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Rome’s Beginnings
Chapter 8, Section 1, page 262
Chapter 8, Section 1 Objectives
• After this lesson, students will be able to:
– explain how Rome’s geographic location aided in its rise
to power.
– discuss how the Romans created a republic and carried
out conquests.
Why is Rome important?
• Ancient Rome influences us in the following ways:
–
–
–
–
–
–
daily life
government and law
architecture and engineering
language
military science
religion
The Origins of Rome – page 263
• Italy
– peninsula shaped like a
boot
– mountainous
• Alps
• Apennines
– islands
– better farmland than
Greece
Where Was Rome Located? – page 263
• geography and the
location of Rome
– Tiber river
• 15 miles up river from the
coast = protection from
raids
• access to the
Mediterranean Sea
• natural crossing point
– seven hills = defense
– central location
How Did Rome Begin? – page 264
• traditional legends about the
foundations of Rome:
– Aeneid by Virgil – legend of a
Trojan hero said to have begun
Rome
– the story of Romulus and
Remus (753 B.C.)
• These stories gave the
Romans a sense of legitimacy.
• Historians think people were
living in the area by c. 1000
B.C. and banded together for
protection between 800 B.C.
and 700 B.C.
Early Influences – page 264
• the Etruscans – a rich
people that greatly
influenced the growth of
Rome
– Etruria
– metalworking
– culture (clothing, military,
treatment of women)
• the Greeks
– agriculture
– art, literature, and architecture
– religion
The Birth of a Republic – page 265
• Roman historical periods:
– The Period of Kings (753 B.C. – 509 B.C.)
– The Roman Republic (509 B.C. – 27 B.C.)
– The Roman Empire (27 B.C. – A.D. 476)
The Birth of a Republic – page 265
• Romans overthrew the last
king in 509 B.C. and set up
a republic (a form of
government in which the
leaders are elected by
citizens).
– res publica – “that which
belongs to the people”
The Birth of a Republic – page 266
• By 267 B.C., the Romans had taken over most of
Italy.
– King Pyrrhus – king of Epirus
• a pyrrhic victory – “Such another victory and we are ruined.”
Shrewd Rulers – page 266
• What does “shrewd” mean?
– Merriam-Webster: “marked by a clever discerning
awareness and hardheaded acumen”
– For the Romans, that meant:
permanent military settlements in the areas they conquered
a network of roads
important public works
Roman Confederation – system that gave full citizenship
to some conquered peoples
• network of alliances
•
•
•
•
Why Was Rome So Strong? – page 266
• Roman military
superiority
– compulsory service for
male land owners in the
Republic
– discipline
– organization
• A legion was an army unit
consisting of around 6,000
men. It was broken down
further into groups of 60 to
120 soldiers.
Chapter 8, Section 1 Questions
1. Where did the Greeks live in Italy, and how did
they influence Roman civilization?
2. Describe the two legends that tell of the founding
of Rome. Then describe how and when Rome
was actually founded.
3. By what year had the Romans conquered Italy?
4. What is a legion?
The Roman Republic
Chapter 8, Section 2, page 268
Chapter 8, Section 2 Objectives
• After this lesson, students will be able to:
– discuss how Rome’s republic was shaped by a struggle
between wealthy landowners and regular citizens.
– describe how Rome defeated the Carthaginians and
took control of the Mediterranean area.
Rome’s Government – page 268
• Patricians
–
–
–
–
from a select few families
wealthy landowners
could vote
In the early Republic, they
were the only ones who
could hold office.
• Plebeians
– “middle class” – artisans,
shopkeepers, and owners
of small farms
– not necessarily poor, but
most were
– considered the lesser of the
two classes
Rome’s Government – page 268
• The Struggle of the Orders
– “The Pats vs. the Plebs” – plebs “went on strike”
(494 B.C.)
– Plebeians were seeking political equality.
– invaders threaten Rome → plebeians refuse to fight
until some changes are made; also threaten to leave →
patricians have no choice but to concede
Rome’s Government – page 268
• 471 B.C. – plebeians allowed to set up their own
council → the Plebeian Council
– elected tribunes – officials meant to protect the interests
of the plebeians
– gained the power of veto – Latin for “I forbid.”
• 300s B.C. – plebeians allowed to become consuls
• 287 B.C. – Council of the Plebs gained the
power to pass laws
How Did Rome’s Government Work? – page 269
• elements of the government
– Senate: 300 members; began as an advisory council;
gradually gained power, eventually able to propose
laws, controlled public finance, and handled foreign
policy
– Popular assemblies: in these, all citizens voted on laws,
elected officials
– Magistrates: governed in name of Senate and people,
put laws into practice, acted as priests
How Did Rome’s Government Work? – page 269
Consuls
• When last king thrown out, his
place taken by two magistrates
called consuls
• Elected for one year; chief
executives, army commanders
Praetors
Censors
• Next most important after consuls
• Recorded wealth, residence of
population
• Filled vacancies in Senate
Constraints
• Primarily judges, could act for
consuls if consuls away at war
• Government worked well because
of system of checks, balances
• After terms ended, given military
commands, appointed provisional
governors
• Each part could impose certain
constraints on others
How Did Rome’s Government Work? – page 269
Who Was Cincinnatus? – page 271
• Cincinnatus – best known early
Roman dictator
– dictator – a ruler with complete
control over the state
• appointed temporarily in a time of crisis
• terms limited to six months or the end of the
crisis, whichever came first
– Cincinnatus well known for having only
held the position for sixteen days
before he relinquished his power and
returned to his farm
Roman Law – page 273
• The Twelve Tables –
Rome’s first code of laws
(451 B.C.)
• idea of innocent until
proven guilty
• the right to defend oneself
before a judge
• consideration of evidence
• the rule of law
Rome Expands – page 274
• Once in control of Italy,
Rome turned its attention
elsewhere.
– Sicily
– problem: Carthage
Rome Expands – page 274
• Carthage
– coast of North Africa
– founded c. 800 B.C. by the Phoenicians
– ruled a seafaring trade empire
The First Punic War – page 274
• Rome versus Carthage
– fought over who would
dominate Sicily
– mainly a naval war = bad
news for the Romans
– quinqueremes
– Romans had to adapt
• captured Carthaginian ship
• use of the corvus
The First Punic War – page 274
• the quinquereme and the corvus
The First Punic War – page 274
• Carthage underestimated Rome
• 241 B.C. – Rome defeated Carthage
– the Battle of the Aegates Islands
• Roman fleet caught the Carthaginian fleet unprepared
• Results of war and terms of treaty were harsh
towards Carthage:
– fleet devastated
– lost islands
– fines paid to Rome
The Second Punic War – page 275
• Carthage looked for a way
to overcome losses →
looked to Spain
• Rome had a problem with
that.
– Saguntum, 219 B.C.
• 218 B.C. – Hannibal,
Carthage’s greatest
general, marched against
Rome, which started the
Second Punic War.
The Second Punic War – page 275
• Hannibal
– military background (father
Hamilcar Barca, of First
Punic War fame)
– legendary oath
– knew his enemies
– brilliant tactician
• surprise
– exceptional leader
• army was diverse, yet
formidable
• led by example
The Second Punic War – page 275
The Second Punic War – page 275
The Second Punic War – page 275
The Second Punic War – page 275
• Hannibal ran amuck in the
Republic
– famous crossing of the Alps
• approximately 50,000 infantry;
9,000 cavalry; 37 elephants (lost
about 1/3)
– Ticinus River (218 B.C.)
– Trebia (218 B.C.)
– Lake Trasimene (217 B.C.)
• Hannibal used the terrain to
launch a devastating surprise
attack.
The Second Punic War – page 275
• The Romans again had to adapt.
– “Fabian policy”
•
•
•
•
Quintus Fabius Maximus – a dictator
simply refused Hannibal the thing he thrived on → battle
harassed supply lines and isolated units
a truly Roman ideal: relentless in the pursuit of victory, an
absolute refusal to acknowledge defeat
The Second Punic War – page 275
• Cannae -Hannibal’s
greatest victory (216 B.C.)
– unique deployment of
Hannibal’s forces (trap!)
– cavalry was key
– “double envelopment” =
Roman annihilation
– 50,000(?) Romans dead in
about 6 hours
– Romans returned to the
Fabian policy
The Second Punic War – page 275
The Second Punic War – page 275
• Scipio – Roman general who
helped to win the Second
Punic War
– studied Hannibal
– went to Africa and threatened the
city of Carthage → Hannibal
recalled to Africa
– The Battle of Zama (202 B.C.) →
Hannibal defeated
– Rome won the Second Punic War.
• Carthage had to pay Rome a fine;
lost its navy; lost Spain.
The Second Punic War – page 275
More Conquests – page 276
• Third Punic War
– Carthage finally destroyed; 50,000 people enslaved
– Carthaginian territory was made a Roman province
• 148 B.C. – Macedonia came under Roman rule
• 146 B.C. – the rest of Greece came under Roman
rule
• 129 B.C. – Pergamon became Rome’s first Asian
province.
• The Romans dominated the Mediterranean
(mare nostrum – “our sea”).
Chapter 8, Section 2 Questions
1. What were the responsibilities of the consuls in the
Roman Republic ?
2. Explain the purpose of a dictator in the Roman
Republic.
3. What was the First Punic War fought over?
4. Who led the Carthaginian forces in the Second
Punic War?
5. What battle won the Second Punic War for the
Romans?
The Fall of the Republic
Chapter 8, Section 3, page 277
Chapter 8, Section 3 Objectives
• After this lesson, students will be able to:
– describe how Julius Caesar seized power, but was later
killed by his rivals.
– explain how the Roman Republic, weakened by civil
wars, became an empire under Augustus.
Trouble in the Republic – page 278
• As Rome gained more and more territory, its
government was less and less able to address the
new challenges. It eventually gave way to a
dictator-ruled empire.
• Trouble came in two broad categories:
– economic/social turmoil
– military upheaval
Rich Versus Poor – page 278
• The gap between the rich and the poor grew wider
and wider.
– Rich landowners ran latifundia – large farming estates
worked by enslaved people.
• Rome’s wars provided slaves and took small farmers away to
fight.
– small farmers couldn’t compete – some sold their farms
and became migrant laborers or moved to the cities to
look for work
• slavery + high number of free workers = low wages and
joblessness
Why Did Reform Fail? – page 279
• Tiberius and Gaius
Gracchus – brothers who
worked to bring reforms
to the Republic,
specifically to give
public land to the poor.
– saw the “writing on the wall”
– unpopular with the Senate
– both met violent deaths
PRIMARY SOURCE
The savage beasts have their… dens,… but the men who bear arms and expose their lives for the safety of
their country, enjoy… nothing more in it but the air and light… and wander from place o place with their wives
and children.
TIBERIUS GRACCHUS quoted in Plutarch, The Lives of Noble Greeks and Romans
The Army Enters Politics – page 279
• Marius
– consul, 107 B.C.
– reformed Rome’s army by
“rewarding” volunteers
– major implications – soldiers
were no longer inclined to be
loyal to the Roman Republic,
but to their general who
promised them payment
– gave generals influence and a
good reason to become involved
in politics
The Army Enters Politics – page 279
• The Social War
– Rome’s Italian allies had been trying to obtain Roman
citizenship
– Senate wanted to maintain monopoly on power, refused
– 90 B.C., Social War broke out
– Italian rebels were defeated, but Senate agreed to give
them citizenship
The Army Enters Politics – page 279
• civil war – conflict between groups within the
same country
– Social War revealed talent of General Lucius Cornelius
Sulla
– Sulla became consul, 88 B.C.; after consulship ended,
Marius tried to prevent Sulla from taking military
command
– Sulla marched on Rome twice (88 B.C. and 83 – 82
B.C.)
The Army Enters Politics – page 279
• Sulla
– dictator (82 B.C.)
– tried to strengthen the
Senate
– stepped down from the
office (81 B.C.[elected
consul in 80 B.C.]), retired
– served as an example of
how a general with a loyal
army could seize power
Julius Caesar – page 280
• The First Triumvirate (60 B.C.) – partnership of
three men who ruled Rome:
– Crassus, a wealthy Roman
– Pompey, a general
– Julius Caesar, an up-and-coming military hero and
was to become Rome’s most famous leader
• Caesar was made consul in 59 B.C.
• after term was up, appointed himself governor (proconsul) of
Gaul (modern France)
• Gallic Campaigns 58 – 51 B.C. – made Caesar rich and
popular in Rome
Julius Caesar – page 280
• Julius Caesar (100 – 44 B.C.)
– charismatic
– driven to get things done
– strong-willed
– brilliant
– an exceptional commander
• Siege of Alesia, 52 B.C.
PRIMARY SOURCE
Your ambition to reign, Antony, certainly deserves to be compared with Caesar’s. But in not a single other
respect are you entitled to the same comparison… His character was an amalgamation of genius, method,
memory, culture, thoroughness, intellect and industry.
CICERO, Philippics, II
Julius Caesar – page 280
• Triumvirate – Crassus died; Pompey and Caesar fall out of
favor with each other
• The reports of Caesar’s successes in Gaul made him a
hero to the Roman people.
• The Senate became fearful of Caesar’s popularity.
• The Senate ordered Caesar to disband his army and to
return to Rome → Caesar refused and marched on
Rome
• The Crossing of the Rubicon River (January 10, 49 B.C.)
– “Let the dice fly high!”
• Civil War – Caesar vs. Pompey
Julius Caesar – page 280
• Caesar won the war – Pompey was murdered by
the Egyptians after fleeing from Greece.
– Caesar and Cleopatra
• Caesar had himself named dictator a total of four
times; the fourth time, he was named dictator for
life (44 B.C.).
Julius Caesar – page 280
• Caesar’s reforms
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
granted citizenship to some in the provinces
revamped the tax code
created jobs through building projects
started new colonies where people could own land
increased pay for soldiers
expanded the Senate (with his friends)
most lasting reform was to set up a new calendar, the Julian
calendar, with 12 months, 365 days and an extra day every
four years. (We use the Gregorian calendar today, a modification
of the Julian calendar.)
Julius Caesar – page 280
• March 15, 44 B.C. – Caesar was assassinated on the floor of the
Senate by a grouped of conspirators who wanted to restore the
Republic.
– Gaius Cassius and Marcus Brutus
Rome Becomes an Empire – page 282
• Caesar’s death plunged Rome into yet another civil
war.
– Octavian (Caesar’s grandnephew and adopted son),
Marc Antony (Caesar’s loyal officer), Lepidus (high
priest) defeated Caesar’s assassins
• Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus formed the
Second Triumvirate
– Lepidus was quickly marginalized by the other two
– Octavian and Antony divided the Roman world between
themselves (Octavian = west, Antony = East)
Who Was Augustus? – page 282
• Cicero – a political leader, writer, and Rome’s greatest
public speaker, he argued against dictators and called
for a representative government with limited powers
– was hopeful that Octavian would restore the Republic
– proscribed, 43 B.C.
Rome Becomes an Empire – page 282
• Octavian vs. Antony
– Antony and Cleopatra
– Octavian accuses Antony of plotting to take over Rome and
become sole ruler
– another civil war…
• Battle of Actium 31 B.C. Octavian’s forces defeated those of Antony
and Cleopatra
• Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide a year later
• Octavian became the unchallenged ruler of Rome. Octavian had no
intention of establishing a dictatorship, but decided it was impossible to
restore the Republic.
Who Was Augustus? – page 282
• Octavian’s reforms – a new political order
– gave himself the title princeps, which means “first
citizen” (the principate → an autocracy in everything but
name)
– deception – made it look like he was restoring the
Republic, gave the Senate some meaningless authority
– another title, imperator, meant “commander in chief”
(strict control of the army and the Praetorian Guard)
– 27 B.C. – Senate gave Octavian the title of Augustus,
which means “the revered or majestic one”
Chapter 8, Section 3 Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Who were the two brothers who tried to bring reform to
Rome and restore small farms to the poor?
How did Marius change the Roman army?
Name the three men who formed the First Triumvirate.
How did Caesar strengthen his hold on power after
declaring himself dictator of Rome for life?
Who were the members of the Second Triumvirate?
Name the Roman leader whose ideas influenced both
Octavian and future writers of the U.S. Constitution.
The Early Empire
Chapter 8. Section 4, page 286
Chapter 8, Section 4 Objectives
• After this lesson, students will be able to:
– explain how Augustus’ military and political reforms
brought an era of peace and prosperity.
– discuss how Rome’s roads, aqueducts, ports, and
common currency helped to strengthen the empire.
The Emperor Augustus – page 287
• characteristics
genial and accessible
encouraged discussion
frugal
civilitas – the absence of
unnecessary pomp
– poor health
– focus on morality
–
–
–
–
The Emperor Augustus – page 287
• Augustus’ achievements
– reorganized the army (Praetorian Guard – special unit in
charge of guarding the emperor)
– added new territory
– improved the city (“I found Rome a city of brick…”)
– arts flourished, especially literature
– reorganized government (governors and tax system)
– changes to the legal system (citizenship)
The Emperor Augustus
• Pax Romana (“Roman Peace”) – Latin term used to
describe the period of peace ushered in during
Augustus’ reign that lasted until A.D. 180
– the word “peace” is a bit misleading
– Romanization of much of the western world
• end of his reign marked by troubles
– “Varus, return to me my legions!”
– succession problems
The Emperor Augustus – page 287
Who Came After Augustus? – page 288
• Augustus died in A.D. 14.
• Tiberius – Augustus’ heir
–
–
–
–
Augustus’ stepson
military experience
capable ruler
characteristics
• bitter and reclusive
– retirement to Capreae
• paranoia and fear
– treason trials
• deranged by power?
– “Tiberius’ Leap”
Who Came After Augustus? – page 288
• Caligula (Gaius) – followed
Tiberius
– army brat, his father was the famous
Germanicus
– horrible childhood
• Germanicus died when Caligula was
seven (murdered?)
• some family imprisoned/executed by
Tiberius
• lived with Tiberius on Capreae
– “I am raising a snake for the Roman
people.”
– Stockholm syndrome?
– murder of Tiberius?
Who Came After Augustus? – page 288
• Caligula (continued)
– early reign was relatively peaceful and stable
– something happened… (illness?, alcohol?)
– reign marked by “madness”
•
•
•
•
•
macabre dinner parties
Incitatus, the race horse
sadistic – “Off comes this attractive head…”
wished to be worshipped as a god
and so on…
– assassinated by the Praetorian Guard (less than 4
years in power)
Who Came After Augustus? – page 288
• Claudius – proclaimed
emperor by the
Praetorian guard
– dreadful appearance
(illness?)
– scholarly, prolific writer
– able administrator
– province of Britannia was
added during his rule
– unlucky in love
Who Came After Augustus? – page 288
• Nero – followed Claudius
– rule started strong under advisers
– overbearing mother (had her executed)
– Great Fire of Rome – A.D. 64
• “Nero fiddled while Rome burned.” (?)
• plot to create a new series of palaces and buildings?
• blame went to a new religious sect – the Christians – who
were then persecuted
–
–
–
–
troubles in the empire (Parthia, Britain, Judea)
fancied himself an actor (non-Imperial behavior)
killed many needlessly; kicked his wife to death
A.D. 68 – Spanish and Gallic legions as well as the
Praetorian Guard rose up against him; Senate
declared him a public enemy → he committed
suicide
Take the “Who Are You?” Quiz [http://www.pbs.org/empires/romans/special/quiz.html]
Unity and Prosperity – page 290
• end of the Julio-Claudian Dynasty (Augustus,
Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero)
• A.D. 69 “The Year of Four Emperors”
– Galba
– Otho
– Vitellus
– Vespasian
Unity and Prosperity – page 290
• Vespasian – founded the
Flavian Dynasty
– military experience (First
Jewish Revolt)
– restored order and the
economy
– began construction on the
Colosseum
– famous last words: “Dear
me, I believe I am
becoming a god.”
Unity and Prosperity – page 290
• Titus
– Colosseum opened during
his reign
– A.D. 79 – Mount Vesuvius
erupted destroying the
city of Pompeii
• Domitian
Pompeii – page 290
The “Good Emperors” – page 291
• Nerva (r. A.D. 96-98)
– displayed great wisdom and
moderation
– had the Senate pass laws
that provided for the
purchase of land for poor
citizens
– legislation to maintain the
children of poor parents in
the Italian cities at the
public expense
The “Good Emperors” – page 291
• Trajan (r. A.D. 98 – 117)
– military experience
– programs to help poor
children
– expanded the empire to its
largest size
– Trajan’s Column
The “Good Emperors” – page 291
The “Good Emperors” – page 291
• Hadrian (r. 117 – 138)
– great patron of the arts
– military experience
– ended territorial
expansion and set up a
series defense
fortifications including
Hadrian’s Wall in Britain
– Pantheon (replaced a
smaller temple)
The “Good Emperors” – page 291
The “Good Emperors” – page 291
• Antoninus Pius (r. 138161)
– reigned during an unusual
time of peace and
prosperity
The “Good Emperors” – page 291
• Marcus Aurelius (r. 161 –
180)
– founded schools,
orphanages, and hospitals
– humanized criminal laws
and the treatment of slaves
– wrote Meditations, a book
incorporating Stoic ideas
and stressing wisdom,
justice, fortitude, and
moderation
The “Good Emperors” – page 291
• aqueducts – manmade channels for carrying
water long distances
A Booming Economy – page 292
• agriculture still the key part of the economy
• industry important as well (brass, bronze, pottery,
glass-making)
• Ostia – major port city at the mouth of the Tiber
River
– Most trade was conducted through sea shipping.
A Booming Economy – page 292
Roads and Money – page 294
• During the Pax Romana, Rome’s system of roads
reached a total length of 50,000 miles!
• common currency (system of money): help with
trade
• common system of weights and measures
• Rome’s shopkeepers, merchants, and skilled
workers benefited from the empire’s trade, but
most people remained poor.
Chapter 8, Section 4 Questions
1. Name the Julio-Claudian emperors.
2. What bad reputation did Nero get that relates to the Great
Fire of Rome in A.D. 64?
3. Who founded the Flavian Dynasty?
4. What happened to the town of Pompey in A.D. 79?
5. Who were the “Good Emperors”?
6. Which of the “Good Emperors” was first to order the
construction of a wall across Britain?
7. What was the key element in the Roman economy?