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ATOMIC NUCLEI WITHOUT NEUTRONS
● In this document, the nuclear fusion process from hydrogen to helium is described. It will be shown that,
inside the atomic nucleus, protons and electrons can coexist quite well:
● The helium atom that is formed lacks neutrons. The atomic nucleus of helium, also known as an α
particle, has a surprising structure. An electron pair is situated within a tetrahedron of four protons:
● Atomic nuclei consisting of protons and neutrons are impossible because the electron of the neutron
immediately binds to a second proton! The common perception of atomic nuclei consisting of protons
and neutrons is completely false:
Ir. A.P.B. Uiterwijk Winkel *) **) ***)
*) Thanks to Frank Roos for his input,
**) Thanks to Adarshi Yadava for the figures,
***) Copyright
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*1) INTRODUCTION:
-) The current three basic building blocks of the atom:
Generations of students and scientists have been raised on the notion that the atom is made up of three different
building blocks:
- The proton:
charge +1; magnetic spin +1/2;
The anti-proton: charge -1; magnetic spin -1/2,
- The neutron: charge 0; magnetic spin + ½;
The anti-neutron: charge 0; magnetic spin -1/2,
- The electron: charge -1; magnetic spin +1/2;
The anti-electron: charge +1; magnetic spin -1/2.
Protons and neutrons consist of three quarks, the electron is supposed to be an indivisible particle.
As singular particles, electrons only occur in the electron shells around the atomic nucleus and do not occur
inside the atomic nucleus. Free neutrons are unstable and decay into one proton, one electron and one antineutrino/energy.
-) Strong and weak nuclear force:
In order to keep together the strange combination of charge-positive, mutually repulsing protons and chargeneutral neutrons in the atomic nucleus, science introduced the fundamental principles of “strong nuclear force”
and “weak nuclear force”.
These forces which are not defined or described further keep the mutually repulsing protons and charge-neutral
neutrons together and bound inside the atomic nucleus. How one is supposed to imagine this “strong” and “weak
nuclear force” is not elaborated upon. They are fundamental forces and that‟s that. These nuclear forces have a
very limited sphere of influence.
-) As of 2011, four fundamental forces are known:
According to science, nowadays four fundamental forces are at work in nature: 1) The “strong nuclear force” and
2) the “weak nuclear force” together with the 3) electromagnetic force and 4) gravitation.
At the atomic level however, the concepts of “strong nuclear force” and “weak nuclear force” do not occur. It is
very strange that both fundamental forces are exclusively limited to the subatomic level of quarks and below.
At the atomic level, but two of these four fundamental forces manifest themselves: electromagnetic force and
gravitation. Electromagnetic force actually consists of two forces; charge force and magnetic spin force. At the
atomic level then, there are three fundamental forces.
-) The author recognizes only two particles and two elementary forces:
In document F1 www.uiterwijkwinkel.eu the author deduces that all matter in this universe is based on only two
stable particles: 1) the proton and 2) the electron. The author also reduced the four fundamental forces of the
current system to just two elementary forces: a) electric charge and b) magnetic spin of both the proton and the
electron.
The structure of the atom can be built up with these two particles, which leads to the centripetal force of the
electron around the nucleus. Via the atom, all other physical and chemical forces in nature can be deduced as
being an interaction of the atom with velocity in the universe. One of these deduced forces is gravitation; see
documents under C and E3.
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*2) PROBLEM DEFINITION:
The author is bothered by the fact that the origin and the physical properties of “strong nuclear force” and “weak
nuclear force” are not further defined and that the physical method of these forces cannot be described. All
things point to the fact that these concepts were invented to make atomic nuclei consisting of protons and
neutrons possible.
Granted; nature has provided science with quite a red herring. In some cases, the stabilization of atoms and
atomic nuclei and their isotopes cause neutron particles to be released. These neutrons clearly originate from the
atomic nucleus. In the 1930s, this phenomenon led to the conclusion that the atomic nucleus contains neutrons as
a basic building block.
The scientists of those days clearly did not think of the possibility that such emitted neutrons are the result of the
simultaneous release of one proton and one electron. At the edge of the atomic nucleus, these two particles then
form one neutron. Thus, neutrons appear to be present when, according to the author, really they are not. Only
protons and electrons are present, with their two elementary forces: electric force and magnetic spin force!
In this case, the atomic nucleus is based on only two types of particles with only two elementary forces. In an
atomic nucleus of protons and electrons, these two forces result in a system of mutually attracting forces through
charge and mutual repulsion through magnetic spin. This prevents any physical contact between protons and
neutrons within the atomic nucleus. Inside stable atomic nuclei, protons and electrons keep each other in a highly
stable equilibrium by ways of charge bonds and repulsion through magnetic spin. The vision of the author makes
the concepts of “strong” and “weak” nuclear forces completely redundant. The author offers a highly simplified
model of elementary particles and their forces.
*3) KEY QUESTIONS AND TARGET:
-) Are protons and (especially) electrons able to coexist inside the atomic nucleus and
-) How are these protons and electrons ordered inside the atomic nucleus?
This document answers both these questions.
The quantum physicists say that because of Heisenberg‟s uncertainty principle, electrons cannot exist in the
atomic nucleus. The author challenges this, because „Heisenberg‟ only applies when measuring.
*4) STRUCTURE OF SUBATOMIC PARTICLES:
-) Structure of the proton and electron:
In document F1 www.uiterwijkwinkel.eu, the author has deduced the structure of the proton and that of the
electron; see figures 1 and 2.
Figure 1: The straight proton
Figure 2: The straight electron
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The proton consists of 5 quarks: four ordinary quarks grouped around one central anti-quark. This anti-quark is
completely hidden inside these four ordinary quarks.
Although there is no direct experimental cause, the author nonetheless assumes that the electron is not a point
charge but structured in the same way as the proton, with four quarks and 1 anti-quark. For clarity: there are
proton quarks and electron quarks, the latter of which are 1843 times smaller.
Every quark is itself made up of five strings. The proton and the electron each consist of a total of 17 ordinary
strings (blue/yellow rods) and 8 anti-strings (red/green rods). The total charge of the proton is +1 and its
magnetic spin is ½. The electron‟s charge is -1 and its magnetic spin is also ½.
At every corner of the proton and electron depicted above, one attracting force (charge or magnetic spin) and one
repulsing force (magnetic spin or charge) are present. Within these structure proposed by the author, the strings
and anti-strings which are in close proximity to each other cannot physically touch anywhere! This would lead to
annihilation and severe damage to the proton/electron structure. Such annihilation would inevitably lead to
almost complete destruction of both particles. (This annihilation occurs at a large scale inside particle
accelerators such as the LHC!)
-) Straight or flexed protons and electrons:
From the structures shown here it is clear that both the proton and the electron are able to flex around the central
ordinary (blue and yellow string, resp.); figures 3 and 4. Such a flexed form occurs when the proton and the
electron engage in bonds in the electron pair, the neutron and within atomic nuclei.
Figure 3: The flexed proton
Figure 4: The flexed electron
-) Structure of the electron pair:
In document F2, the author deduced the structures of the electron pair, the neutron and the α particle/helium
nucleus, depicted in figures 5, 6 and 10 respectively. In these structures, the proton and electron occur only in
the flexed position which exhibit slightly less mass in a mass spectrometer than the straight proton and electron.
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Figure 5: The electron pair
(Two flexed electrons in athwart position)
4.1 THE FORMATION OF THE HELIUM NUCLEUS FROM HYDROGEN:
Atomic nuclei are possible as constructs of just protons and neutrons. This is best illustrated by the process of
nuclear fusion from hydrogen to helium which consists of a number of consecutive steps. This process of nuclear
fusion occurs under tremendous temperature and pressure in which hydrogen is in a plasma state.
The shell electrons of the hydrogen plasma do not have fixed orbits but can jump to adjacent protons by ways of
a type of wave. Each proton is surrounded by on average one electron. The very high temperature and pressure
needed for nuclear fusion is determined by the proton‟s rate of vibration and has less effect on the velocity of
free electrons within the plasma.
Important prerequisites for fusion are extremely high temperature, pressure and particle density. When these are
met, hydrogen exists in the form of plasma in which equal numbers of protons and electrons swarm at different
velocities. With greater velocity and temperature of a charge-positive proton and greater the particle density, the
chance that this proton will fuse with alternately electrons and other protons, thus forming a helium nucleus, also
increases.
During the fusion of the electron to the proton, the electron‟s kinetic energy is released in the form of light and
heat, and electric energy is converted into thermal energy.
The free electrons of the plasma also generate the gravitation inside the hydrogen plasma. As free electrons, they
continuously describe a small part of the orbits around the atomic nuclei, so causing gravitation. See document
E3. If electrons‟ paths would describe straight lines then hydrogen plasma would generate no gravitation and
stars would lack nearly all gravitation also.
Around each proton/atomic nucleus there exists always an empty space such as is present when the plasma cools
to helium atoms. Without such empty space around the atomic nucleus, the hydrogen plasma would actually
transform into a “black-hole” state. Such a transformation into a black-hole state is possible only from the
element of beryllium onwards and thus impossible for the elements H, He and Li.
In nuclear fusion, the enormous pressure and temperature is primarily necessary to overcome this empty space.
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-) Stepwise representation of steps in fusion process from hydrogen to helium:
0) p = proton; e = electron
1) p + e
→ ep = n = neutron = neutronium-1-nucleus
2) ep + p
→ e2p = nucleus
3) e2p + e2p → 2e4p = He-4-nucleus.
Both the electrons and the protons are provided by the hydrogen plasma.
A different, more elaborate and stepwise route is via the following atomic nuclei:
0) p = protium nucleus = proton ; e = electron
1) p
+ e → ep = neutron = neutronium-1p-nucleus
(figure 6)
2) ep + p → e2p = deuterium nucleus
(figure 7)
3) e2p + e → 2e2p = neutronium-2p-nucleus
(figure 8)
4) 2e2p + p → 2e3p = neutronium-3p-nucleus
(figure 9)
5) 2e3p + p → 2e4p = neutronium-4p-nucleus = helium nucleus
(figure 10)
The formation of the electron pair in helium‟s electron shell can only occur when the plasma has cooled
sufficiently.
Other routes of fusion are imaginable in the hot mass of this high pressure plasma, each with their probability.
The number of electrons during all these steps remains equal as electrons merely migrate from the plasma to the
nucleus. There is no reason to consider lepton preservation.
-) Images of the atomic nuclei during the nuclear fusion process:
Figure 6: The neutron = neutronium-1-nucleus =( e1p)
(The proton lies athwart of the electron, making the total spin of the neutron just ½)
During step 1, an electron attaches to a proton under high pressure and temperature, forming a charge-neutral
neutron. See figure 6. Because of the extremely high pressure and particle density, this neutron cannot escape as
radiation.
The proton establishes an electric charge-bond with the “nuclear” electron while at the same time the proton and
electron repulse each other through equal magnetic spin. Inside the atomic nucleus (neutron) the proton and
electron cannot physically touch! The fusion and binding of an electron to the nuclear proton occurs using only
elementary electric charge(-force) and magnetic spin(-force). By binding to the proton, the electron loses its
velocity and the capacity for generating gravitation.
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Figure 7: The charge-positive deuterium nucleus (e2p)
In step 2, one proton of the neutronium-ion is bound to the charge-neutral neutron, figure 6. Thus a chargepositive atomic nucleus comes into being, in the form of a deuterium nucleus; see figure 7. This fusion step has
no impact on gravitation.
Figure 8: The charge-neutral neutronium-2-nucleus (2e2p)
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In step 2, one proton of the neutronium-ion is bound to the charge-neutral neutron, figure 6. Thus a chargepositive atomic nucleus comes into being, in the form of a deuterium nucleus; see figure 7. This fusion step has
no impact on gravitation.
During the third step an electron is bound to the +1 charge-positive atomic nucleus. The second electron forms
an electron pair with the electron already present, as depicted in figure 5. This state is energetically more
favorable than having two separate electrons inside the atomic nucleus. Both electrons are bound via a chemical
covalent radical bond and repulse each other through both charge and magnetic spin; a rad ↔ charge/mag bond.
This forms the neutronium-2-nucleus as depicted in figure 8. This atomic nucleus consists of two protons bound
on both sides to one electron pair. The fusing electron loses its gravitation and it appears also that mass is lost.
The binding releases kinetic energy.
Figure 9: The charge-positive neutronium-3-nucleus (2e3p)
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A second proton is then added to the electron pair inside the atomic nucleus. Thus, the charge-neutral tri proton
di electron atomic nucleus or neutronium -3-nucleus comes into being; figure 9.
The three protons are arranged in a plane around the central electron pair. This atomic nucleus has a charge of +1
and is surrounded by on average one electron inside the plasma. This step has no impact on the gravitation of the
plasma.
Figure 10: The charge-positive helium nucleus or α particle (2e4p)
(Four protons as a tetrahedron around one central electron pair)
Finally, one more proton is added to the charge-positive neutronium-3-nucleus of figure 9, forming the +2
charged nucleus of a helium atom or α particle consisting of 4 protons around a central electron pair (figure 10).
This helium nucleus or α particle actually consists of two tetrahedrons. The protons (blue spheres) are arranged
in a tetrahedron around the central electron pair. The negatively charged ends of that electron pair are also
arranged as a smaller tetrahedron (yellow spheres). The protons are attracted to the negative charge of the
electron pair and repulse each other through equal charge and magnetic spin. The author suspects that, in larger
atomic nuclei, more such α particles and helium nuclei may be found.
The author is in possession of 3D rotatable images of all figures mentioned above.
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4.2 EVALUATION OF NUCLEAR FUSION HYDROGEN → HELIUM:
-) Protons and electrons can coexist inside the atomic nucleus:
The fusion of hydrogen → helium described above shows that the atomic nucleus can in fact consist of both
protons and electrons and that there is absolutely no need to have atomic nuclei consist of protons combined with
neutrons.
The combination of protons with neutrons is in fact not possible because the electron of the neutron binds to
another proton! Neutrons are not present inside the atomic nucleus as separately distinguishable particles!
In summary: The building blocks of the atomic nucleus are the proton and the electron. Until now, we have been
subjected to a completely erroneous conception of the structure of atomic nuclei!
-) Two elementary forces instead of four fundamental forces:
The author successfully replaces the present system of: 1) strong nuclear force, 2) weak nuclear force, 3)
electromagnetic force and 4) gravitation with a system of only two elementary forces: a) electric charge-force
and b) magnetic spin-force.
-) Fusion is a stepwise process:
Four hydrogen atoms are now fused, resulting in one helium atom. The author has described one pathway here.
Perhaps more such stepwise pathways can be found which all result in the formation of helium.
-) Gravitation but not mass is lost during nuclear fusion:
The electrons bound inside the atomic nucleus lose their ability to generate gravitation. See document E3.
During the nuclear fusion process from hydrogen to helium, the number shell electrons is reduced from 4 → 2,
reducing the amount of gravitation of the original four hydrogen atoms by half! Thus it appears that half of the
mass has disappeared but this is not the case! All mass is still present because mass is completely conserved!
This may sound strange to you. You have always been told that mass is converted to energy through Einstein‟s E
= mc2. Within the vision of the author and the cycle of the universe, mass is completely immutable. Only
matter/antimatter can be transformed into energy through annihilation and E = mc2 (m = matter). Einstein‟s E =
mc2 for m = mass is incorrect is based on the fact that Einstein had and modern science has no idea about what
gravitation really is, nor about where on the atom gravitation is generated, and by what.
This is where science‟s ignorance with regards to the origins of gravitation becomes deleterious as it has led to
serious missteps, the worst of which is Einstein‟s Relativity Theory. The above has made it clear that during
nuclear fusion, the fusing electrons lose their gravitation making it seem that mass is lost during nuclear fusion!
*5) DISCUSSION:
-) Atomic nuclei do not contain neutrons:
Using the fusion process from hydrogen → helium, the author show that atomic nuclei can also consist of
protons and electrons. The larger atomic nuclei also consist of constructs of just protons and electrons. For atoms
starting with helium, nuclear fusion is the process of stepwise addition of protons and electrons to the helium
atomic nucleus.
Larger atomic nuclei require more nuclear electrons to keep nuclear particles bound together. The author expects
that for all elements/isotopes of the Periodical System of Elements, a 3D spatial model of the atomic nucleus can
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be made using exclusively protons/electrons. In reality, stable atomic nuclei are not possible beyond atomic
number 82 (lead), and moderately stable nuclei are not stable beyond number 92 (uranium).
-) Stabilization of unstable nuclei occurs through a limited number of particles:
o
o
o
o
o
Spontaneous nuclear fission (limited to thorium and heavier nuclei), causing the atomic nuclei to
disintegrate into two smaller nuclei,
Natural radioactivity in the form of α-, β- and/or γ-radiation, or
by electron capture (K-electron becomes a nuclear electron)
Artificial radiation in the form of neutron radiation (the neutron comes into being when a proton and an
electron are emitted by the nucleus in the same direction),
By β+-radiation (not yet described by the author) and
By proton radiation.
*6) CONCLUSIONS:
1) In the universe, only two stable building blocks of matter can be distinguished: the proton and the electron.
These stable particles possess two elementary forces: electric charge-force and magnetic spin-force. This results
in a much simpler system of basic building blocks and forces than the one contemporary science currently
employs.
2) Both strong and weak nuclear forces are null and void. Gravitation is no longer a fundamental force but a
derived force of the atom in combination with velocity of that atom through the universe.
3) The neutron consists of one proton and one electron. Inside the atomic nucleus, this electron directly binds a
second proton. Accordingly, the neutron cannot be present inside the atomic nucleus as a separate particle.
Atomic nuclei consist exclusively of protons and electrons!
Ir. A.P.B. Uiterwijk Winkel
Zwijndrecht, The Netherlands.
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