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Chapter 4 Overview Stearns Classical Civilization in the Mediterranean: Greece and Rome Classical past- govt., architecture, philosophy The Persian Tradition Classical Mediterranean civilization- rise of city-states in Greece. Expansion of Hellenistic Period. Rome emerged as separate republic. Roman expansion led to a decline of republican forms and rise of a great empire Persians in the Middle East 550BCE- Cyrus the Great- Persian empire from Middle East to northern India o Tolerant of local customs o Advanced iron technology o Developed Zoroastrianism Patterns of Greek and Roman History City-states in Greece- around 800BCE- high point in 5th c. BCE (Golden Age of Athens) Greek values spread during Hellenistic Period begun by Alexander the Great Greek rise and decline, Hellenism, Roman Republic, Roman Empire Greece Crete 2000BCE (Minoan culture) Mycenae in Southern Greece around 1400BCE Trojan War in Homer’s Iliad Rise of Greek civilization 800-600 BCE- creation of strong citystates- each with own govt. Monarchy- Oligarchy- Tyranny- Democracy Geography- mountainous terrain prevented unification Trade important Alphabet from Phoenecians Olympic games Sparta: military, oligarchy, Hellots (slave population) Athens: slavery, trade, colonies Reasons for colonization: overcrowding, not enough arable land 5th c BCE Pericles- Athenian politician- ruled w/ negotiation Peloponnesian Wars (431-404 BCE)- Sparta vs. Athens- Sparta won- then Thebes, weakened the Greeks and paved the way for Philip II of Macedon to invade in 338BCE and then Alexander the Great took over. Spread of Hellenistic culture: Greek=Hellenes Use of aristocratic assemblies Aristocracy: Greek meaning “rule of the best” Rome Republic 1stc BCE to Empire Representative democracy- elect officials Republic Senate: composed mostly of aristocrats- held most executive offices in Roman State 2 Consuls: ruled jointly- except in times of crisis/ war, then rule by Dictator Importance placed in ethics, duties of citizens, incorruptible service, and oratory Key Roman writer: Cicero- emphasized participation in deliberate bodies that would make laws and judge the actions of executive officers Empire: maintained Senate, but not powerful Hierarchy of Roman Army- officers had great political power 63CE: forced dissolution of the independent Jewish state after a major local rebellion- temple was dismantled, leaving only the Western Wall in Jerusalem Legal codes important for administration of empire Tolerance of local customs and religions and strong military organization 450BCE- Roman republic- introduced 12 Tables: o Purposes: restrain upper classes from arbitrary action and subject all to common legal principles o Roman law: emphasized judges and common-sense fairness Classical Mediterranean in Comparative Perspective India/China/Greco-Roman Each developed empires, relied primarily on agricultural economy Greco-Roman science emphasized theory more Each had clear social hierarchy Roman law as regulation of social life Access to Roman citizenship Athens and Rome placed great premium on importance of military conquest. Rome: Control of masses w/ entertainment “bread and circuses”- cheap food and gladiator contests to prevent popular disorder Government supported religion w/ gods and goddesses o Ex: Pantheon added gods as Roman Republic expanded Roman Empire: persecution of Christians (ex: Nero), eventual tolerance and then it was made official religion of Empire Sparta- extreme militaristic control- even down to raising children Religion and Culture Emphasis on philosophy and science an strong artistic tradition Pantheon of Gods: Greek Roman Function Zeus Jupiter Head God/father Hera Juno Wife of King of Gods Apollo Apollo Regulated sun Poseidon Neptune Oceans Ares Mars God of War Aphrodite Venus Love/Beauty Athena Minerva Goddess of wisdom Artemis Diana Goddess of Hunting Gods were believed to be flawed and human-like Development of “mystery cults and religions” Philosophers- Aristotle emphasized balance in human behavior (ex: felt Middle-class was ideal group to rule) Stoics: Hellenistic Period: inner moral independence o Strict discipline of body and personal bravery o Influenced Christianity Athens: Socrates (469BCE) encouraged pupils to questionSocratic Method- accused of corrupting the youth- chose suicide over exile b/c believed in absolute rather than relative truth (contrary to Sophists) Plato: student to Socrates- human reason could approach an understanding of three perfect forms: absolutely True, Good, and Beautiful o Believed Philosopher-Kings should rule Geometry: Ex: Pythagorean Theorem Hellenistic Period: Galen (medical treatises) o Euclid: Geometry o Ptolemy: Geocentric Theory- fixed wisdom in Western Thought Roman Achievements: great roads, aqueducts, arches Greek drama: comedy and tragedy Sophocles: Oedipus Rex- called most perfect example of tragedy by Aristotle o Oedipus is fated to kill his father and marry his mother th 8 c BCE: Iliad and Odyssey by Homer Vergil (Virgil): The Aeneid- sought to link Roman history to mythology w/ Greek forerunner 5th c BCE: Phidias (sculptor) Greek monumental architecture (Doric, Ionic, Corinthian columns) Economy and Society in the Mediterranean Featured commercial agriculture, trade, and slavery. Patriarchal family structure was characteristic Most Greeks and Romans were farmers Roman Republic: many tenant farmers forced to work for patrician landholders o Latifundia System o Many small farmers forced to become tenants or move into cities causing overcrowding Need for grain led to colonization o Soil more suited to grapes and olives Slavery was key ingredient of the classical economy o Athens: household and silver mines o Sparta: agricultural work (Helots) o Roman: household, mines, agricultural work (part of latifundia system) Greece and Rome: importance of paterfamilias o Cases of female infanticide Toward the Fall of Rome Rome began to decline after 180CE Fell in some parts more than other (ex: West before East: Byzantines) Greek historian: Herodotus and Thucydides Germanic tribes: invasion: disloyalty of outsiders: overexpansion Chapter 4 Overview Duiker & Speilvogel Pericles: Funeral Oration- ideals of democracy and importance of the individual Early Greece o Geography- mountainous terrain- isolating, sea trading Minoan Crete o 2000-1450 BCE = height o Around 2800 BCE Bronze tools/ weapons o Palace at Knossos o Bull-leapers (gymnasts) o Why did they decline? Invasion? Mycenaeans o 1600-1100 BCE= height o Homer o Invasion by the Dorians? Dark Age (1100-750BCE) o Migration due to declining population and falling food production o Iron replaced bronze o Adoption of Phoenecian alphabet Homer o Based Iliad and Odyssey on oral tradition of the Trojan War o “the gods strong and incalculable; that the quality of a man matters more than his achievement, that violence and recklessness will still lead to disaster, and that this will fall on the innocent as well as on the guilty.” o Homer gave an idealized past- cornerstone of education Greek City-States (c750-500BCE) o Polis= small but autonomous political unit, town and countryside Acropolis= fortified hill Agora= market and assembly (AGORAPHOBIC) Classes w/in polis: Adult males (full political rights), women and children (citizens w/ no political rights), noncitizens (slaves and resident aliens) New Military- hoplites (heavily armed) Phalanx formation Colonization (750-550BCE) o Causes: poverty, land hunger, growing gulf between rich and poor, overpopulation and development of trade o Effects: Establishment of colonies, spread of culture throughout Mediterranean region, increased trade and industry Govt. o Monarchy-Oligarchy-Tyranny-Democracy o Tyrants- usurpers of power in a coup d’etat- upheld public works projects to enhance their popularity Sparta o Peloponnesus- conquered the Laconians and subjected theme to serfdom “HELOTS”- bound to the land o Created a military state to control Laconian and Messenian Helots o Babies judged at birth- defective- left to die o Boys- wet-nursed- taken away at 7 to military barracks- military training- joined army at 20, lived at Barracks until 30-could retire at 60. o Could marry and visit wife at night, but couldn’t get caught o Spartan women unique- had more rights- trained in wrestling and gymnastics to make them strong and bear healthy children- married later o Spartan Govt. (oligarchy) 2 kings- military affairs and supreme priests Gerousia= council of elders Ephors= supervised education Apella= assembly of all male citizens o isolationist o Leader of Peloponnesian League o Spartans valued their strength as justification for their militaristic ideals and regimented society Athens o Monarchy-Oligarchy (7thcBCE)-Tyranny-Democracy o 7thcBCE- political and social discontent- rival factions w/in aristocracy- many farmers sold into slavery when they couldn’t pay debts o 594BCE- Solon- reforms- cancelled land debts, outlawed new loans based on human collateral and freed people from slavery o Tyrants: Pisistratus & Clisthenes Created new Council of 500 chosen by lot Classical Greece (500-338BCE) o Greece vs. Persia Ionian colonies revolt against Persians 499BCE aided by Athenian navy 490BCE Persian king Darius attacked Greece Battle of Marathon Xerxes renewed plans for invasion of Greece Battle of Thermopolae- Leonidas (Spartan king) 9,000 Greeks and 300 Spartans held off Persians for 2 days 479BCE Persian army defeated at Platea o 478-477BCE Delian League founded w/ Athens o “Age of Pericles”- height of Athenian power and the culmination of its brilliance as a civilization o Athens was sacked and burned, Greek naval fleet won decisive victory over Persian navy at Salamis. o 479BCE Greeks defeated the Persians at Plataea Athenian Empire o Athens formed the Delian League Age of Pericles o Assembly “will of the people”= all male citizens over 18- passed all laws and made financial decisions on war and foreign policy o Direct Democracy o Pericles expanded suffrage: lower-class citizens eligible for public offices formerly closed: state pay for office-holders o City magistrates chosen by lot o “Generals”=directors of policy (10 officials)= elected by public vote o Ostracism- person receiving 6,000 votes could be exiled for 10 years o Used treasury of Delian League to rebuild Athens The Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE) o Sparta v. Athens o Athen’s plan to stay behind walls but plague struck o Athens defeated= walls torn down, navy disbanded, empire destroyed o Interfighting b/w Athens, Sparta, and Thebes weakens the Greek city-states while Macedonia became stronger. Culture of Classical Greece o Herodotus (484-425BCE) History of the Persian Wars Central theme struggle b/w Greeks and Persians for greek freedom Divine intervention in Greek victory o Thucydides (460-400BCE) Greatest historian of ancient world Scientific, methodical, and objective account of Pelop. War o Greek Drama 1st were tragedies- suffering of hero (tragic flaw) ex: Hubris o Aeschylus (525-456BCE) 1st tragedian Oresteia Trilogy- evil acts breed evil actsReason Triumphs o Sophocles (496-406BCE) Oedipus Rex- man is fated to kill father and marry his mother o Euripedes (485-406BCE) The Bacchae Critical of view that war was glorious- showed war as brutal and barbaric Greek Comedy o Aristophanes (450-385 BCE) The Clouds, Lysistrata Comic but effective message against the Peloponnesian War (women have sex strike until war is ended) The Arts: The Classical Ideal o Architecture- the Temple o Doric- Ionic- Corinthian columns o Parthenon- Temple of Athena Sophists o Wandering teachers o Truth is relative to everyone Socrates o Socratic Method o Sentenced to death for corrupting the youth of Athens- hemlock Plato o The Republic o Ideal state: Population divided into 3 groups o Upper-class – Philosopher-Kings o Men and women have same education and equal access to all positions Aristotle o Student of Plato, tutor to Alexander the Great o Book: Politics: constitutional govt. o Marriage impt for mutual support o Women biologically inferior to men and therefore should be subordinate to men in marriage Greek Religion o Social and practical o Civic cult necessary for well-being of state o 12 Olympian gods (Zeus, Hera, Athena, Apollo, Aphrodite, Poseidon, etc) o Each polis had a patron god o Afterdeath spirits to a gloomy underworld- Hades o Ritual important along w/ prayer and sacrifices o Oracles (at Delphi) Daily Life o Males part of public life o Slavery common o Limited arable land- trade very important especially for grain o Women as wives, primary duty to have children o Homosexuality accepted The Rise of Macedonia o Philip II (359-336BCE)- King of Macedonia Built efficient army and conquered the Greeks He was assassinated o Alexander the Great (336-323BCE) Became king of Macedonia at 20 Invaded the Persian Empire Asia Minor-Syria, Palestine, EgyptMesopotamia (Babylon)-Persepolis-Indus River His troops mutinied at Indus River, forced to turn back On return trip, Alexander died in Babylon Legacy: Hero or Villain? Hellenistic Era “to imitate Greeks” o “Hellenic” culture= Greek culture o Extension of Greek language and ideas to non-Greek world of Middle East o Spreading of Greek language, art, architecture, and literature o Urban centers key for diffusing Greek culture Non-Greeks restricted from high positions so that Greeks could maintain their dominance Ex: Alexandria in Egypt Many Greek colonists moved to the Middle East Economic and Social Trends o Agriculture o Commerce increased trade between west and east o Key trade item= grain o New opportunities for women o Education for upper class women o Ptolemaic rulers in Egypt= return to kings marrying own sisters Culture in Hellenistic World o Hellenistic sculptures tried for more emotional and realistic art rather than idealized o Menander (342-291BCE)= New Comedy “Pretty Woman” Stories o Polybus (203-120BCE)= chief historian of Hellenistic Age A Golden Age of Science o Separation of science from philosophy o Archimedes (287-212 BCE)= famous scientist Worked on geometry in spheres and cylinders Pi Science of hydrostatics Archimedian screw Philosophy o Epicurus (341-270BCE)- founder of Epicureanism Human beings were free to follow self-interest as a basic motivating force. Happiness was goal of life- pursuit of pleasure Pleasure= freedom from emotional turmoil, freedom from worry Remove from public activity Friendship important o Stoicism- founded by Zeno (335-263BCE) Happiness, the supreme good, could only be found by living in harmony with the will of God You could bear whatever life offered Public service important and noble Religion in Hellenistic World o Decline in population of traditional Greek Olympian Religion o Mystery cults= individuals could pursue a path to salvation and achieve eternal life by being initiated into a union with a savior god or goddess who had died and risen again. Duiker & Spielvogel Chapter 5: The World of the Romans Similarities b/w Rome and China= empires lasted for centuries, remarkable success in establishing centralized control over their empires, and throughout their empires they maintained their law and political institutions, their technical skills, and their languages. Location: Italian peninsula had good arable land & important trade route on Med. Sea Rome built on 7 hills, easy to defend Early Rome: Legend of Romulus and Remus Influence of Greeks and Etruscans on Early Rome Roman Republic: Livy: History of Early Republic Roman Confederation: Latins=full citizenship, other groups could eventually gain citizenship Established colonies w/ fortified towns in strategic locations connected by roads Govt: 2 consuls chosen annually “right to command”administered govt. and led army into battle. Praetor- execution of justice and “right to command” when consuls were away Roman senate: 300 men served for life Struggle of orders: b/w the plebeians and patricians- result= Council of Plebs Patricians= aristocratic governing class Plebeians= majority of population, could vote, but couldn’t hold office Tribunes= office to represent the plebeians Eventually pats and plebs could intermarry- new aristocratic class Roman Conquest in Mediterranean Punic Wars Cato “And I think Carthage must be destroyed” Eventually took over Macedonia and Greece 3 Stages: Conquest of Italy, conflict w/ Carthage and expansion into western Med., involvement w/ and domination of the Hellenistic kingdoms in the eastern Med. Decline and Fall of Roman Republic Disparity b/w rich and poor Elite class called Nobiles (nobles) Latifundia were large plantations using slave labor that forced small farmers out of business. Many farmers moved to cities resulting in overcrowding. Also, membership in the Roman army declined Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus worked for land-reform for small farmers, but both were assassinated. Marius: general that recruited army by offering land, army swore allegiance to him= more power in the hands of individual generals Sulla- used his army to seize power in Rome, purge, and strengthen the Senate Jostling for power by a number of powerful individuals and civil wars generated by these conflicts. 60BCE: First Triumvirate: Julius Caesar, Crassus, Pompey Crassus dies, Caesar’s forces vs. Pompey’s forces after J.Caesar “Crossed the Rubicon” J.Caesar won 47BCE J. Caesar= dictator 44 BCE Dictator for life Land reforms, increased senate to 900 members, new calendar, citizenship March 15th 44BCE “ides of march” Caesar was assassinated 2nd Triumvirate: Octavian, Marc Antony, Lepidus Battle of Actium, Octavian won and Marc Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide END of REPUBLIC The Age of Augustus 31BCE-14CE Augustus- 1st Emperor o Stable frontiers Social stratification o Senatorial o Equestrian o Lower classes Free grain and public spectacles to keep them distracted The Early Empire (14-180CE) Augustus-to Stepson Tiberius (Julio-Claudian Dynasty) Emperors took more power Nero(54-68): murdered mother “played fiddle while Rome burned” The Five Good Emperors (96-180) Trajan 98-117- alimentary program (state funds to assist poor parents in raising and educating their children) Trajan and Hadrian: Building projects Large Empire= difficult to defend Cities were important for the spread of Roman culture, law and the Latin language Development of towns and cities- based upon agricultural surpluses of the countryside Culture and Society in the Roman world conflict over Greek Culture- pervasive, but controversial Roman Literature Cattilus “best lyric poet”- letters to Lesbia Cicero- great prose writer and oratory Virgil: The Aeneid- moral Rome was on a divine mission to rule the world Horace: Satires- “follies and vices of his age” Ovid: Amores: The Art of Love Livy: History of Rome- human character was the determining factor in history Seneca- Stoicism Tacitus: Annals & Historia & Germania= history had moral purpose Roman Art: realistic sculptures and architecture projects (roads, aqueducts) Roman Law o 450BCE Twelve Tables: 1st code of laws influenced by Stoicism Innocent until proven otherwise People could defend themselves before a judge Roman Family o Led by paterfamilias (dominant male) o Divorce eventually allowed and became extensive o Legal min age for girls to marry was 12 but 14 was common o Roman women eventually gained more freedom Roman conquest of Med. Brought drastic change in use of slaveslarge #’s of foreign slaves were brought back to Italy o Cato the Elder “cheaper to work slaves to death, and then replace them than to treat them favorably.” o Murder of master by slave could mean the execution of all other household slaves 73BCE Spartacus Rebellion: Led by a Thracian slave- managed to defeat several Roman armies before he was finally trapped and killed in southern Italy-6,000 of his followers were crucified along the Appian Way Imperial Rome o Gap b/w living conditions for rich and poor o Gladiatorial Games- fought to the death o Trajan- spectacles are necessary for the “contentment of the masses” The Development of Christianity o Greco-Roman gods o Polytheistic- tolerant of other religions o Jewish background Divided Sadducees, Pharisees, Essenes, Zealots Jewish revolt 66-70CE crushed by Romans and Jewish temple in Jerusalem destroyed (Western Wall remained) The Rise of Christianity Jesus of Nazareth (6BCE-29CE) Reassured fellow Jews- did not plan to undermine their traditional religion: fulfill the prophesies Jesus was crucified Belief in Jesus’ resurrection became an important tenet of Christian doctrine Important figure: Paul of Tarsus o Jewish Roman citizen- preached to Jews and Gentiles o Founded Christian communities throughout Asia Minor o Accept Jesus as savior, they could be saved Early Christians suspicious b/c of their secret meetings o Accused of cannibalism o Christians refused to participate in the worship of the state gods & imperial cult= act of treason= death Nero- fire in Rome- Christians scapegoated- used as human torches Christian church created a well-defined hierarchical structure in which bishops and clergy were salaried officers separate from the laity, or regular church members Christianity- promise of salvation- initiation w/ baptism New roles for Woman in Christianity Constantine (306-337) 1st Christian Emperor o Edict of Milan- tolerated the existence of Xty Theodosius 378-395 o Christianity made official religion of Roman Empire Decline and Fall of Roman Empire 235-284: Roman Empire in continuous Civil War o 50 years: 22 Emperors! Invasions: Persians and Germanic Tribes Military dependent upon mercenary soldiers and not as loyal Diocletian 284-305: Divided empire into 4 administrative units Constantine 306-337 new capital city in Byzantium (Constantinople) o Basic jobs hereditary Fall of Western Roman Empire 2nd ½ 4th Century- Huns (Xiongnu)-to- Eastern Europe-Visigoths to south and west 410 Visigoths attached Rome 476: Western Roman Emperor Romulus Augustulus deposedseries of Germanic kingdoms Factors o Christianity’s emphasis on spiritual kingdom o Traditional Roman values declined o Lead poisoning o Plague o Rome hindered technologically by slavery o Didn’t achieve a working political system o Key Factor: INVASION in West