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CHAPTER 1 SUMMARY
Sociology is the systematic study of social behavior and human groups. In attempting to understand social
behavior, sociologists rely on a type of creative thinking referred to as the sociological imagination. The
key element of the sociological imagination is the ability to view one’s own society as an outsider would.
Sociology is considered a social science, which is quite broad in scope. Sociologists put their imagination
to work in a variety of areas, including aging, criminal justice, the family, human ecology, and religion.
Sociology focuses on the scientific study of human behavior and is separated from common sense, which
tends to be inaccurate and unreliable.
Sociologists employ theories to examine the relationships between observations or data that may seem
completely unrelated at first glance. Effective theory may have both explanatory and predictive powers.
Early European theorists made pioneering contributions to the development of sociological theory. Auguste
Comte (1798-1857) coined the term sociology to apply to the science of human behavior. Harriet Martineau
(1802-1876) gave special attention to social class distinctions, such as gender and race. Herbert Spencer
(1820-1903), drawing on the work of Charles Darwin, applied the evolutionary view to the development of
societies. Émile Durkheim (1858-1917) focused on understanding behavior within a larger social context,
not just in individualistic terms. Additionally, Durkheim suggested that religion reinforces group solidarity.
Max Weber (1864-1920) advocated the use of verstehen as a means by which to understand human
behavior. Karl Marx (1818-1883) suggested society is divided between classes that clash in pursuit of their
own interests.
Sociology continues to build on the developments of the early European thinkers. However, sociologists
from the United States have also helped advance sociological theory and research. Charles Horton Cooley
(1864-1929) preferred to first view smaller units of intimate, face-to-face groups in understanding social
behaviors. Jane Addams (1860-1935) was an early female sociologist who combined intellectual inquiry
with social service work and political activism for the purpose of assisting the underprivileged. Robert
Merton (1910-2003) produced a theory to help explain deviant behavior and emphasized the unity of
macro-level and micro-level approaches in the study of society.
Sociologists view society in different ways. The functionalist perspective views society as a living
organism in which each part contributes to its survival. Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) was greatly influenced
by the work of Durkheim, Weber, and other European sociologists. Parsons was a key figure in the
development of functionalist theory. The conflict perspective views the social world as being in continual
struggle. Karl Marx viewed the struggle as inevitable, given the exploitation of workers under capitalism.
The feminist perspective views inequality in gender as central to all behavior and organization. Sociologists
began embracing the feminist perspective in the 1970s. The interactionist perspective is primarily
concerned with the fundamental or everyday forms of interaction, including symbols and nonverbal
communication. George Herbert Mead (1863-1931) first developed interactionism in the United States and
is regarded as the founder of the interactionist perspective. Sociologists make use of all the perspectives
since each offers unique insights into understanding social behavior.
Applied sociology is the use of the discipline of sociology with the specific intent of yielding practical
applications for human behavior and organizations. Clinical sociology is dedicated to altering social
relationships or to restructuring social institutions. Both applied and clinical sociology can be contrasted
with basic sociology, which seeks a more profound knowledge of the fundamental aspects of social
phenomena.
LECTURE OUTLINE CHAPTER 1
I.
What Is Sociology?
• The scientific study of social behavior and human groups.
A.
The Sociological Imagination
• C. Wright Mills described this type of creative thinking as the ability to view
one’s own society as an outsider. Example: What constitutes a normal sporting
event is different in the United States than it is in Bali.
• It allows us to look beyond a limited understanding of things and people in the
world, and allows for a broader vision of society.
B.
Sociology and the Social Sciences
• The term “science” refers to the body of knowledge obtained by methods based
on systematic observation.
• Natural science is the study of the physical features of nature. Astronomy,
biology, chemistry, geology, and physics are natural sciences.
• Social science is the study of the social features of human society. Sociology,
anthropology, economics, history, psychology, and political science are social
sciences.
• In contrast to other social sciences, sociology emphasizes the influence that
society has on people’s attitudes and behaviors, and examines the ways in which
people interact and shape society. Example: how sociologists and other social
scientists study events such as Hurricane Katrina..
C.
Sociology and Common Sense
• Common sense is often unreliable and inaccurate. Example: Young people are
becoming more religious. [Surveys of college students show a decline in
religious behavior.]
• Sociology tests, records, and analyzes information scientifically to describe and
understand a social environment. Example: Common sense may tell us the world
is round, but the notion is based on centuries of scientific work.
II.
What Is Sociological Theory?
• Theory is a set of statements that seeks to explain problems, actions, or behaviors.
Effective theory may be both explanatory and predictive. Example: Durkheim’s theory
on suicide.
• Durkheim’s research suggested that, while a solitary act, suicide is related to group life.
Suicide rates reflect the extent to which people are integrated into the group life of
society (Catholics and Protestants).
• An essential task in building sociological theory is to examine the relationship between
bits of data that are gathered through research and that may seem completely unrelated.
III.
The Development of Sociology
• European theorists made pioneering contributions to the development of a science of
human behavior.
A.
Early Thinkers
1.
Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
• Coined the term sociology to apply to the science of human behavior.
• Comte believed a theoretical science of society and systematic
investigations of behavior were needed to improve society.
2.
Harriet Martineau (1802-1876)
• Offered insightful observations of the customs and social practices of
both Britain and the United States. She emphasized the impact of
economy, law, trade, health, and population on social problems.
• She spoke in favor of the rights of women, the emancipation of slaves,
and religious tolerance.
3.
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)
• Adapted Charles Darwin’s evolutionary view of the “survival of the
fittest” by arguing that it is natural that some people are rich while
others are poor.
• Spencer’s view appealed to those with a vested interest in the status quo,
not change.
B.
Émile Durkheim (1858-1917)
• Behavior must be understood within a larger social context, not just in
individualistic terms.
• Durkheim concluded that religion reinforces a group’s solidarity.
• Consequences of work were of interest to Durkheim. He suggested that
specialized labor in industrial societies leads to anomie.
• Durkheim was concerned about the dangers that alienation, loneliness, and
isolation might pose for modern industrial societies.
C.
Max Weber (1864-1920)
• A German sociologist who suggested students should employ verstehen
(understanding) in their intellectual work. To fully comprehend behavior, we
must learn the subjective meanings people attach to their actions—how they
themselves view and explain their behavior.
• Weber is also credited with the concept of an ideal type. He described various
characteristics of an organizational model of bureaucracy as an ideal type. .
D.
Karl Marx (1818-1883)
• Suggested society is fundamentally divided between classes that clash in pursuit
of their own class and self-interests. He saw the factory as the center of conflict
between the owners of the means of production (bourgeoisie) and the exploited
labor forces (proletariat).
• Marx and his colleague Friedrich Engels argued that workers should unite to
overthrow capitalist societies.
E.
Modern Developments
• Sociologists within the United States have contributed to the development of
new insights to better understand the workings of society.
1.
Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929)
• Preferred to use the sociological perspective to look first at smaller units,
such as intimate face-to-face groups. He saw these groups as the
seedbeds of society in the way they shape people’s ideals, beliefs, values,
and social nature.
• Cooley’s work increased understanding of small-sized groups.
2.
Jane Addams (1860-1935)
• A social reformer, she co-founded Chicago’s Hull House.
• Working with Ida Wells-Barnett, she successfully prevented racial
segregation in Chicago public schools.
• Advocated for a more egalitarian society.
3.
Robert Merton (1910-2003)
• Produced a theory that is one of the most frequently cited explanations
of deviant behavior. Noted different ways people achieve success.
• Emphasized sociology should strive to bring together the macro-level
and micro-level approaches to the study of society.
• Macrosociology concentrates on large-scale phenomena.
• Microsociology stresses the study of small groups.
IV.
Major Theoretical Perspectives
• The major perspectives provide an introductory look at the discipline of sociology.
A.
B.
Functionalist Perspective
• In the view of functionalists, society is like a living organism in which each part
of the organism contributes to its survival.
• Functionalism emphasizes the way that parts of a society are structured to
maintain its stability.
• Talcott Parsons dominated functionalist thought in sociology for over four
decades in the United States.
1.
Manifest and Latent Functions
• Robert Merton described manifest functions as open, stated, conscious
functions which involve intended, recognized consequences.
• Latent functions are unconscious or unintended functions, which may
reflect a hidden purpose. Example: Universities hold down
unemployment and serve as meeting grounds for people to form new
relationships.
2.
Dysfunctions
• Refers to an element or process of a society that may disrupt the social
system or reduce its social stability.
• Dysfunction can be negative or positive in nature. Example: Prison
gangs can be functional for prison security.
Conflict Perspective
• Assumes that social behavior is best understood in terms of conflict or tension
between competing groups.
• Expanding on Marx’s work, conflict theorists are interested in how society’s
institutions maintain privileges for the upper classes and keep others in a
subservient position.
• Conflict approach has become increasingly persuasive since late 1960s.
1.
The Marxist View
• Exploitation of workers under capitalism.
• Emphasis on social change and redistribution of resources.
• Considered more radical and activist than functionalists.
2.
An African-American View: W.E.B. Du Bois
• Du Bois, a Black sociologist, contended knowledge was essential to
combat prejudice and discrimination.
• Helped to found the NAACP.
• Advocated for researchers to view society through the eyes of those
who rarely influence the decision-making processes.
• Because he challenged the status quo, he didn’t find a receptive audience
in either government or academia.
3.
The Feminist View
• Views inequality in gender as central to all behavior and organization.
• Often allied with the conflict perspective.
• Focus on macro-level relationships, like conflict theory.
• Views the subordination of women as inherent in capitalist societies.
• Radical feminists hold the oppression of women as inevitable in all
male-dominated societies.
C.
Interactionist Perspective
• Generalizes about everyday forms of social interaction in order to explain
society as a whole. It is a sociological framework for viewing human beings as
living in a world of meaningful objects.
• George Herbert Mead is regarded as the founder of interactionism.
• Symbols are important in human communication. Example: A salute or a
clenched fist. Nonverbal communications can include facial gestures,
expressions, and postures.
• Erving Goffman popularized the dramaturgical approach. Compares everyday
life to actors performing on a stage. Example: projecting a serious image in
class and a party image with friends.
D.
The Sociological Approach
• Sociology makes use of all the perspectives. See Table 1-2.
• No one approach is the correct one. Perspectives may often overlap, and they
can also diverge.
V.
Applied and Clinical Sociology
• Applied sociology is the use of sociology with the specific intent to yield practical
applications for human behavior and organizations. Example: studying connections
between illegal drug use and the spread of HIV/AIDS.
• Applied sociology has led to specializations such as medical and environmental
sociology.
• Clinical sociology is dedicated to facilitating change by altering social relationships
(as in family therapy) or restructuring social institutions(as in the reorganization of a.
medical center).
• Basic (pure) sociology seeks more profound knowledge. Example: Durkheim
and suicide research.
VI.
Developing a Sociological Imagination
A.
Theory in Practice
• Illustrates how the sociological perspectives are useful for understanding today’s
issues.
B.
Research in Action
• Direct application to improving people’s lives.
C.
Thinking Globally
• Globalization: the worldwide integration of government policies, cultures, social
movements, and financial markets through trade and the exchange of ideas.
• Globalization is increasing. Sociologists recognize that social behavior must be
viewed within a global context.
• Some view globalization as a natural result of advances in communication
(Internet). Others suggest the expansion of multinational corporations has
created a world without borders.
D.
The Significance of Social Inequality
• Social inequality: a condition in which members of society have differing
amounts of wealth, prestige, or power.
• Sociologists often see behavior as shaped by social inequality.
E.
Speaking across Race, Gender, and Religious Boundaries
• Both men and women, and people from a variety of ethnic, national, and
religious origins are included in research by sociologists.
• Sociology today seeks to better understand the experiences of all people.
F.
Social Policy throughout the World
• Examination of current social issues. Example: government funding of child
care centers; racial profiling; religion in schools.
• Sociology is useful in evaluating the success of programs or the impact of
changes brought about by policy-makers and political activists. Sociologists will play an
increasing role in government by researching and developing public policy.
KEY TERMS CHAPTER 1
Anomie Durkheim’s term for the loss of direction felt in a society when social control of individual
behavior has become ineffective.
Applied sociology The use of the discipline of sociology with the specific intent of yielding practical
applications for human behavior and organizations.
Basic sociology Sociological inquiry conducted with the objective of gaining a more profound knowledge
of the fundamental aspects of social phenomena. Also known as pure sociology.
Clinical sociology The use of the discipline of sociology with the specific intent of altering social
relationships or restructuring social institutions.
Conflict perspective A sociological approach that assumes that social behavior is best understood in terms
of conflict or tension between competing groups.
Dramaturgical approach A view of social interaction popularized by Erving Goffman in which people
are seen as theatrical performers.
Dysfunction An element or a process of society that may disrupt a social system or reduce its stability.
Feminist view A sociological approach that views inequity in gender as central to all behavior and
organization.
Functionalist perspective A sociological approach that emphasizes the way in which the parts of a society
are structured to maintain its stability.
Globalization The worldwide integration of government policies, cultures, social movements, and
financial markets through trade and the exchange of ideas.
Ideal type A construct or model for evaluating specific cases.
Interactionist perspective A sociological approach that generalizes about everyday forms of social
interaction in order to explain society as a whole.
Latent function Unconscious or unintended function that may reflect hidden purposes.
Macrosociology Sociological investigation that concentrates on large-scale phenomena or entire
civilizations.
Manifest function Open, stated, and conscious function.
Microsociology Sociological investigation that stresses the study of small groups, often through
experimental means.
Natural science The study of the physical features of nature and the ways in which they interact and
change.
Nonverbal communication The sending of messages through the use of gestures, facial expressions, and
postures.
Science The body of knowledge obtained by methods based upon systematic observation.
Social inequality A condition in which members of society have differing amounts of wealth, prestige,
and power.
Social science The study of the social features of humans and the ways in which they interact and change.
Sociological imagination An awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider society,
both today and in the past.
Sociology The systematic study of social behavior and human groups.
Theory In sociology, a set of statements that seeks to explain problems, actions, or behavior.
Verstehen The German word for “understanding” or “insight”; used to stress the need for sociologists to
take into account the subjective meanings people attach to their actions.
CHAPTER 2 SUMMARY
Sociologists are committed to the use of the scientific method in their research. The basic steps in the
scientific method are: defining the problem, reviewing the literature, formulating the hypothesis, selecting
the research design, and collecting and analyzing the data. Finally, the researcher develops a conclusion
based on the findings of the research.
An operational definition is an explanation of an abstract concept that allows a researcher to assess the
concept. A review of the literature, concerning the problem under study, helps to refine the problem and
reduce avoidable mistakes. A hypothesis is a speculative statement about the relationship between two or
more variables. Variables are measurable traits or characteristics that are subject to change under certain
conditions. The variable hypothesized to cause or influence another variable is called the independent
variable. The variable that is changed or dependent on the independent variable is called the dependent
variable. A correlation exists when a change in one variable coincides with a change in the other.
In most studies, social scientists carefully select a sample. A sample is a selection from a larger population
that is statistically representative of the population. In a random sample, every member of the population
being studied has the same chance of being selected for the study.
The scientific method requires both validity and reliability. Validity refers to the degree to which a measure
or scale truly reflects the phenomenon under study. Reliability refers to the extent to which a measure
produces consistent results. Sociological studies sometime fail to support the original hypothesis and
researchers must reformulate their conclusions. Control variables are those factors that are held constant to
test the strength of a relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
A research design is a detailed plan or method for obtaining or collecting data. Surveys are a common
method of quantitative research used by researchers to collect data. Surveys may consist of oral interviews
or written questionnaires. Observation is a qualitative research method, which allows researchers to
collect data through everyday interaction with a group or community under study. Experiments are
artificially created situations in which researchers can manipulate variables. Typically, an experimental
group is exposed to the independent variable and the control group is not. Analyzing existing data that has
been previously collected is called secondary analysis. Content analysis involves the systematic coding
and objective recording of data, such as using newspapers, periodicals, and other common documents or
venues to interpret and test the significance of data. All researchers must abide by a code of ethics to ensure
that researchers are not causing harm or violating a person’s privacy. Most research seeks to remain value
neutral in its judgments when interpreting research results. However, some have suggested neutrality may
be impossible to attain. Computers and the Internet are exciting technologies that are having an impact on
research.
LECTURE OUTLINE CHAPTER 2
I.
What Is the Scientific Method?
• A systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and
consistency in researching a problem.
• Requires precise preparation in developing useful research; otherwise, the research data
collected may not prove accurate.
A.
Defining the Problem
• An operational definition is required to assess the concept. Example: using
membership in exclusive social clubs as an operational definition of status.
B.
Reviewing the Literature
• Refines the problem under study, clarifies data collection techniques, and
eliminates or reduces avoidable mistakes.
C.
Formulating the Hypothesis
• Hypothesis: A speculative statement about the relationship between two or more
variables (a measurable trait or characteristic).
• Independent variables cause or influence change in dependent variables.
• Dependent variables are changed by the independent variables or are dependent
on them.
• Causal logic refers to the relationship between a condition or variable and a
particular consequence, with one event leading to the other. Example: Time
spent studying may result in a higher grade on an exam.
• Correlation is an indication that causality may be present.
D.
Collecting and Analyzing Data
• Research designs guide researchers in collecting data.
E.
1.
Selecting the Sample
• Sample: a statistically representative selection from a larger population.
• A random sample occurs when every member of an entire population
has the same chance of being selected for the study.
2.
Ensuring Validity and Reliability
• Validity refers to the degree to which a measure or scale accurately
reflects the phenomenon under study.
• Reliability refers to the extent to which a measure produces consistent
results.
Developing the Conclusion
• Conclusion represents both an end and a beginning in research.
1.
Supporting Hypothesis
• Some studies refute a hypothesis, which leads to reformulations about a
conclusion and adjustments in research designs.
2.
F.
II.
Controlling for Other Factors
• A control variable is a factor held constant to test the relative impact of
the independent variable. Example: surveying attitudes of smokers and
nonsmokers.
In Summary: The Scientific Method
• The data support the hypothesis that education level influences income.
Major Research Designs
• A detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically.
A.
Surveys
• Generally in the form of an interview or questionnaire, providing researchers
with information about how people think or act. Example: Gallup poll.
• The survey is an example of quantitative research, which collects and reports
data primarily in numerical form.
• Skillful interviewers can go beyond written questions and probe a subject’s
underlying feelings; questionnaires have the advantage of being cheaper to
administer.
B.
Observation
• Qualitative research relies on what is seen in field and naturalistic settings,
and often focuses on small groups and communities. Observation is the most
common form. Example: studying gangs, or service organizations.
• William F. Whyte’s work is a classic example of participant observation
research, when he moved into a low-income Italian neighborhood in Boston
(1930s).
• Ethnography: The study of an entire social setting through extended systematic
observation. The Adlers’ study of the Hawaiian resort industry, described in the
chapter opening, was an ethnographic study.
C.
Experiments
• Artificially created situation. Typically involves the use of an experimental
group exposed to an independent variable, and a control group, which is not
exposed to the independent variable.
• Sociologists do not rely on classic forms of experiment/control groups, due to
the danger they might cause to humans.
• Hawthorne effect refers to subjects of research who deviate from typical
behavior because they are under observation.
D.
Use of Existing Sources
• Secondary analysis refers to making use of previously collected or publicly
accessible information and data. Example: Census data.
• Existing data is nonreactive, since it does not influence people’s behavior; thus,
researchers can avoid the Hawthorne effect by using secondary analysis.
Example: Durkheim’s research on suicide.
• Content analysis is the systematic coding and objective recording of data.
Example: Analyzing the content of films to determine if there has been an
increase in the depiction of smoking in movies.
III.
Ethics of Research
• Code of Ethics, ASA first published in 1971.
• Objectivity, integrity, privacy, protection from harm, confidentiality, informed consent,
acknowledge collaboration and assistance, and disclose sources of financial support.
A.
Confidentiality
• Rik Scarce jailed for refusing to divulge what he knew about a 1991 raid on a
university lab by animal rights activists.
• The Supreme Court has failed to clarify the rights of scholars preserving the
confidentiality of research subjects.
B.
Research Funding
• When accepting funding for their research, sociologists must be careful that the
funding source does not taint the objectivity of the research. Example: Exxon
funded research on jury deliberations after the Valdez disaster.
C.
Value Neutrality
• Weber and value neutrality in research. Neutrality may be impossible.
IV.
Technology and Sociological Research
• Impact of computers and Internet on research. Example: Software programs.
• Web-based surveys are promising, but may not be random samples.
V.
Social Policy and Sociological Research: Studying Human Sexuality
A.
The Issue
• Human sexuality is a difficult topic to research, yet a scientific understanding
of human sexuality is important, especially in an age of devastating sexually
transmitted diseases.
B.
The Setting
• There have been few reliable studies of patterns of sexual behavior in the U.S.
The sensitive nature of the subject makes it difficult to obtain accurate
information, and until the AIDs crisis, there was little scientific demand for data
on sexual behavior.
• Government funding for studies of sexual behavior is controversial.
C.
Sociological Insights
• Sociologists may fear studying and objectively reporting findings for fear of
losing government funds, in the event the research criticizes government
policies.
D.
Policy Initiatives
• In 1987, the federal government’s National Institute of Child Health and Human
Development sought research proposals for a national survey of sexual behavior.
• In 1991, the U.S. Senate voted to forbid funding any survey on adult sexual
practices.
• Researchers secured private funding for the research to go forth: National
Health and Social Life Survey (NHSLS). Careful procedures helped establish
validity of the NHSLS findings.
• Authors of the study content their data will allow sociologists and policy makers
to better address such issues such as AIDS, sexual harassment, welfare reform,
sex discrimination, abortion, teenage pregnancy, and family planning.
• The research findings countered notions about abortion and birth control.
Example: They found that women do not regularly use abortion for birth control
and that affluent women are more likely to have abortions than poor teens.
KEY TERMS CHAPTER 2
Causal logic The relationship between a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one
event leading to the other.
Code of ethics The standards of acceptable behavior developed by and for members of a profession.
Content analysis The systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided by some rationale.
Control group The subjects in an experiment who are not introduced to the independent variable by the
researcher.
Control variable A factor that is held constant to test the relative impact of an independent variable.
Correlation A relationship between two variables in which a change in one coincides with a change in the other.
Cross-tabulation A table that shows the relationship between two or more variables.
Dependent variable The variable in a causal relationship that is subject to the influence of another
variable.
Ethnography The study of an entire social setting through extended systematic observation.
Experiment An artificially created situation that allows a researcher to manipulate variables.
Experimental group The subjects in an experiment who are exposed to an independent variable
introduced by a researcher.
Hawthorne effect The unintended influence that observers or experiments can have on their subjects.
Hypothesis A speculative statement about the relationship between two or more variables.
Independent variable The variable in a causal relationship that causes or influences a change in a second
variable.
Interview A face-to-face or telephone questioning of a respondent to obtain desired information.
Mean A number calculated by adding a series of values and then dividing by the number of values.
Median The midpoint or number that divides a series of values into two groups of equal numbers of
values.
Mode The single most common value in a series of scores.
Observation A research technique in which an investigator collects information through direct
participation and/or closely watching a group or community.
Operational definition An explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow a researcher
to measure the concept.
Percentage A portion of 100.
Qualitative research Research that relies on what is seen in field or naturalistic settings more than on
statistical data.
Quantitative research Research that collects and reports data primarily in numerical form.
Questionnaire A printed or written form used to obtain information from a respondent.
Random sample A sample for which every member of an entire population has the same chance of being
selected.
Reliability The extent to which a measure produces consistent results.
Research design A detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically.
Sample A selection from a larger population that is statistically representative of that population.
Scientific method A systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and
consistency in researching a problem.
Secondary analysis A variety of research techniques that make use of previously collected and publicly
accessible information and data.
Survey A study, generally in the form of an interview or questionnaire, that provides researchers with
information about how people think and act.
Validity The degree to which a measure or scale truly reflects the phenomenon under study.
Value neutrality Max Weber’s term for objectivity of sociologists in the interpretation of data.
Variable A measurable trait or characteristic that is subject to change under different
conditions.
CHAPTER 3 SUMMARY
Culture is the totality of learned, socially transmitted customs, knowledge, material objects, and behavior.
A fairly large number of people are said to constitute a society when they live in the same territory, are
relatively independent of people outside their area, and participate in a common culture. Society is the
largest form of human group and consists of people who share a common heritage and culture. Members of
a society learn culture and transmit it from one generation to the next. Language is a critical element of
culture that sets humans apart from other species.
Virtually all societies share common practices and beliefs known as cultural universals. Some common
cultural universals include athletic sports, cooking, funeral ceremonies, medicine, marriage, and sexual
restrictions. Expressions of cultural universals vary from one society to another. Innovation is the process
of introducing a new idea or object to a culture. Discovery involves making known or sharing the existence
of an aspect of reality. Invention results when existing cultural items are combined into a form that did not
exist before. With globalization, more and more cultural expressions and practices are crossing national
borders through a process known as diffusion. This process results in the melding of cultural traditions
(McDonaldization). Technology, in its many forms, has increased the speed of cultural diffusion and
broadened the distribution of cultural elements. Globalization is not universally welcomed in all nations.
Culture consists of both material and nonmaterial elements. Sociologists are more concerned with the
nonmaterial elements of culture, which include customs, beliefs, and patterns of communication.
Sociobiology emphasizes the ways that culture is determined by human biology. Language is an abstract
system of word meanings and symbols for all aspects of culture. Language not only describes reality, it also
serves to shape the reality of culture. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis holds that language is culturally
determined and serves to influence our mode of thought. Communication can also be nonverbal, such as
gestures, facial expressions, and other visual images used to communicate thought.
Norms are established standards of behavior maintained by society. Norms are classified as either formal or
informal. Formal norms generally are written down and specify certain behaviors through laws and
regulations. By contrast, informal norms are generally understood, but not precisely written. Norms are
classified into mores and folkways. Mores are norms deemed necessary to the welfare of society, and
demand obedience. Folkways play a role in shaping behavior, without the strict sanctions of obedience
attached. Acceptance of norms is subject to change as the political, economic, and social conditions of a
culture are transformed. Sanctions are penalties and rewards for conduct concerning a social norm.
Values are collective conceptions of what is considered good, desirable, and proper, or what is considered
bad, undesirable, and improper in a culture. Values may be specific or they may be more general. The
values of a culture may change, but most remain relatively stable during any one person’s lifetime.
Cultural beliefs are influenced by the dominant ideology. Within the dominant culture, segments of the
populace may develop cultural patterns that differ from the patterns of dominant society. These aspects of
cultural variation include subcultures and countercultures. Culture shock occurs when a person feels
surprised or disoriented due to experiencing cultural practices different from their own. Ethnocentrism
refers to the tendency of a person to assume that one’s culture and way of life are superior to all others.
Observing other cultures through value neutral standards is referred to as cultural relativism. It places
priority on understanding other cultures, rather than dismissing them as strange or exotic.
LECTURE OUTLINE CHAPTER 3
I.
Culture and Society
• Culture is the totality of learned, socially transmitted customs, knowledge, material
objects, and behavior.
• Consists of all objects and ideas within a society.
• Society is a large number of people living in the same territory, who are relatively
independent of people outside their area and participate in a common culture. A society
is the largest form of human group.
• A common culture simplifies day-to-day interactions.
• Language sets humans apart from other species.
II.
Development of Culture around the World
A.
Cultural Universals
• Common practices and beliefs. George Murdock’s list includes athletic sports,
cooking, funeral ceremonies, medicine, marriage, and sexual restrictions.
• Expression of cultural universals varies from society to society.
B.
Innovation
• Process of introducing new ideas or objects to a culture. Sociologists are
interested in the consequences of innovation for a society.
• Forms of innovation include discovery and invention.
• Discovery involves making known or sharing the existence of reality.
• Invention results when items are combined into a form that did not exist before.
Example: automobile, Protestantism, and democracy.
C.
Globalization, Diffusion, and Technology
• Globalization is the worldwide integration of government policies, cultures,
social movements, and financial markets through trade and the exchange of
ideas. Example: Starbucks in China.
• Some view globalization as a natural result of advances in communication
(e.g, the Internet). Others suggest the expansion of multinational corporations
has created a world without borders. See Box 3-1.
• Diffusion refers to the process by which a cultural item spreads from group to
group or society to society.
• George Ritzer’s McDonaldization is associated with the melding of cultures.
• Periphery nations lose traditional values as they begin to identify with the core
nation’s values.
• Technology accelerates the diffusion process and transmission of culture.
Example: the Internet being dominated by the English language.
• Material (physical or technological aspects of daily life) and nonmaterial culture
(e.g., customs and beliefs).
• Culture lag refers to the period of maladjustment when the nonmaterial culture is
struggling to adapt to new material conditions, according to Ogburn.
D.
III.
Elements of Culture
• Culture is learned and transmitted through human interactions within specific societies.
A.
B.
Sociobiology
• The systematic study of the biological bases of social behavior. Uses principles
of natural selection (Darwin) to study social behavior.
• Sociobiology suggests that aspects of human biology program social behavior.
• Some sociologists fear sociobiological approaches could be used against
disadvantaged people who are not competing successfully.
Language
• The foundation of every culture. An abstract system of word meanings and
symbols for all aspects of culture.
1.
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
• Suggests that language is culturally determined and leads to many
different interpretations of reality. Example: color distinctions.
• Language can transmit stereotypes. Example: dictionary definitions of
words such as black and white.
• Language can shape how we taste, smell, feel, and hear.
2.
Nonverbal Communication
• Gestures, facial expressions, and other learned visual images.
• Varies from culture to culture. Example: The meaning of the “thumbsup” symbol in the U.S. and Australia.
Norms
• Established standards of behavior maintained by society.
1.
Types of Norms
• Formal norms are generally written down and specify strict punishments
for violations. Typical formal norms include laws, regulations, and
organizational rules.
• Informal norms are generally understood, but not precisely recorded.
Example: standards of proper dress.
• Mores are norms deemed highly necessary to the welfare of society.
Example: prohibition of murder, treason, and child abuse.
• Folkways are norms governing everyday behavior. They help shape
behavior. Example: folkways reinforcing gender hierarchies in Buddhist
areas of southeast Asia.
2.
Acceptance of Norms
• People do not follow norms in all situations. Weak norms will often be
ignored. Example: teenage drinking.
• Norms may be violated due to norm conflict. Example: reporting your
neighbor being beaten after you hear screams.
• Adherence to norms is contingent on changes in political, economic,
and social conditions of a culture. Example: views on interracial marriage.
C.
Sanctions
• Penalties and rewards for conduct concerning a social norm.
• Conformity to a norm can lead to reward, such as a pay raise or verbal praise.
• Sanctions for norms are a reflection of a culture’s values and priorities.
D.
Values
• Collective conceptions about what is considered good, desirable, and proper.
They can also be collective ideas about what is bad, undesirable, and improper.
• Values serve to evaluate the actions of others. Often values, norms, and
sanctions are directly related. Examples: marriage and adultery.
• Remain relatively stable over one’s lifetime.
• Influence of money, power, and status gaining popularity in America.
IV.
Culture and the Dominant Ideology
• Functionalists view culture as a stabilizing agent for society.
• Conflict theorists view culture as serving the privileges of powerful groups.
• Dominant ideology is a set of cultural beliefs and practices that helps maintain powerful
social, economic, and political interests. Example: male domination of females.
• Difficult to identify a “core culture” in America.
V.
Cultural Variation
• Within a single nation, certain segments of the populace develop cultural patterns that
differ from the patterns of the dominant society.
A.
Aspects of Cultural Variation
1.
Subcultures
• A segment of society that shares a distinctive pattern of mores,
folkways, and values that differs from the pattern of the larger society.
Examples; employees at international call centers in India established
by multinational corporations; residents of a retirement community..
• Subcultures may develop a specialized language or argot.
Example: New York City sanitation workers.
• Subcultures may be based on common age, region, ethnic heritage,
occupation, or beliefs.
• Conflict theorists suggest that variation in culture often reflects the
inequality of social arrangements within a society.
2.
Countercultures
• A subculture that conspicuously and deliberately opposes certain aspects
of the larger culture. Example: Hippies of the 1960s;terrorists.
3.
B.
VI.
Culture Shock
• Surprise and disorientation experienced when people encounter cultural
practices different from their own.
Example: Americans who encounter dog meat as a delicacy in China.
Attitudes toward Cultural Variation
1.
Ethnocentrism
• Refers to the tendency to assume that one’s own culture and way of life
represent the norm or are superior to all others.
Example: a Westerner looking down on India’s Hindu religion and
culture, which views the cow as sacred.
• Ethnocentric evaluations may serve to devalue groups and deny equal
opportunities for some (conflict view).
• Functionalists indicate that ethnocentrism encourages a sense of
solidarity.
2.
Cultural Relativism
• The viewing of people’s behavior from the perspective of their own
culture.
• Employs value neutrality.
Social Policy and Culture
A.
The Issue
• Bilingualism refers to using two or more languages in a particular setting,
treating each language as equally legitimate.
B.
The Setting
• About 18 percent of the population in the United States speaks a language other
than English as their primary language.
• Results of bilingual studies are mixed, and bilingual programs vary widely in
their quality and approach.
• Overview of 17 different studies suggests that students offered lessons in both
English and their home languages make better progress than similar children
who are taught only in English.
C.
Sociological Insights
• Functionalist view (that language serves to unify members of a society) supports
immigrants being expected to learn English.
• Conflict view suggests bilingualism is self-expression and can be an asset.
• Relationship of ethnocentrism and views about bilingualism.
D.
Policy Initiatives
• Nations vary in their tolerance of multiple languages. Example: China.
• In some nations it is a regional issue (e.g., in Miami or along the Tex-Mex
border).
• Federal policy has vacillated on bilingualism. In the 1970s, it was widely
supported in school districts. In 1998, voters in California all but eliminated
bilingualism in education.
• In the U.S. there have been repeated efforts to create a constitutional
amendment to make English the official language.
• By 2006, 27 states had declared English their official language.
KEY TERMS CHAPTER 3
Argot Specialized language used by members of a group or subculture.
Bilingualism The use of two or more languages in a particular setting, such as the workp lace or
schoolroom, treating each language as equally legitimate.
Counterculture A subculture that deliberately opposes certain aspects of the larger culture.
Cultural relativism The viewing of people’s behavior from the perspective of their own culture.
Cultural universal A common practice or belief found in every culture.
Culture The totality of learned, socially transmitted customs, knowledge, material objects, and behavior.
Culture lag A period of maladjustment when the nonmaterial culture is still struggling to adapt to new
material conditions.
Culture shock The feeling of surprise and disorientation that people experience when they encounter
cultural practices that are different from their own.
Diffusion The process by which a cultural item is spread from group to group or society to society.
Discovery The process of making known or sharing the existence of an aspect of reality.
Dominant ideology A set of cultural beliefs and practices that help to maintain powerful social, economic,
and political interests.
Ethnocentrism The tendency to assume that one’s own culture and way of life represent the norm or are
superior to all others.
Folkway A norm governing everyday social behavior whose violation raises comparatively little concern.
Formal norm A norm that has been written down and that specifies strict punishments for violators.
Globalization The worldwide integration of government policies, cultures, social movements, and
financial markets through trade and the exchange of ideas.
Informal norm A norm that is generally understood but not precisely recorded.
Innovation The process of introducing a new idea or object into a culture through discovery or invention.
Invention The combination of existing cultural items into a form that did not exist before.
Language An abstract system of word meanings and symbols for all aspects of culture; includes gestures
and other nonverbal communication.
Law Governmental social control.
Material culture The physical or technological aspects of our daily lives.
Mores Norms deemed highly necessary to the welfare of a society.
Nonmaterial culture Ways of using material objects as well as customs, beliefs, philosophies,
governments, and patterns of communication.
Norm An established standard of behavior maintained by a society.
Sanction A penalty or reward for conduct concerning a social norm.
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis A hypothesis concerning the role of language in shaping our interpretation of
reality. It holds that language is culturally determined.
Society A fairly large number of people who live in the same territory, are relatively independent of people
outside it, and participate in a common culture.
Sociobiology The systematic study of how biology affects human social behavior.
Subculture A segment of society that shares a distinctive pattern of mores, folkways, and values that
differs from the pattern of the larger society.
Technology Information about how to use the material resources of the environment to satisfy human
needs and desires.
Value A collective conception of what is considered good, desirable, and proper—or bad, undesirable, and
improper—in a culture.