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Thomas Graf IDE621 Behaviorism Cognitivism Social Learning Behaviorism A learning theory which believes that experience leads to a relatively permanent change in behavior that can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with no consideration of internal mental states. Assumptions Principles of Learning should apply equally to different behaviors and species. learning process can be studied most objectively when the focus of study is on stimuli and response. Internal processes are largely excluded from scientific study. Learning involves a behavior change. Organisms are born as blank slates. Learning is largely the result of environmental events. The most useful theories tend to be parsimonious. Behaviorism in Pop Culture Behaviorism Ivan Pavlov - 1849-1936 His research demonstrated techniques of studying reactions to the environment in an objective, scientific method. Best known for his conditional reflex experiments on dogs. John Watson – 1878-1958 In 1913 authored "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It“. Adapted conditioning experiments on animals to infants (Albert B.) B.F. Skinner – 1904-1990 Believed behavior did not depend on the preceding stimulus, but that behaviors were dependent upon what happens after the response. E.L. Thorndike – 1874-1949 Known for the Law of Effect in which, responses that are immediately followed by a satisfactory outcome become more strongly associated and are more likely to occur again in the future. Responses followed by negative outcomes become more weakly associated and less likely to reoccur (Famous Scientists, 2014) Behaviorism Classical Conditioning – ○ Two unrelated stimuli are presented together and conditioning the one to produce the same response as the other Bell (NS) No Response Bell (NS) + Meat (UCS) Salivate (UCR) Bell (CS) Salivate (CR) NS = Neutral Stimulus UCS = Unconditioned Stimulus CS = Conditioned Stimulus UCR = Unconditioned Response CR = Conditioned Response Operant Conditioning – ○ Responses to a situation that are followed by satisfaction are strengthened; responses that are followed by discomfort are weakened Behaviorism Stimulus – an experience used to elicit a behavior. Response/behavior – a reaction that is observed as a result of an applied stimulus. Stimulus discrimination – the ability to distinguish between similar stimuli and provide a correct response for one but not the other. Operant level - operant behaviors which occur at some base rate prior to reinforcement. Terminal behavior – the desired response to stimuli following the completion of a planned reinforcement program. Superstitious behavior – the response which occurs immediately prior to random reinforcement. Positive reinforcement – the presentation of a stimulus after a response. Typically increase the behavior. Negative reinforcement - the removal of a stimulus after a response. Typically increases the behavior. Punishment – intended to decrease the response it follows. It can involve the presentation or removal of a stimulus. Extinction – a conditioned response decreases and may disappear when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus. Behaviorism Instructional Application Mastery learning - Material is learned through a series of individual lessons or units in which the student must demonstrate competence before moving on to the next lesson. Programmed instruction – Uses a series of lessons with accompanying questions. If the questions are answered correctly the student is presented with the next lesson. If they answer incorrectly, the are presented with remedial information or alternate examples. Computer assisted instruction – Uses a computer program to administer programmed instruction to the students. Behaviorism Conditioned Stimulus Conditioned Response Learning Situation Teaching the Hand Salute The Drill Sergeant tells the platoon he will now name, explain, have demonstrated and conduct practical work on how to execute the hand salute. He explains the history of the hand salute and its significance to military courtesy. Next the Sergeant explains when the hand salute should be executed and when it shouldn’t. He then asks if there are any questions. The Drill Sergeant uses the talk through method of instruction to describe each of the details involved in executing and terminating a proper hand salute while his demonstrator corrects his exaggerated deficiencies to comply with the instructions. The Sergeant asks if there are any questions about the hand salute. The Drill Sergeant gives the command for the platoon to come to the position of attention. The trainees stand up and assume their position in a formation in front of the Sergeant. The Drill Sergeant gives the command, PRESENT, ARMS! The soldiers raise their right hands to execute the hand salute. The Sergeant and his demonstrator walk among the platoon making adjustments to the soldier’s hands and arms. The Drill Sergeant gives the command, ORDER, ARMS! The soldiers drop their arms and resume the position of attention. The Sergeant and his demonstrator point out any soldiers that executed the movement incorrectly. This exercise is repeated several times. The Sergeant then asks several questions from the lesson, directed at specific soldiers. If any of these questions are answered incorrectly, that soldier is instructed to do 15 pushups and another soldier is asked. The Drill Sergeant again asks if there are any questions related to the hand salute. He then dismisses the platoon. At the first formation the next day, the Drill Sergeant gives the command, PRESENT, ARMS! Each soldier executes the hand salute. He points out each soldier that is not in the proper positon, what they are doing wrong and tells them to drop (get into the push-up position). He leaves these soldiers in that position for several minutes while he has the remainder of the platoon repeat the movement. Conditioned Response Punisment I Behaviorism observation checklist Task 1. Have observable learning objectives been established? 2. Was the training environment properly prepared? 3. Were tasks, conditions and standards reviewed? 4. Were tasks/actions properly demonstrated? 5. Were instructions/commands given clearly? 6. Were student actions monitored? 7. Were students given an opportunity to practice? 8. Were on the spot corrections made? 9. Were positive or negative reinforcement actions taken? 10. Was punishment administered? 11. Were corrective actions taken consistently? Yes No Behaviorism Reflection While I had covered classical conditioning in my undergraduate work it has been quite a while. The experiments of Ivan Pavlov and the concepts of reinforcement are certainly familiar, but I have a much broader understanding of the behaviorist theories now. I have probably had more opportunity to use these techniques than most of my classmates. I doubt many teachers have used punishment or negative reinforcement as frequently as most Non-commissioned Officers in the military have. I think the emphasis on timing and consistency in the application of reinforcement can’t be overstated. I’ve known many instructors who didn’t apply them correctly and not only did they not achieve the desired response but they often confused the trainees even more. The behaviorist reliance on observation and performance is something that also resonates with me. While I can’t completely disregard the “Black Box”, I am a proponent of clearly established objectives that are performance related. References OrmrodJ.E. (2008) Human Learning (5th). Upper Saddle River, NJ:PearsonEducation, Inc. IDE 621: Overview of Behaviorism – Activity, Koszalka 2014 Kendra Cherry. What is Behaviorism? Retrieved Sep. 27, 2014 from http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsycholog y/f/behaviorism.htm Famous Scientists. The Art of Genius. Retrieved Sep. 27, 2014 from http://www.famousscientists.org/ Bell - Shutterstock Images LLC. Retrieved Sep. 27, 2014 from http://www.photodictionary.com/phrase/963/bell.html Cognitivism A relatively permanent change in mental representations or associations due to experience Assumptions Some learning processes may be unique to human beings Learning can occur without an observable change in the learner’s behavior People are actively involved in the learning process and control how experiences are mentally processed Knowledge is organized, with beliefs, attitudes and emotions directly or indirectly interconnected Involves objective, systematic observations of behaviors, but allows for inferences to unobservable mental processes Cognitivism video (bluesofamedia.com, 2013) Cognitivism (SpiceyNodes, 2010) Tolman (1930s-50s) –Internal mental phenomena could explain learning –Learning can occur without reinforcement and change in behavior –Behavior occurs purposively and is goal-oriented –An organized collection of information is produced by learning, such as cognitive maps Gestalt (1920-50s) –A person’s perception is often different from reality –The whole is more than the sum of its parts –Organisms impose structure to help organize experiences –Organisms are predisposed to organize experience in particular ways—law of proximity, law of closure and law of pregnanz –Learning involves formation of memory traces that become simpler, more concise and more complete over time –Problem-solving involves restructuring and insight (Haines, 2009) Vygotsky (1960s-90s) –Complex mental processes begin as social activities and internalized mental activities –Challenging tasks promote maximum cognitive growth (Zone of Proximal Development) –development occurs when culture is imparted to the learner through both organized and unorganized activity Cognitivism Working Memory Long-term Memory Data Retrieval Executive Control (Discover your own power) Sensory Register Lost Data Principles Humans experience the environment through their senses and process it in short (working) and long term memory. Learning occurs internally through changes in schema (mental structures) as a result of assimilation and/or accommodation. Cognitivism Law of Similarity: people tend to perceive as a unit those things that are similar to one another. Closure: people tend to fill in missing pieces to form a complete picture. Pragnanz: individuals always organize their experience as simply, concisely, symmetrically, and completely as possible. ability to recall information previously acquired. Episodic Memory: one’s memory of personal life experiences. Semantic Memory: one’s general knowledge of the world independent of those experiences. Short Term/Working Memory: first processing point of information after sensory reception. Generally information processed for less than 1 minute is lost, more than 1 minute moves into long-term memory. Memory Acquisition of new information or skills. Intentional Learning: processing information and experiences with the intent to learn. Incidental Learning: individuals processing information deeply and learning it without intentionally learning it. Meaningful learning: by relating new information to information stored in long-term memory people find meaning in that new information. Conceptual: Knowledge reflects our understanding of why certain events happen. Learning Knowledge Hierarchical Knowledge: Implicit Knowledge: long-term memory storage structure arrangement where more general information superordinate information at the top of the hierarchy and more specific subordinate information below it. knowledge that we cannot consciously recall for explain yet it affects our behavior. Procedural Knowledge: knowledge of how things work. Explicit Knowledge: knowledge that we easily recall and explain. Declarative Knowledge: knowledge of how things were or are. Cognitivism Instructional Application Meaningful reception theory – Organize information hierarchically in instruction. Present general concepts first and increase details and specificity gradually. 9 Events of Instruction – ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ Reception - Gaining attention Expectancy - Informing the learner of the objective Retrieval - Stimulating recall of prerequisite knowledge Selective Perception - Presenting the stimulus material Semantic Encoding - Providing learning guidance Responding - Eliciting the performance Reinforcement - Providing feedback about performance Retrieval - Assessing the performance Generalization - Enhancing retention and transfer Generative learning – Learners’ are continuously building connections between new and existing knowledge. Designers should focus learners on adapting and organizing new information into new memory structures as they construct their understanding Cognitivism Intentional Learning Declarative Knowledge Procedural Knowledge Encoding Learning Situation Teaching the Hand Salute The Drill Sergeant tells the platoon he will now name, explain, have demonstrated and conduct practical work on how to execute the hand salute. He explains the history of the hand salute and its significance to military courtesy. Next the Sergeant explains when the hand salute should be executed and when it shouldn’t. He then asks if there are any questions. The Drill Sergeant uses the talk through method of instruction to describe each of the details involved in executing and terminating a proper hand salute while his demonstrator corrects his exaggerated deficiencies to comply with the instructions. The Sergeant asks if there are any questions about the hand salute. The Drill Sergeant gives the command for the platoon to come to the position of attention. The trainees stand up and assume their position in a formation in front of the Sergeant. The Drill Sergeant gives the command, PRESENT, ARMS! The soldiers raise their right hands to execute the hand salute. The Sergeant and his demonstrator walk among the platoon making adjustments to the soldier’s hands and arms. The Drill Sergeant gives the command, ORDER, ARMS! The soldiers drop their arms and resume the position of attention. The Sergeant and his demonstrator point out any soldiers that executed the movement incorrectly. This exercise is repeated several times. The Sergeant then asks several questions from the lesson, directed at specific soldiers. If any of these questions are answered incorrectly, that soldier is instructed to do 15 pushups and another soldier is asked. The Drill Sergeant again asks if there are any questions related to the hand salute. He then dismisses the platoon. At the first formation the next day, the Drill Sergeant gives the command, PRESENT, ARMS! Each soldier executes the hand salute. He points out each soldier that is not in the proper positon, what they are doing wrong and tells them to drop (get into the push-up position). He leaves these soldiers in that position for several minutes while he has the remainder of the platoon repeat the movement. Explicit Knowledge Memory Elaboration Cognitivism observation checklist Task 1. Did the instructor use a rich, relevant introduction to motivate and grab learners attention? 2. Did the instructor review content previously taught that will be referenced in the lesson? 3. Was information presented to learners in an organized manner (following an outline)? 4. Were job aids (tables, charts, videos, worksheets) used? 7. Were students given an opportunity to practice? 8. Did students use mnemonics, concept maps or outlines to demonstrate understanding? 9. Are students able to recall information taught in lesson? 10. Are students able to relate information taught to real world situations? Yes No Cognitivism Reflection Even though I have experience using some of the tenants of behavioral learning theory I related more closely with cognitive theory when it comes to designing and developing instruction. The need to break down training objectives to smaller modules then find a way to associate them with a students previous knowledge is one of the primary goals of my instruction. Creating instructional tools to help learners organize new content for assimilation and/or accommodation into their existing schema is the most challenging part of the development process. Creating meaningful learning is always the goal of my instructional design efforts. I have used step-by-step procedural worksheets and referenced electrical schematics and wiring diagram, that students learned previously, to enable them to organize their troubleshooting techniques to more effectively diagnose equipment issues. I found the discussion of memory intriguing. The flow of data from the senses to the brain, acceptance into short-term memory and the transfer to long-term memory was fairly straight forward. What I hadn’t considered was how the executive control makes an immediate determination of what information is important enough to process into short-term memory and then again what should be transferred to long-term memory and how long it should be retained. The application of a person’s schema at each of those stages as well as the retrieval stage is very interesting. The belief that learning may be demonstrated by a change in behavior but can occur in the absence of behavioral change is difficult for me to accept. I’m not sure how an instructor could be confident that learning has occurred without evidence of a behavioral change. To say that something has been learned but may not be evident or used until some time later doesn’t sound logical to me. I wish my trigonometry teacher back in high school believed that. References OrmrodJ.E. (2008) Human Learning (5th). Upper Saddle River, NJ:PearsonEducation, Inc. IDE 621: Overview of Cognitive Development Theory – Cognitive Learning Theory, Koszalka 2014 bluesofamedia.com. (2013, July 5). Use a Learning Theory: Cognitivism. Retrieved Nov. 2, 2014, from www.youtube.com: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gugvpoU2Ewo Discover your own power. (n.d.). Retrieved from Help Free The Earth: http://www.helpfreetheearth.com/013-action-1ofpart3.html Haines, R. (2009, December 23). Vygotsky, Lev Semenovich 18961934. Retrieved from education.com: http://www.education.com/reference/article/vygotsky-lev-semenovich1896-1934/ SpiceyNodes. (2010, September 6). Edward Tolman: Pioneering Cognitive Mapping. Retrieved from spiceynodes: http://www.spicynodes.org/blog/2010/09/06/edward-tolman-pioneeringcognitive-mapping/ Social Learning Construction of behavioral patterns which society expects Assumptions People learn by observing the behavior of others Learning can occur without a change in behavior Learners should be exposed to a variety of models Self-efficacy is important because learners must believe that they can accomplish assigned tasks Bobo Doll (McLeod, 2011) Social Learning Albert Bandura – 1925- stressed the (Stanford Report, 2007) importance of observational learning, imitation and modeling. He believed that humans are active information processors thinking about the relationship between their behavior and its consequences. Observational learning could not occur unless cognitive processes were at work. Social Learning Reciprocal Causation- The relationship between the environment, behavior, and the internal events that influence perceptions provide shared control. Each of the three variables influence each other. Perception (Self) Environment Behavior Social Learning Principles People can learn by observing the behaviors of others and the outcomes of those behaviors Interactions with the environment are critical to learning Learning can occur without a change in behavior The consequences of behavior play a role in learning Social Learning Modeling and imitation – Someone demonstrating behaviors that should be observed and duplicated is referred to as a model. The act of mimicking the observed behavior is called imitation. Social nature of learning – Since humans are naturally social creatures, learning is facilitated through social interactions Direct reinforcement Vicarious reinforcement – When a model, being reinforced for a desired behavior, is observed by a learner, that behavior will increase in the learner Self-efficacy – The acknowledgement in one’s self that a behavior is attainable Self-reinforcement - the observer increases a behavior without regard to the consequences of the environment or observation Self-regulation - a system that results in self-direction. It is developed through an individual's concepts about appropriate and inappropriate ideas allowing them to choose their actions accordingly Social Learning Instructional Application Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people Describing the consequences of behaviors can increase appropriate behaviors and decrease undesired ones Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care that they don't model inappropriate ones Teachers should provide students with a variety of models Students must believe that they are capable of accomplishing desired tasks Teachers should help students set realistic expectations for their academic accomplishments Self-regulation techniques provide effective methods for improving behavior Social Learning Imitation Vicarious reinforcement Modeling Learning Situation Teaching the Hand Salute The Drill Sergeant tells the platoon he will now name, explain, have demonstrated and conduct practical work on how to execute the hand salute. He explains the history of the hand salute and its significance to military courtesy. Next the Sergeant explains when the hand salute should be executed and when it shouldn’t. He then asks if there are any questions. The Drill Sergeant uses the talk through method of instruction to describe each of the details involved in executing and terminating a proper hand salute while his demonstrator corrects his exaggerated deficiencies to comply with the instructions. The Sergeant asks if there are any questions about the hand salute. The Drill Sergeant gives the command for the platoon to come to the position of attention. The trainees stand up and assume their position in a formation in front of the Sergeant. The Drill Sergeant gives the command, PRESENT, ARMS! The soldiers raise their right hands to execute the hand salute. The Sergeant and his demonstrator walk among the platoon making adjustments to the soldier’s hands and arms. The Drill Sergeant gives the command, ORDER, ARMS! The soldiers drop their arms and resume the position of attention. The Sergeant and his demonstrator point out any soldiers that executed the movement incorrectly. This exercise is repeated several times. The Sergeant then asks several questions from the lesson, directed at specific soldiers. If any of these questions are answered incorrectly, that soldier is instructed to do 15 pushups and another soldier is asked. The Drill Sergeant again asks if there are any questions related to the hand salute. He then dismisses the platoon. At the first formation the next day, the Drill Sergeant gives the command, PRESENT, ARMS! Each soldier executes the hand salute. He points out each soldier that is not in the proper positon, what they are doing wrong and tells them to drop (get into the push-up position). He leaves these soldiers in that position for several minutes while he has the remainder of the platoon repeat the movement. Consequences Self-regulation Social Learning observation checklist Task 1. Does the instructor demonstrate (model) the behavior? 2. Were students given an opportunity to practice? 3. Is the correct behavior acknowledged by the instructor? 4. Are students exposed to a variety of resources? 5. Were students encouraged to work in groups? 6. Was there interaction within the groups? 7. Were interactions within the groups acknowledged? 8. Were students asked to evaluate their work? Yes No Social Learning Reflection When I first heard the term Social Learning the image that came to mind was one of a classroom full of students doing their own thing, no structure, no tests and very little learning. I’m happy to say I have a very different picture now. As an educator, my tendency has been to concentrate on creating training materials to present to students without much regard for their perceptions. I wanted learning objectives that had clear behaviors. I tried to develop content and learning aids that simplified complex tasks. I didn’t really consider that the students were constructing the learning and all I was doing was providing the raw materials. As we discussed in cognitive theory, it’s important to provide students with motivation to learn, but what I was missing was the realization that everything I was saying and doing was being interpreted by the student based on their environment, behaviors and their perceptions. The behaviorist in me wants to control the environment, but from a social learning perspective we want to make the environment as rich as possible to fully engage the students. The cognitive theorist in me wants to put things in order and present them in a specific sequence so they can be incorporated into the students schema, but social learning theory tells me that the students will decide for themselves what is relevant and will construct their own method of understanding the material. At least my military experience has some relevance to social learning. As a Drill Sergeant I knew that my trainees were watching everything I did, so I went to great lengths to make sure the example I set was beyond reproach. They’re uniform had to be clean, mine was pressed with heavy starch. They’re boots had to have an even coat of black, mine were spit shined. I didn’t smoke, I didn’t spit, and I didn’t swear. Well, I didn’t swear much. I was going to be the Non-commissioned officer they compared every other soldier to for the rest of their career so I worked very hard to make sure I was as good a role model as I could be. References OrmrodJ.E. (2008) Human Learning (5th). Upper Saddle River, NJ:PearsonEducation, Inc. IDE 621: Overview of Social Learning Theory, Koszalka 2014 Stanford Report. (2007, December 5). Retrieved from Stanford News: http://news.stanford.edu/news/2007/dec ember5/graw-120507.html