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Thomas Graf
IDE621
Behaviorism
Cognitivism
Social Learning
Behaviorism
A learning theory which believes that experience leads to
a relatively permanent change in behavior that can be
studied in a systematic and observable manner with no
consideration of internal mental states.
 Assumptions

 Principles of Learning should apply equally to different behaviors

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and species.
learning process can be studied most objectively when the focus
of study is on stimuli and response.
Internal processes are largely excluded from scientific study.
Learning involves a behavior change.
Organisms are born as blank slates.
Learning is largely the result of environmental events.
The most useful theories tend to be parsimonious.
Behaviorism in Pop Culture
Behaviorism
 Ivan Pavlov - 1849-1936 His research demonstrated techniques of
studying reactions to the environment in an objective, scientific method.
Best known for his conditional reflex experiments on dogs.
 John Watson – 1878-1958 In 1913 authored "Psychology as the
Behaviorist Views It“. Adapted conditioning experiments on animals to
infants (Albert B.)
 B.F. Skinner – 1904-1990 Believed behavior did not depend on the
preceding stimulus, but that behaviors were dependent upon what
happens after the response.
 E.L. Thorndike – 1874-1949 Known for the Law of Effect in which,
responses that are immediately followed by a satisfactory outcome
become more strongly associated and are more likely to occur again in
the future. Responses followed by negative outcomes become more
weakly associated and less likely to reoccur
(Famous Scientists, 2014)
Behaviorism
 Classical Conditioning –
○ Two unrelated stimuli are presented together and conditioning
the one to produce the same response as the other
Bell (NS)
No Response
Bell (NS)
+
Meat (UCS)
Salivate (UCR)
Bell (CS)
Salivate (CR)
NS = Neutral Stimulus
UCS = Unconditioned Stimulus
CS = Conditioned Stimulus
UCR = Unconditioned Response
CR = Conditioned Response
 Operant Conditioning –
○ Responses to a situation that are followed by satisfaction are
strengthened; responses that are followed by discomfort are
weakened
Behaviorism


Stimulus – an experience used to elicit a behavior.
Response/behavior – a reaction that is observed as a result of an applied
stimulus.

Stimulus discrimination – the ability to distinguish between similar stimuli and
provide a correct response for one but not the other.

Operant level -
operant behaviors which occur at some base rate prior to
reinforcement.

Terminal behavior – the desired response to stimuli following the completion of a
planned reinforcement program.

Superstitious behavior – the response which occurs immediately prior to
random reinforcement.

Positive reinforcement – the presentation of a stimulus after a response.
Typically increase the behavior.

Negative reinforcement - the removal of a stimulus after a response. Typically
increases the behavior.

Punishment – intended to decrease the response it follows. It can involve the
presentation or removal of a stimulus.

Extinction – a conditioned response decreases and may disappear when the
conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.
Behaviorism

Instructional Application
 Mastery learning -
Material is learned through a series of
individual lessons or units in which the student must
demonstrate competence before moving on to the next lesson.
 Programmed instruction –
Uses a series of lessons
with accompanying questions. If the questions are answered
correctly the student is presented with the next lesson. If they
answer incorrectly, the are presented with remedial information
or alternate examples.
 Computer assisted instruction
– Uses a computer
program to administer programmed instruction to the students.
Behaviorism

Conditioned
Stimulus
Conditioned
Response
Learning Situation
Teaching the Hand Salute
The Drill Sergeant tells the platoon he will now name, explain, have demonstrated and
conduct practical work on how to execute the hand salute. He explains the history of the hand salute
and its significance to military courtesy. Next the Sergeant explains when the hand salute should be
executed and when it shouldn’t. He then asks if there are any questions. The Drill Sergeant uses the
talk through method of instruction to describe each of the details involved in executing and terminating
a proper hand salute while his demonstrator corrects his exaggerated deficiencies to comply with the
instructions. The Sergeant asks if there are any questions about the hand salute.
The Drill Sergeant gives the command for the platoon to come to the position of attention.
The trainees stand up and assume their position in a formation in front of the Sergeant. The Drill
Sergeant gives the command, PRESENT, ARMS! The soldiers raise their right hands to execute the
hand salute. The Sergeant and his demonstrator walk among the platoon making adjustments to the
soldier’s hands and arms. The Drill Sergeant gives the command, ORDER, ARMS! The soldiers drop
their arms and resume the position of attention. The Sergeant and his demonstrator point out any
soldiers that executed the movement incorrectly. This exercise is repeated several times. The
Sergeant then asks several questions from the lesson, directed at specific soldiers. If any of these
questions are answered incorrectly, that soldier is instructed to do 15 pushups and another soldier is
asked. The Drill Sergeant again asks if there are any questions related to the hand salute. He then
dismisses the platoon.
At the first formation the next day, the Drill Sergeant gives the command, PRESENT,
ARMS! Each soldier executes the hand salute. He points out each soldier that is not in the proper
positon, what they are doing wrong and tells them to drop (get into the push-up position). He leaves
these soldiers in that position for several minutes while he has the remainder of the platoon repeat the
movement.
Conditioned
Response
Punisment I
Behaviorism

observation checklist
Task
1. Have observable learning objectives been established?
2. Was the training environment properly prepared?
3. Were tasks, conditions and standards reviewed?
4. Were tasks/actions properly demonstrated?
5. Were instructions/commands given clearly?
6. Were student actions monitored?
7. Were students given an opportunity to practice?
8. Were on the spot corrections made?
9. Were positive or negative reinforcement actions taken?
10. Was punishment administered?
11. Were corrective actions taken consistently?
Yes
No
Behaviorism

Reflection
 While I had covered classical conditioning in my undergraduate
work it has been quite a while. The experiments of Ivan Pavlov
and the concepts of reinforcement are certainly familiar, but I
have a much broader understanding of the behaviorist theories
now. I have probably had more opportunity to use these
techniques than most of my classmates. I doubt many teachers
have used punishment or negative reinforcement as frequently
as most Non-commissioned Officers in the military have. I think
the emphasis on timing and consistency in the application of
reinforcement can’t be overstated. I’ve known many instructors
who didn’t apply them correctly and not only did they not achieve
the desired response but they often confused the trainees even
more. The behaviorist reliance on observation and performance
is something that also resonates with me. While I can’t
completely disregard the “Black Box”, I am a proponent of clearly
established objectives that are performance related.
References
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OrmrodJ.E. (2008) Human Learning (5th). Upper
Saddle River, NJ:PearsonEducation, Inc.
IDE 621: Overview of Behaviorism – Activity,
Koszalka 2014
Kendra Cherry. What is Behaviorism? Retrieved
Sep. 27, 2014 from
http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsycholog
y/f/behaviorism.htm
Famous Scientists. The Art of Genius. Retrieved
Sep. 27, 2014 from http://www.famousscientists.org/
Bell - Shutterstock Images LLC. Retrieved Sep. 27,
2014 from http://www.photodictionary.com/phrase/963/bell.html
Cognitivism


A relatively permanent change in mental
representations or associations due to experience
Assumptions
 Some learning processes may be unique to human beings
 Learning can occur without an observable change in the
learner’s behavior
 People are actively involved in the learning process and
control how experiences are mentally processed
 Knowledge is organized, with beliefs, attitudes and
emotions directly or indirectly interconnected
 Involves objective, systematic observations of behaviors,
but allows for inferences to unobservable mental
processes
Cognitivism video (bluesofamedia.com, 2013)
Cognitivism

(SpiceyNodes, 2010)
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Tolman (1930s-50s)
–Internal mental phenomena could explain learning
–Learning can occur without reinforcement and change in behavior
–Behavior occurs purposively and is goal-oriented
–An organized collection of information is produced by learning, such as cognitive
maps
Gestalt (1920-50s)
–A person’s perception is often different from reality
–The whole is more than the sum of its parts
–Organisms impose structure to help organize experiences
–Organisms are predisposed to organize experience in particular ways—law of
proximity, law of closure and law of pregnanz
–Learning involves formation of memory traces that become simpler, more concise
and more complete over time
–Problem-solving involves restructuring and insight

(Haines, 2009)
Vygotsky (1960s-90s)
–Complex mental processes begin as social activities and internalized mental
activities
–Challenging tasks promote maximum cognitive growth (Zone of Proximal
Development)
–development occurs when culture is imparted to the learner through both organized
and unorganized activity
Cognitivism
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Data Retrieval
Executive Control
(Discover your own power)
Sensory
Register
Lost Data
Principles
Humans experience the environment through their senses and process
it in short (working) and long term memory. Learning occurs internally
through changes in schema (mental structures) as a result of
assimilation and/or accommodation.
Cognitivism
Law of
Similarity:
people tend to perceive as a unit those things that are similar to one another.
Closure:
people tend to fill in missing pieces to form a complete picture.
Pragnanz:
individuals always organize their experience as simply, concisely, symmetrically, and completely as
possible.
ability to recall information previously acquired.
Episodic Memory:
one’s memory of personal life experiences.
Semantic Memory:
one’s general knowledge of the world independent of those experiences.
Short Term/Working
Memory:
first processing point of information after sensory reception. Generally information processed for
less than 1 minute is lost, more than 1 minute moves into long-term memory.
Memory
Acquisition of new information or skills.
Intentional Learning:
processing information and experiences with the intent to learn.
Incidental Learning:
individuals processing information deeply and learning it without intentionally learning it.
Meaningful learning:
by relating new information to information stored in long-term memory people find meaning in that
new information.
Conceptual: Knowledge
reflects our understanding of why certain events happen.
Learning
Knowledge
Hierarchical Knowledge:
Implicit Knowledge:
long-term memory storage structure arrangement where more general information superordinate
information at the top of the hierarchy and more specific subordinate information below it.
knowledge that we cannot consciously recall for explain yet it affects our behavior.
Procedural Knowledge:
knowledge of how things work.
Explicit Knowledge:
knowledge that we easily recall and explain.
Declarative Knowledge:
knowledge of how things were or are.
Cognitivism

Instructional Application
 Meaningful reception theory –
Organize information
hierarchically in instruction. Present general concepts first and
increase details and specificity gradually.
 9 Events of Instruction –
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
Reception - Gaining attention
Expectancy - Informing the learner of the objective
Retrieval - Stimulating recall of prerequisite knowledge
Selective Perception - Presenting the stimulus material
Semantic Encoding - Providing learning guidance
Responding - Eliciting the performance
Reinforcement - Providing feedback about performance
Retrieval - Assessing the performance
Generalization - Enhancing retention and transfer
 Generative learning
– Learners’ are continuously building
connections between new and existing knowledge. Designers
should focus learners on adapting and organizing new information
into new memory structures as they construct their understanding
Cognitivism
Intentional
Learning
Declarative
Knowledge
Procedural
Knowledge

Encoding
Learning Situation
Teaching the Hand Salute
The Drill Sergeant tells the platoon he will now name, explain, have demonstrated and
conduct practical work on how to execute the hand salute. He explains the history of the hand salute
and its significance to military courtesy. Next the Sergeant explains when the hand salute should be
executed and when it shouldn’t. He then asks if there are any questions. The Drill Sergeant uses the
talk through method of instruction to describe each of the details involved in executing and terminating
a proper hand salute while his demonstrator corrects his exaggerated deficiencies to comply with the
instructions. The Sergeant asks if there are any questions about the hand salute.
The Drill Sergeant gives the command for the platoon to come to the position of attention.
The trainees stand up and assume their position in a formation in front of the Sergeant. The Drill
Sergeant gives the command, PRESENT, ARMS! The soldiers raise their right hands to execute the
hand salute. The Sergeant and his demonstrator walk among the platoon making adjustments to the
soldier’s hands and arms. The Drill Sergeant gives the command, ORDER, ARMS! The soldiers drop
their arms and resume the position of attention. The Sergeant and his demonstrator point out any
soldiers that executed the movement incorrectly. This exercise is repeated several times. The
Sergeant then asks several questions from the lesson, directed at specific soldiers. If any of these
questions are answered incorrectly, that soldier is instructed to do 15 pushups and another soldier is
asked. The Drill Sergeant again asks if there are any questions related to the hand salute. He then
dismisses the platoon.
At the first formation the next day, the Drill Sergeant gives the command, PRESENT,
ARMS! Each soldier executes the hand salute. He points out each soldier that is not in the proper
positon, what they are doing wrong and tells them to drop (get into the push-up position). He leaves
these soldiers in that position for several minutes while he has the remainder of the platoon repeat the
movement.
Explicit
Knowledge
Memory
Elaboration
Cognitivism

observation checklist
Task
1. Did the instructor use a rich, relevant introduction to
motivate and grab learners attention?
2. Did the instructor review content previously taught that
will be referenced in the lesson?
3. Was information presented to learners in an organized
manner (following an outline)?
4. Were job aids (tables, charts, videos, worksheets) used?
7. Were students given an opportunity to practice?
8. Did students use mnemonics, concept maps or outlines
to demonstrate understanding?
9. Are students able to recall information taught in lesson?
10. Are students able to relate information taught to real
world situations?
Yes
No
Cognitivism

Reflection
Even though I have experience using some of the tenants of behavioral learning
theory I related more closely with cognitive theory when it comes to designing and
developing instruction. The need to break down training objectives to smaller modules
then find a way to associate them with a students previous knowledge is one of the
primary goals of my instruction. Creating instructional tools to help learners organize
new content for assimilation and/or accommodation into their existing schema is the
most challenging part of the development process. Creating meaningful learning is
always the goal of my instructional design efforts. I have used step-by-step procedural
worksheets and referenced electrical schematics and wiring diagram, that students
learned previously, to enable them to organize their troubleshooting techniques to more
effectively diagnose equipment issues.
I found the discussion of memory intriguing. The flow of data from the senses to
the brain, acceptance into short-term memory and the transfer to long-term memory
was fairly straight forward. What I hadn’t considered was how the executive control
makes an immediate determination of what information is important enough to process
into short-term memory and then again what should be transferred to long-term
memory and how long it should be retained. The application of a person’s schema at
each of those stages as well as the retrieval stage is very interesting.
The belief that learning may be demonstrated by a change in behavior but can
occur in the absence of behavioral change is difficult for me to accept. I’m not sure how
an instructor could be confident that learning has occurred without evidence of a
behavioral change. To say that something has been learned but may not be evident or
used until some time later doesn’t sound logical to me. I wish my trigonometry teacher
back in high school believed that.
References
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OrmrodJ.E. (2008) Human Learning (5th). Upper Saddle River,
NJ:PearsonEducation, Inc.
IDE 621: Overview of Cognitive Development Theory – Cognitive
Learning Theory, Koszalka 2014
bluesofamedia.com. (2013, July 5). Use a Learning Theory:
Cognitivism. Retrieved Nov. 2, 2014, from www.youtube.com:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gugvpoU2Ewo
Discover your own power. (n.d.). Retrieved from Help Free The Earth:
http://www.helpfreetheearth.com/013-action-1ofpart3.html
Haines, R. (2009, December 23). Vygotsky, Lev Semenovich 18961934. Retrieved from education.com:
http://www.education.com/reference/article/vygotsky-lev-semenovich1896-1934/
SpiceyNodes. (2010, September 6). Edward Tolman: Pioneering
Cognitive Mapping. Retrieved from spiceynodes:
http://www.spicynodes.org/blog/2010/09/06/edward-tolman-pioneeringcognitive-mapping/
Social Learning


Construction of behavioral patterns which
society expects
Assumptions
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People learn by observing the behavior of others
Learning can occur without a change in behavior
Learners should be exposed to a variety of models
Self-efficacy is important because learners must
believe that they can accomplish assigned tasks
Bobo Doll (McLeod, 2011)
Social Learning
 Albert Bandura – 1925- stressed the
(Stanford Report, 2007)
importance of observational learning,
imitation and modeling. He believed that
humans are active information processors
thinking about the relationship between their
behavior and its consequences.
Observational learning could not occur
unless cognitive processes were at work.
Social Learning
Reciprocal Causation- The relationship between the
environment, behavior, and the internal events that influence
perceptions provide shared control. Each of the three
variables influence each other.
Perception
(Self)
Environment
Behavior
Social Learning

Principles

People can learn by observing the behaviors of
others and the outcomes of those behaviors
Interactions with the environment are critical to
learning
Learning can occur without a change in behavior
The consequences of behavior play a role in
learning



Social Learning

Modeling and imitation – Someone demonstrating behaviors that
should be observed and duplicated is referred to as a model. The act of
mimicking the observed behavior is called imitation.

Social nature of learning – Since humans are naturally social
creatures, learning is facilitated through social interactions
Direct reinforcement  Vicarious reinforcement – When a model, being reinforced for a

desired behavior, is observed by a learner, that behavior will increase in the
learner

Self-efficacy – The acknowledgement in one’s self that a behavior is
attainable

Self-reinforcement - the observer increases a behavior without regard
to the consequences of the environment or observation

Self-regulation - a system that results in self-direction. It is developed
through an individual's concepts about appropriate and inappropriate ideas
allowing them to choose their actions accordingly
Social Learning

Instructional Application

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Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people
Describing the consequences of behaviors can increase appropriate
behaviors and decrease undesired ones
Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new
behaviors
Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take
care that they don't model inappropriate ones
Teachers should provide students with a variety of models
Students must believe that they are capable of accomplishing
desired tasks
Teachers should help students set realistic expectations for their
academic accomplishments
Self-regulation techniques provide effective methods for improving
behavior
Social Learning

Imitation
Vicarious
reinforcement
Modeling
Learning Situation
Teaching the Hand Salute
The Drill Sergeant tells the platoon he will now name, explain, have demonstrated and
conduct practical work on how to execute the hand salute. He explains the history of the hand salute
and its significance to military courtesy. Next the Sergeant explains when the hand salute should be
executed and when it shouldn’t. He then asks if there are any questions. The Drill Sergeant uses the
talk through method of instruction to describe each of the details involved in executing and terminating
a proper hand salute while his demonstrator corrects his exaggerated deficiencies to comply with the
instructions. The Sergeant asks if there are any questions about the hand salute.
The Drill Sergeant gives the command for the platoon to come to the position of attention.
The trainees stand up and assume their position in a formation in front of the Sergeant. The Drill
Sergeant gives the command, PRESENT, ARMS! The soldiers raise their right hands to execute the
hand salute. The Sergeant and his demonstrator walk among the platoon making adjustments to the
soldier’s hands and arms. The Drill Sergeant gives the command, ORDER, ARMS! The soldiers drop
their arms and resume the position of attention. The Sergeant and his demonstrator point out any
soldiers that executed the movement incorrectly. This exercise is repeated several times. The
Sergeant then asks several questions from the lesson, directed at specific soldiers. If any of these
questions are answered incorrectly, that soldier is instructed to do 15 pushups and another soldier is
asked. The Drill Sergeant again asks if there are any questions related to the hand salute. He then
dismisses the platoon.
At the first formation the next day, the Drill Sergeant gives the command, PRESENT,
ARMS! Each soldier executes the hand salute. He points out each soldier that is not in the proper
positon, what they are doing wrong and tells them to drop (get into the push-up position). He leaves
these soldiers in that position for several minutes while he has the remainder of the platoon repeat the
movement.
Consequences
Self-regulation
Social Learning

observation checklist
Task
1. Does the instructor demonstrate (model) the behavior?
2. Were students given an opportunity to practice?
3. Is the correct behavior acknowledged by the instructor?
4. Are students exposed to a variety of resources?
5. Were students encouraged to work in groups?
6. Was there interaction within the groups?
7. Were interactions within the groups acknowledged?
8. Were students asked to evaluate their work?
Yes
No
Social Learning

Reflection
When I first heard the term Social Learning the image that came to mind was one of a classroom full
of students doing their own thing, no structure, no tests and very little learning. I’m happy to say I
have a very different picture now.
As an educator, my tendency has been to concentrate on creating training materials to present
to students without much regard for their perceptions. I wanted learning objectives that had clear
behaviors. I tried to develop content and learning aids that simplified complex tasks. I didn’t really
consider that the students were constructing the learning and all I was doing was providing the raw
materials.
As we discussed in cognitive theory, it’s important to provide students with motivation to learn,
but what I was missing was the realization that everything I was saying and doing was being
interpreted by the student based on their environment, behaviors and their perceptions. The
behaviorist in me wants to control the environment, but from a social learning perspective we want to
make the environment as rich as possible to fully engage the students. The cognitive theorist in me
wants to put things in order and present them in a specific sequence so they can be incorporated into
the students schema, but social learning theory tells me that the students will decide for themselves
what is relevant and will construct their own method of understanding the material.
At least my military experience has some relevance to social learning. As a Drill Sergeant I
knew that my trainees were watching everything I did, so I went to great lengths to make sure the
example I set was beyond reproach. They’re uniform had to be clean, mine was pressed with heavy
starch. They’re boots had to have an even coat of black, mine were spit shined. I didn’t smoke, I
didn’t spit, and I didn’t swear. Well, I didn’t swear much. I was going to be the Non-commissioned
officer they compared every other soldier to for the rest of their career so I worked very hard to make
sure I was as good a role model as I could be.
References
OrmrodJ.E. (2008) Human Learning
(5th). Upper Saddle River,
NJ:PearsonEducation, Inc.
 IDE 621: Overview of Social Learning
Theory, Koszalka 2014
 Stanford Report. (2007, December 5).
Retrieved from Stanford News:
http://news.stanford.edu/news/2007/dec
ember5/graw-120507.html
