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Grammar Parts of Speech ▪ A noun is a person, place, thing, or idea Ex: man... Butte College... house... happiness ▪ A verb expresses action or being. Ex: jump... is... write... become ▪ An adjective modifies or describes a noun or pronoun. Ex: pretty... old... blue... smart ▪ An adverb modifies or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Ex: gently... extremely... carefully... well Parts of Speech Continued ▪ A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. Ex: She... we... they... It ▪ An interjection is a word used to express emotion. Ex: Oh!... Wow!... Oops! ▪ A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses. Ex: and... but... or... while... because ▪ A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase modifying another word in the sentence. Ex: by... with.... about... until Sentence Structure ▪ A simple sentence contains one independent clause. ▪ Independent clause: one subject followed by one verb or verb phrase. It expresses a single idea. ▪ Examples of simple sentences: – – – – I‘m happy. Robert doesn’t eat meat. My brother and I went to the mall last night. This new laptop computer has already crashed twice. ▪ Notice that a “simple sentence” isn’t necessarily short. The subject can be a single word like “I” or “Robert,” or it can be a double subject like “my brother and I,” or it can be multiple words describing a single person/object, like “This new laptop computer.” Sentence Structure ▪ Compound Sentence: has two independent clauses joined by a linking word (and, but, or, so, yet, however). ▪ Each independent clause could be a sentence by itself, but we connect them with a linking word: – I‘m happy, but my kids are always complaining. – Robert doesn’t eat meat, so Barbara made a special vegetarian dish for him. – My brother and I went to the mall last night, but we didn’t buy anything. – This new laptop computer has already crashed twice, and I have no idea why. Note that each sentence has TWO subjects and TWO verb phrases. Sentence Structure ▪ A compound-complex sentence contains 3 or more clauses: 2 independent and at least 1 dependent clause. ▪ Dependent clause: group of words with a subject and a verb. It does not express a complete thought so it is not a sentence and can't stand alone. ▪ I’m happy, even though I don’t make much money, but my kids are always complaining since we can’t afford to buy the newest toys. ▪ Independent clauses: “I’m happy” and “my kids are always complaining” ▪ Dependent clauses: “even though I don’t make much money” and “since we can’t afford to buy the newest toys” ▪ Linking word: “but” ▪ Robert, a friend I’ve known since high school, doesn’t eat meat – so Barbara made a special vegetarian dish for him. – Independent clauses: “Robert doesn’t eat meat” and “Barbara made a special vegetarian dish for him” – Dependent clause: “a friend I’ve known since high school” – Linking word: “so” Sentence Structure Compound Complex Continued ▪ My brother and I went to the mall last night, while my sister stayed home and studied because she has a test coming up. – Independent clauses: “My brother and I went to the mall last night” and “my sister stayed home and studied” – Dependent clause: “because she has a test coming up” – Linking word: “while” ▪ This new laptop computer, which I bought yesterday, has already crashed twice; however, I have no idea why. – Independent clauses: “This new laptop computer has already crashed twice” and “I have no idea why” – Dependent clause: “which I bought yesterday” – Linking word: “however” Commas 1. Items in a series. I want peace on Earth, quality family time, and no credit card debt for Christmas. 2. Introductory words or mild interjections. Yes, I am unrealistic. 3. Set off words of direct address. Bob, why don’t you help me. Commas 4. Set off one or more words that interrupt the flow of a sentence. Lebron James, as you can see in this video here, dominates all his opponents. 5. Set off nonessential items: clauses, participial phrases, appositives. Barrack Obama, the President of the United States, might have a 4th of July hot dog eating contest at the White House. 6. Insert between two independent clauses that are joined with a coordinating conjunction. My dog chased three rabbits out of the woods, but they all got away. 7. Separate subordinate clauses at the beginning of sentences. Before eating three candy bars, I should have thought of the consequences. Practice ▪ The dolphins leap out of the water for New Years but the sharks prevented this year’s celebration. After hundreds of miles of swimming the dolphins felt scared. Flipper the head of the school prayed to the Mighty Dolphin in the sky to avenge their misfortune. Flipper promised the mighty dolphin he would change his ways stop beating up sardines and send minnows to starving dolphins off the coast of Somalia. Comma Practice ▪ The dolphins leap out of the water for New Years, but the sharks prevented this year’s celebration. After hundreds of miles of swimming, the dolphins felt scared. Flipper, the head of the school, prayed to the Mighty Dolphin in the sky to avenge their misfortune. Flipper promised the mighty dolphin he would change his ways, stop beating up sardines, and send minnows to starving dolphins off the coast of Somalia. Parallel Structure - Involves putting together elements of similar structure to achieve balanced writing. Parallel Structure ▪ Winston Churchill did not say: “I have nothing to offer but bleeding, toil, tears, and sweating.” He said: “I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and sweat.” Parallel Structure Poor: Betty has intelligence, honesty, and she is funny. Improved: Betty has intelligence, honesty, and humor. Poor: Good writing requires you to plan outlines, write several drafts, and revision. Improved: Good writing requires you to plan outlines, write several drafts, and revise your work. Parallel Structure 1. A good attitude, being on time, and speaking effectively are her attributes. 2. This proposal is profitable, timely, and it helps us. Parallel Structure 1. Having a good attitude, being on time, and speaking effectively are her attributes. 2. This proposal is profitable, timely, and helpful. Practice Many gases are invisible, odorless, and they have no taste. Mr. Foster is not only an excellent barber but also sings well. Parallel Structure ▪Many gases are invisible, odorless, and tasteless. ▪Mr. Foster is not only an excellent barber but also a good singer. Apostrophes To show possession (e.g., one dog's kennel , two dogs' kennel ) In time expressions (e.g., a day's pay , two weeks' holiday ) In contractions (e.g., can't , isn't , don't ) Apostrophes are not used: To show plurals (e.g., three cat's , two video's ) Randomly before the letter s (e.g., He like's pies. ) Practice 1. Whos the partys candidate for vice president this year? 2. The fox had its right foreleg caught securely in the traps jaws. 3. Our neighbors car is an old Chrysler, and its just about to fall apart. 4. In three weeks time well have to begin school again. 5. Didnt you hear that theyre leaving tomorrow? 6. Whenever I think of the stories I read as a child, I remember Cinderellas glass slipper and Snow Whites wicked stepmother. Practice 1. Who's the party's candidate for vice president this year? 2. The fox had its right foreleg caught securely in the trap's jaws. 3. Our neighbor's car is an old Chrysler, and it's just about to fall apart. 4. In three weeks' time we'll have to begin school again. 5. Didn't you hear that they're leaving tomorrow? 6. Whenever I think of the stories I read as a child, I remember Cinderella's glass slipper and Snow White's wicked stepmother. Quotations - To identify previously spoken or written words - To signify so-called or alleged - To highlight the name of things like ships, books, and plays. Quotations: So called or alleged So, when are you and your "girlfriend" leaving? My "mates" drove off with my clothes, leaving me in the lake. Quotations: spoken word George Bernard Shaw said: "When a thing is funny, search it carefully for a hidden truth." Quotations: Highlight names of things "The Herald of Free Enterprise" was a passenger ferry which capsized moments after leaving the Belgian port of Zeebrugge on the night of 6 March 1987. Did you watch "Billy Elliot" in the West End? Quotations: Punctuation Place . and , inside quotations "Bindle," to today’s youth, means "a small pack of drug powder." "Conquest, " said Jefferson, "is not in our principles." Obviously, don’t place a comma inside if it introduces the quotation (like the one after Jefferson). Quotations: Punctuation Place ! and ? inside or outside according to logic. Did she really say, "I love you"? ("I love you" is not a question, but the whole sentence is.) I heard him yell, "Do you love me?" (The whole sentence is not a question, but the quotation is a question.) The second example is not a question, but it ends in a question mark. For neatness, it is acceptable to use just one end mark. Under US convention, you should only use one end mark. Quotations: Punctuation Don’t end a quotation with a period if it doesn’t end the whole sentence. "Get Out!" she yelled. "Why me?" she asked. "I’ll go." she said. INCORRECT "I’ll go," she said. Prepositions A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a word in the sentence and the word that is the object of the preposition Preposition Which one: The flower in the vase is a peony. What kind: The umbrella with the polkadots is Mary Anne's. Where: We will be going to the movies. When: My lunch period is after science. How: You are walking on your tiptoes. Prepositions Some Common Prepositions Prepositions of time: after, around, at, before, between, during, from, on, until, at, in, from, since, for, during, within Prepositions of place: above, across, against, along, among, around, at, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, by, down, in, inside, into, near, off, on, opposite, out, over, past, through, to, toward, under, underneath Prepositions of direction/movement: at, for, on, to, in, into, onto, between Prepositions of manner: by, on, in, like, with Other types of prepositions: by, with , of, for, by, like, as Prepositions Think of prepositions as arrows. → to, at, for... ← from, next to... ↔ with, between... ↑ above, on... ↓ in, inside, under, below...