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Lesson Plan The Tuskegee Weathermen: African-American Meteorologists during World War II The staff of the Tuskegee Weather Station circa 1944. (front row, left to right) Lt. Grant Franklin, Lt. Archie Williams, Capt. Wallace Reed, Lt. John Branche, Lt. Paul Wise, and Lt. Robert Preer. Photo by Air Force Weather History Office, Air Force Weather Agency, Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska, http://wxedge.com/articles/20130226the_tuskegee_weathermen. Prepared by the Center for History of Physics at AIP 1 Grade Level(s): 9-12 Subject(s): History, Meteorology In-Class Time: See below Prep Time: See below Activity One: The History of the Tuskegee Weathermen (In-class Time: 90 min, Prep Time: 15-20 min) Activity Two: Learning to Read a Weather Map (In-class Time: 60 min, Prep Time: 15-20 min) Activity Three: Build Your Own Weather Station (In-class Time: 180 min, Prep Time: 20-30 min) Materials Activity One: The History of the Tuskegee Weathermen • Photocopies of reading “The Tuskegee (Weather) Airmen” (see supplemental documents) • Access to equipment necessary to show an online video clip in the classroom Activity Two: Learning to Read a Weather Map • Access to weather.com in the classroom and a projector • Transparency sheets • Dry erase markers • Photocopies of “Weather Map Symbols” guide (see below) • Printed weather map of the current day’s weather – this can be printed from a website such as weather.com (http://www.weather.com/maps/maptype/currentweatherusnational/uscurrentweather_large. html). Activity Three: Build Your Own Weather Station Adapted from Stevens Institute of Technology, Center for Innovation in Engineering and Science, Weather Scope: An Investigative Study of Weather and Climate. • Barometer o wide-mouthed glass jar or small coffee can o balloon o rubber band o scissors o drinking straw o manila folder o glue (recommended) or tape o ruler and pen or pencil • Rain Gauge o Printed paper ruler o Cylinder shaped clear jar (e.g. an olive jar) o Rubber band o Funnel o Transparent tape • Thermometer o Rubbing Alcohol o Water Prepared by the Center for History of Physics at AIP 2 Cylinder shaped clear jar or bottle (bottles with a narrow neck work best) with a plastic cap o 1 straw o Modeling clay o Food coloring o Thermometer(s) (for taking accurate measurements of temperature) Wind Vane o Tag board or manila file folder o Straight pin o Scissors o Glue o Pencil with a new eraser o Plastic drinking straw o Modeling clay o Paper plate o Compass Anemometer o 4 small paper cups o 4 plastic drinking straws o tape o scissors o straight pin o pencil with a new eraser o stapler o • • Objective In this lesson plan, students will learn about the history of meteorology and about African American weather forecasters of the Tuskegee Weather Detachment that served in the Air Corps during World War II. They will learn about the work of these meteorologists and how they supported the Tuskegee Airmen. In additional activities, students can build their own weather station and learn to read weather maps. Introduction With the rapid rise of aviation during World War I, interest in aviation and aeronautics increased in the 1920s and 1930s and created a demand for military meteorology. African Americans, however, were greatly underrepresented in the field of aviation and aeronautics because of socioeconomic discrimination and Jim Crow laws which restricted or denied African Americans from entering the military and commercial aviation. While African Americans could and did serve in the Civil War, wars against Native Americans, the Spanish-American War, and World War I, the Army War College maintained in 1924 that “in the process of evolution, the American Negro has not progressed as far as other subspecies of the human family … His mental inferiority and inherent weakness of character are factors that must be considered … [in] any plans for his employment in war.” 1 Over a decade later, a 1 Steve Estes, I Am a Man!: Race, Manhood, and the Civil Rights Movement, 17. Prepared by the Center for History of Physics at AIP 3 crucial change in the segregation and attitude toward African Americans in the military took place in 1938. Mary McLeod Bethune was an African American activist and the only female member of F.D.R.’s “black cabinet” – an informal group of African American public policy advisors to the president. Bethune advocated and fought for the integration of the pilot program. She used her influence and her position to establish pilot training programs at several HBCUs (Historically Black Colleges and Universities) including Tuskegee Institute, Hampton Institute, Virginia State, North Carolina A&T, Delaware State, West Virginia State and Howard University. The Tuskegee Airmen, or “red tails” as they were called because of the red tails of the airplanes they flew, were the first African American military aviators in the United States army who fought in World War II. The Tuskegee Airmen earned many purple hearts, Silver Stars, and Distinguished Flying Crosses and President Truman gave the Tuskegee Airmen a Distinguished Unit Citation for their “outstanding performance and extraordinary heroism.” Because of the service of African Americans such as the Tuskegee Airmen, the protests and advocacy by those such as Bethune, and the changing political structure of the United States in the fight against fascism, the struggle against racism in the military scored a significant victory in 1948 when President Truman issued Executive Order 9981 desegregating the armed forces. While many have heard of the Tuskegee Airmen, the weather forecasters and meteorologists who supported the decorated pilots are lesser known. Just as the “Red Tails” were pioneers in the field of aviation, the Tuskegee “Weathermen” were pioneers in the field of meteorology. The Tuskegee Weather Detachment was formed on March 21, 1942 as part of the Tuskegee Army Flying School in Tuskegee, Alabama. They were the first group of black meteorologists who were enlisted to support the Tuskegee Airmen and other segregated units. Around fifteen men, recruited from cadet programs, were pioneers in opening the field of meteorology to African Americans. They had to pass rigorous tests and complete academically challenging coursework in order to qualify for the detachment. Until World War I, the field of meteorology was more of an art than a science. Meteorologists were primarily concerned with collecting data rather than applying mathematical and physical principles to that data. The war provided the impetus for the professionalization and expansion of meteorology as a field and its transition from an art to a science. The American Meteorological Society, which formed in 1919, spearheaded the reformation of meteorological instruction across the country. In addition, numerical weather prediction, which applied the laws of physics and mathematics to the weather, was beginning to gain the interest of meteorologists. The Tuskegee Weathermen entered the field of meteorology as these groundbreaking transformations were taking place within the discipline. Instructions/Activities Activity One: The History of the Tuskegee Weathermen 1. Begin by reviewing the period leading up to U.S. involvement in World War II and the civil rights struggles taking place in the country including A. Philip Randolph’s historic planning of a “March on Washington” which pushed President Roosevelt to sign Executive Order 8802. Students should also be introduced to who the Tuskegee Airmen were. For resources on the Tuskegee Airmen, see the “Further Reading and Additional Resources” section of this lesson plan. 2. Have the class watch the Weather Channel video clip “Black History Month 2014: Remembering the Tuskegee Weathermen.” 3. Have a discussion in class about the significance of the Tuskegee Weathermen based on the discussion questions below. Prepared by the Center for History of Physics at AIP 4 Activity Two: Learning to Read a Weather Map In order to determine when the best conditions for pilots going to battle would be, weather forecasters had to accurately predict weather conditions in the war theaters. A crucial part of the job was being able to read and create weather maps. Today, weather maps are generated using computers, but in the days of early meteorology, these maps were drawn by hand. In this activity, you’ll learn about weather map symbols and terminology and how to read a weather map. Materials: • Access to weather.com in the classroom and if possible, a projector • Transparency sheets • Dry erase markers • Photocopies of “Weather Map Symbols” guide (see below) • Printed weather map of the current day’s weather – this can be printed from a website such as weather.com (http://www.weather.com/maps/maptype/currentweatherusnational/uscurrentweather_large. html). Instructions: 1. All students should receive a copy of the “Weather Map Symbols” guide and a printout of the weather map for the current day. 2. Review the different symbols with the class, explaining concepts such as cold fronts and warm fronts 3. Then, guide the students through reading the current day’s weather map. 4. Optionally, students can get clipboards with a printout of a map with a transparency sheet on top and make drawings of weather maps with dry erase markers. Students can also pretend to be meteorologists on TV and read the weather map for the class. Prepared by the Center for History of Physics at AIP 5 Weather Map Symbols Image from http://weather.about.com/od/forecastingtechniques/ss/mapsymbols_2.htm Prepared by the Center for History of Physics at AIP 6 Activity Three: Build Your Own Weather Station Adapted and reprinted with permission of Stevens Institute of Technology, Center for Innovation in Engineering and Science Education; © 2014 the Trustees of the Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Weather Scope: An Investigative Study of Weather and Climate. Their website provides more in-depth lessons which include illustrations and additional lesson plans and activities. Meteorologists rely on LOTS of data from the past in order to accurately predict future weather. In order to measure weather conditions, they need to build instruments that can measure different aspects of the weather such as temperature, wind, air pressure, and other factors. In this activity, students will build their own weather station to record data about the weather. Once you’ve built all five of the instruments for your weather station, the students can then take measurements for a period of time (a week or a month) and learn about the work of meteorologists. Weather stations can be built for each individual student, in groups of 3 or more, or by the whole class. It is a good idea for all students to be able to watch and participate in each instrument so they understand the concepts behind them. As part of the weather station, students will build the following meteorological instruments: • Barometer • Rain Gauge • Thermometer • Wind Vane • Anemometer Part One: Make Your Own Barometer to Measure Air Pressure Adapted and reprinted with permission of Stevens Institute of Technology, Center for Innovation in Engineering and Science Education; © 2014 the Trustees of the Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Weather Scope, Make and Use a Barometer to Measure Air Pressure. Additional illustrations and instructions can be found at Wikihow How to Make a Simple Weather Barometer . Air pressure is the weight of tiny particles of air in a specific area. Even though air may seem invisible and we walk through it all day, every day, air actually takes up space and had weight. For example, if you put your hand on your chest and breathe in, you’ll notice your chest expand. This is because air fills your lungs, making them bigger! When a certain number of air particles have more space to expand into, the air pressure lowers. When the same number of air particles are compressed to fit into a smaller space the air pressure increases. A barometer is an instrument used to measure air pressure. The common units of measurements of air pressure are millibars or inches of mercury. Materials: • wide-mouthed glass jar or small coffee can • balloon • rubber band • scissors • drinking straw Prepared by the Center for History of Physics at AIP 7 • • • manila folder glue (recommended) or tape ruler and pen or pencil Instructions (For pictures visit the link provided above) 1. Cut the narrow top of the balloon off. 2. Cover the top of the jar with the balloon so that it is airtight and use the rubber band to hold it in place. IMPORTANT: the seal should be airtight (If you are using plastic wrap, it should make an airtight seal around the rim of the jar). 3. Place a small amount of glue in the middle of the balloon and carefully place the side of one end of the straw on the glue so that the other side extends over the edge of the jar. The tip of the straw sticking out will be your gauge. 4. While the glue is drying, take the manila folder and stand it up on its edge. Place your barometer in the center of the folder and mark a line where the straw points out. This will be your “0” mark. Then make five marks above and below the “0” mark at .5 cm intervals and label them 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 above and -1, -2, -3, -4, -5 below. 5. Check your barometer at the beginning, middle, and end of the day for 5 days. Mark where the straw is each time you take a measurement. Take notes in a log (see below) with what the weather conditions are like when you take your measurement (i.e. rainy, sunny, hot, cold, windy, humid, etc.). Part Two: Make Your Own Rain Gauge to Measure Precipitation Adapted and reprinted with permission of Stevens Institute of Technology, Center for Innovation in Engineering and Science Education; © 2014 the Trustees of the Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Weather Scope, Make and Use a Rain Gauge to Measure Precipitation. Materials • Printed paper ruler (One can be at http://www.vendian.org/mncharity/dir3/paper_rulers/UnstableURL/ruler_foot.pdf) • Cylinder shaped clear jar (e.g. an olive jar) • Rubber band • Funnel • Transparent tape Instructions 1. Remove the label of the jar 2. Cut out the paper ruler and tape vertically along the side of the jar 3. Place the funnel in the top of the jar 4. Place your rain gauge outside and take measurements three times a day for five days. Make sure to place the rain gauge somewhere where it is not blocked by a tree, roof, or other obstructions. Remember to empty the rain gauge every time you take a measurement. But remember that when you take the next measurement, you are measuring how much rain between the current measurement and the last one. Prepared by the Center for History of Physics at AIP 8 Part Three: Build Your Own Thermometer Adapted and reprinted with permission of Stevens Institute of Technology, Center for Innovation in Engineering and Science Education; © 2014 the Trustees of the Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Weather Scope: Use a Thermometer to Measure Temperature. Note: The thermometer created will not be able to take accurate measurements but will demonstrate how a thermometer works. A large mercury thermometer can be acquired for the classroom to take temperature measurements. Materials: • Rubbing Alcohol • Water • Cylinder shaped clear jar or bottle (bottles with a narrow neck work best) with a plastic cap • 1 straw • Modeling clay • Food coloring • Thermometer(s) (for taking accurate measurements of temperature) Instructions (for pictures see the link above): 1. Remove the label from the jar using rubbing alcohol 2. Pour equal amounts of rubbing alcohol and cold water into the jar, filling about ¼ of the container 3. Add 2-3 drops of food coloring 4. Place modeling clay around the thread of the jar and close the cap over it (this will seal it) 5. Make a small hole in the center of the cap just big enough for the straw to fit through 6. Place the straw in the hole and submerge the bottom of the straw in the liquid but not so far that the bottom of the straw touches the bottom of the jar 7. Place modeling clay around where the straw enters the cap to keep the straw upright and seal it 8. To test the thermometer, place it in a pan of hot water – what happens? Now place the thermometer in a pan of cold water – what happens? 9. Why does the liquid move up and down when the temperature changes? Taking Temperature Measurements: Go outside and take temperature measurements. Make sure to wait two minutes after taking the thermometer outside. Place the thermometer at eye level – do not rest on the ground or any other surface. Make sure to avoid getting the thermometer wet. Take the reading out of direct sunlight if possible. Record your measurements in degrees Celsius. Students can also be introduced to various units of measurement for recording temperature – Fahrenheit, Celcius, and Kelvin – and how to convert between them. Prepared by the Center for History of Physics at AIP 9 Part Four: Build a Weather Vane to Measure Wind Direction Adapted and reprinted with permission of Stevens Institute of Technology, Center for Innovation in Engineering and Science Education; © 2014 the Trustees of the Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Weather Scope: How to Make and Use a Weather Vane to Measure Wind Direction. Many students may have seen weather vanes before in the shape of a rooster or other shapes. Weather vanes are instruments that allow us to measure the direction that the wind is blowing. Materials • Tag board or manila file folder • Straight pin • Scissors • Glue • Pencil with a new eraser • Plastic drinking straw • Modeling clay • Paper plate • Compass Procedure 1. Cut out an arrow head/point 5cm long from the manila file folder. 2. Cut out an arrow tail 7cm long. 3. Make 1cm cuts at the ends of each straw. 4. Slide the arrow point and the arrow tail into the cuts in the straw. 5. Push a straight pin through the middle of the straw and into the eraser end of the pencil. 6. Stick the sharp end of the pencil into a lump of modeling clay; this will be your base. 7. Mark north, south, east, and west on the paper plate 8. Put the clay on a paper plate. 9. Test your wind vane by blowing on the vane and make sure that the arrow can spin freely. To measure the wind direction: 1. Place the paper plate on a flat surface and put the wind vane on the plate. 2. Use the compass to determine where north is so that students can set up their plates facing the right direction. If you have access to a blacktop area, mark the compass points in chalk to make it easier for the students to read the wind direction. 3. Students will observe the vane. If it is very breezy, one student should hold down the paper plate while another takes the direction reading. The arrow will point to the direction the wind is blowing from. 4. Check the direction on the paper plate. Prepared by the Center for History of Physics at AIP 10 Part Five: Build Your Own Cup Anemometer to Measure Wind Speed Adapted and reprinted with permission of Stevens Institute of Technology, Center for Innovation in Engineering and Science Education; © 2014 the Trustees of the Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Weather Scope: Make and Use Your Own Anemometer to Measure Wind Speed. For an alternate cup anemometer activity and for illustrations of the final anemometer, see Wikihow Make an Anemometer. Anemometers are instruments used to measure the speed of wind. Wind speed is usually measured using the Beaufort Wind Scale, a scale from 0-12 based on visual cues. Below is a simplified version of the scale that students can use to make wind measurements: Wind Speed (KmPH) Term Description 0-5 Calm Smoke goes straight up 6-20 Light Wind is felt on face; weather vanes turn, leaves rustle 21-39 Moderate Raises dust; flags flap 40-61 Strong Large branches move; umbrellas turn inside out 62 or more Gale / Whole Gale Materials: 1. 4 small paper cups 2. 4 plastic drinking straws 3. tape 4. scissors 5. straight pin 6. pencil with a new eraser 7. stapler Procedure 1. This anemometer has four cups which catch the wind and cause the anemometer to spin. The inward curve of the cups receives most of the force of the wind. That's what makes the cups move. The more spins per minute, the greater the wind velocity. 2. Arrange four plastic drinking straws to form a cross and tape them together at the center. 3. Staple the top side of one drinking cup, such as the small paper cups designed for bathroom dispensers, to the end of each straw, so the open ends of the cups all face the same direction. 4. Push a straight pin through the center of the straws into an eraser on the end of a pencil. This provides the axle. 5. Mark one of the cups; this will be the one they use for counting when the anemometer spins. NOTE: When using this anemometer, 10 turns per minute means the wind speed is about one mile per hour. If possible, it would very useful to use a commercial anemometer to determine an approximate determination. For example, "when our anemometer read 20 spins a minute, the commercial anemometer read 2 miles per hour." Prepared by the Center for History of Physics at AIP 11 6. Blow on the anemometer or turn an electric fan on low to make sure that it spins easily. How many times the anemometer will spin in one minute? Can you make a statement connecting the number of spins of your anemometer and the speed of the wind? (you can use the table below to record your practice trials). Time Interval Number of Spins 1. 2. 3. 4. Measuring Wind Speed: 1. Divide the into small groups with the following roles (optional) 2. One time keeper who will be responsible for timing one minute for each trial. 3. One official "counter" for the day. The others may count on their own, but the counter's readings will be the ones recorded. 4. One holder who will hold the anemometer while the spins are counted; the holder should make sure that he holds the anemometer so that the wind is unobstructed. 5. Mount or hold the anemometer in a place that has full access to the wind from all directions. 6. When the time keeper says "Go", the counter in each group will count how many times the marked cup passes them in one minute and write it down. 7. If possible, repeat the above step four (4) times and record the average number of spins Optional: you can multiply the average number of spins by 60 to find out how many times the anemometer would spin in an hour and come up with a statement such as: the speed of the wind today is about 1,000 spins per hour. Prepared by the Center for History of Physics at AIP 12 Part Six: Collecting Data like a Meteorologist Once the students have completed building their weather stations, they can start tracking the weather like a meteorologist. Weather logs can be kept by each individual student, by groups of 3 or more, or on a big chart in the classroom. Each section has instructions on how to take measurements with each of the instruments. Have students track the weather at least two times per day (there will be different temperatures depending on the time) over a period of a week or more. Students can then make charts which show how the different variables change over time. They can also compare their measurements to those on weather websites such as wunderground.com. Date 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Time Temperature (Celsius) Air Pressure Precipitation Wind Direction Wind Speed Weather Notes (cloudy, sunny, etc.) Prepared by the Center for History of Physics at AIP 13 Required/Recommended Reading and Resources The History of the Tuskegee Weathermen • Gerald A. White Jr., "Tuskegee (Weather) Airmen: Black Meteorologists in World War II," Air Power History 53, no. 2 (Summer 2006): 20-31. • “Tuskegee Weathermen Integral to Success,” Air Force Weather Historian vol. 2, issue 4 (Autumn 2006), http://www.airweaassn.org/afw_historian/AFW%20Historian%20Newsletter%202-4.pdf. • Video clip “Black History Month 2014: Remembering the Tuskegee Weathermen,” The Weather Channel. Discussion Questions 1. What were the duties of the Tuskegee Weather Detachment? How did they work together with the Tuskegee Airmen? 2. What does a meteorologist do? How did the field of meteorology change after World War II? 3. Why is the Tuskegee Weather Detachment significant? 4. How did meteorology as a field change over the course of the 20th century? Further Reading and Additional Resources Resources on the Tuskegee Airmen: • A documentary video on the Tuskegee Airmen narrated by Morgan Freeman: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Su0JjIYTZY. • “The Tuskegee Airmen,” Life upon These Shores, 304-305. • Films for the Humanities & Sciences (Firm), Films Media Group, and Public Broadcasting Service (U.S.). The Tuskegee Airmen They Fought Two Wars. New York, N.Y.: Films Media Group, 2002. <http://digital.films.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?aid=18783&xtid=44166>. • Hemingway, Anthony, et al. Red Tails. Beverly Hills, CA: 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment, 2012. Resources on the History of Meteorology: • Harper, Kristine. Weather by the Numbers: The Genesis of Modern Meteorology. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2008. Other Resources: • The American Meteorological Society promotes the teaching of atmospheric, oceanographic, and hydrologic sciences through pre-college teacher training and instructional resource material development. Their website includes a number of their instructional initiatives. Prepared by the Center for History of Physics at AIP 14 Extensions • For an alternative “Build Your Own Weather Station” lesson plan, see the following lesson plan developed by Discovery Education: http://school.discoveryeducation.com/lessonplans/activities/weatherstation/. Common Core Standards For more information on Common Core Standards, visit http://www.corestandards.org/. History/Social Studies CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RST.11-12.7 CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RST.11-12.9 Integrate and evaluate multiple sources of information presented in diverse formats and media (e.g., quantitative data, video, multimedia) in order to address a question or solve a problem. Synthesize information from a range of sources (e.g., texts, experiments, simulations) into a coherent understanding of a process, phenomenon, or concept, resolving conflicting information when possible. Next Generation Science Standards For more information on the Next Generation Science Standards, visit http://www.nextgenscience.org/. Dimension One: Practices Dimension Two: Crosscutting Concepts Dimension Three: Disciplinary Core Ideas 1. Asking questions (for science) and defining problems (for engineering) 2. Developing and using models 3. Planning and carrying out investigations 4. Analyzing and interpreting data 5. Using mathematics and computational thinking 6. Constructing explanations (for science) and designing solutions (for engineering) 7. Engaging in argument from evidence 8. Obtaining, evaluating, and communicating information 1. Patterns. 2. Cause and effect: Mechanism and explanation. 3. Systems and system models. 4. Stability and change. Core Idea LS2: Ecosystems: Interactions, Energy, and Dynamics Core Idea ESS2: Earth’s Systems Prepared by the Center for History of Physics at AIP 15