can use 'may' to ask for permission. However this is rather formal and not used
very often in modern spoken English
May I borrow your pen?
May we think about it?
May I go now?
We use 'may' to suggest something is possible
It may rain later today.
I may not have time to do it today.
Pete may come with us
might
We use 'might' to suggest a small possibility of something. Often we read that 'might'
suggests a smaller possibility that 'may', there is in fact little difference and 'might is
more usual than 'may' in spoken English.
She might be at home by now but it's not sure at all.
It might rain this afternoon.
I might not have time to go to the shops for you.
I might not go.
For the past, we use 'might have'.
He might have tried to call while I was out.
I might have dropped it in the street.
Should
We use 'should' for giving advice.
You should speak to him about it.
He should see a doctor.
We should ask a lawyer.
We use 'should' to give an opinion or a recommendation.
He should resign now.
We should invest more in Asia.
They should do something about this terrible train service.
'Should' expresses a personal opinion and is much weaker and more personal than
'must' or 'have to'. It is often introduced by ' I think'.
I think they should replace him.
I don't think they should keep the contract.
Do you think we should tell her.
Should 2
We can use 'should' after 'reporting verbs' such as
demand insist propose recommend suggest
He demanded that we should pay for the repair.
She insisted that she should pay for the meal.
I have proposed that he should take charge of the organization.
The committee recommends that Jane should be appointed.
We have suggested that Michael should be given a reward for his hard work.
However, it is also possible to say exactly the same thing by omitting the 'should' and
just using the infinitive form without 'to' . Some people call this the 'subjunctive' form.
He demanded that we pay for the repair.
She insisted that she pay for the meal.
I have proposed that he take charge of the organization.
The committee recommends that Jane be appointed.
We have suggested that Michael be given a reward for his hard work.
We can use 'should' after various adjectives. Typical examples are :
funny interesting natural odd strange surprised surprising typical
It's funny that you should say that. I was thinking exactly the same thing.
It's interesting that they should offer him the job. Not an obvious choice.
It's natural that you should be anxious. Nobody likes speaking in public.
Isn't it odd that he should be going to the same tiny hotel? What a coincidence.
It's strange that you should think so. Nobody else does.
We can use 'should' in 'if clauses' when we believe that the possibility of something
happening is small.
If you should happen to see him before I do, can you tell him that I want to speak to
him urgently?
If there should be a problem, just give me a call and I'll sort it out.
If anyone should ask where I am, say I'm in a meeting.
We use 'should' in various fixed expressions.
To show strong agreement
They're paying you compensation? I should think so.
To express pleasure when you receive a gift
What a fantastic present. You really shouldn't have.
To emphasize a visible emotion
You should have seen the look on her face when she found out that she had got the
promotion.
Must or have to
We can use 'must' to show that we are certain something is true. We are making a
logical deduction based upon some clear evidence or reason.
There's no heating on. You must be freezing.
You must be worried that she is so late coming home.
I can't remember what I did with it. I must be getting old.
It must be nice to live in Florida.
We also use 'must' to express a strong obligation. When we use 'must' this usually
means that some personal circumstance makes the obligation necessary (and the
speaker almost certainly agrees with the obligation.)
I must go to bed earlier.
They must do something about it.
You must come and see us some time.
I must say, I don't think you were very nice to him.
We can also use 'have to' to express a strong obligation. When we use 'have to' this
usually means that some external circumstance makes the obligation necessary.
I have to arrive at work at 9 sharp. My boss is very strict.
We have to give him our answer today or lose out on the contract.
You have to pass your exams or the university will not accept you.
I have to send a report to Head Office every week.
In British English, we often use 'have got to' to mean the same as 'have to'.
I've got to take this book back to the library or I'll get a fine.
We've got to finish now as somebody else needs this room.
We can also use ' will have to' to talk about strong obligations. Like 'must' this usually
means that that some personal circumstance makes the obligation necessary.
(Remember that 'will' is often used to show 'willingness'.)
I'll have to speak to him.
We'll have to have lunch and catch up on all the gossip.
They'll have to do something about it.
I'll have to get back to you on that.
As you can see, the differences between the present forms are sometimes very small
and very subtle. However, there is a huge difference in the negative forms.
We use 'mustn't' to express strong obligations NOT to do something.
We mustn't talk about it. It's confidential.
I mustn't eat chocolate. It's bad for me.
You mustn't phone me at work. We aren't allowed personal calls.
They mustn't see us talking or they'll suspect something.
We use 'don't have to' (or 'haven't got to' in British English) to state that there is NO
obligation or necessity.
We don't have to get there on time. The boss is away today.
I don't have to listen to this. I'm leaving.
You don't have to come if you don't want to.
He doesn't have to sign anything if he doesn't want to at this stage.
I haven't got to go. Only if I want to.