Download Cell Membrane

STAAR/EOC Academy
Types of Cells
Eukaryotic-You and Me - Animals and Plant
Prokaryotic-Bacteria- PRO means NOOOO Nucleus -Eubacteria and Archaebacteria
Cell Organelles
A. Cell Wall-Protection and Support-In plant cells and Bacteria as well.
B. Nucleus-Control Center of Cell-The Brain
C. Ribosomes-Makes Protein-Translations occurs here-Found on Rough ER-Small Dots
D. Endoplasmic Reticulum-Smooth and Rough-Assembles Proteins-Rough has Ribosomes
-Looks like a maze -Located near Nucleus
E. Mitochondria-Power Plant of the Cell- Cellular Respiration occurs here- Makes ATP.
-C6 H12 O6 + O2  CO2 + H20 + ATP- Looks like a Snake
F. Lysosome-Digestion occurs here-Stomach of the Cell
G. Centriole-Cell Division- Small dots located near Nucleus-Spindle fibers attach here.
H. Chloroplast-Found in Plants ONLY. Photosynthesis occurs here-Looks like Poker Chips
-CO2 +H2O  O2 + H2O + C6 H12 O6
I. Cell Membrane-Protection and Support-Phospholipid Bilayer-Made of Phospholipids, Fatty acid tails
and Protein Channels-Selectively Permeable- Allows things in and out of the cell
J. Nucleolus-Small dark dot in the center of the Nucleus-Makes Ribosomes
K. Chromosomes-Make DNA-Found in the Nucleus-Blue Print of life.
L. Golgi Body/Golgi Apparatus-Packages proteins-Looks like pancakes-UPS/FedEx
M. Vacuole-Water and mineral storage-Large in plants.
N. Cytoplasm-Liquid portion of the cell-Water in the pool.
O. Flagella-long whip-like structure found on some cells. Used for locomotion/movement - Sperm
P. Cilia-hair-like structures found on some cells-Used for locomotion/movement
Q. Nuclear Membrane/Envelope-Membrane around the nucleus-Allows things in and out.
Homeostasis-Process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment. Constant internal condition.
Regulates what is in and out of the cell.
Cell membrane-Also called Plasma Membrane or Phospholipid Bilayer. Regulates what enters and leaves the cell.
Also protects and supports it. Made of phospholipids.
Phospholipid
Cell Membrane
Membrane Functions
Diffusion-Where particles pass through a membrane fro a high to low concentration gradient. No energy required.
Osmosis-A type of diffusion that is only associated with WATER. High to low concentration gradient. No energy
required
A. Isotonic-Water particles are balanced on the inside of the cell as well as the outside.
B. Hypertonic-There is more water in the cell that outside of the cell so the cell shrinks. EX. 90% in the cell and 10%
outside. Remember water in the body will balance out.
C. Hypotonic-There is more water on the outside of the cell than inside. So the cell will swell and possibly burst.
Hypo sounds like HIPPO. Hippos are FAT!!!!!
EX. 10% water in cell and 90% water outside. Remember that water will balance out.
Facilitated Diffusion-Type of diffusion where large molecule cannot diffuse across the phospholipids. Molecules have to
pass through the protein channels. High to low concentration. DOES NOT REQUIRE ENERGY!!!!!!
Active Transport-DIFFERENT than the other types of diffusion. LOW to HIGH CONCENTRATION. This process
requires the cell to transport material in the opposite direction. Usually requires the protein channels. PROCESS
REQUIRES ENERGY!!!!! Very important to know this!!!!
Diffusion/Osmosis
Facilitated Diffusion
Active Transport
Other information about cells
Pinocytosis- Process by which a cell takes in liquid from the surrounding environment- CELL DRINKING
Phagocytosis- Process by which extensions of cytoplasm surround and engulf large particles and take them into the cell.
CELL EATING
Endocytosis- Process by which a cell takes material into the cell by folding of the cell membrane.
Exocytosis- Process by which a cell releases large amounts of material. EXO sounds like exit. Go to the bathroom!
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) - one of the principal chemical compounds that living things use to store and release
energy. Made in the MITOCHONDRIA by CELLULAR RESPIRATION. ENERGY!!!!!!!
Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP)-reduced when an ATP molecule looses one of its phosphate molecules
Photosynthesis (Plants or Autotrophs) and Cellular Respiration (Animals or Heterotrophs)
STAAR/EOC-Cells, Organelles, and Functions
Animal Cell
Plant Cell
Specialized Cells
Many organisms are multi-cellular - they are made up of lots of cells, not just one! Many of these cells are specialized,
sharing out the life processes (they work together as a team, supporting the organism). Specialist cells occur in both
animals and plants…
Animal/ Plant Cell
Picture
Function
Specialization
To carry oxygen
 Large surface area for
oxygen
 Hemoglobin which binds
the oxygen
 No nucleus
To carry nerve impulses to
different parts of the body
 Long
 Connections at each end
 Can carry electrical signals
To store fat when there is
excess



To absorb water and
minerals
 Large surface area which
helps it to absorb water and
minerals
 Thin cell wall makes it
easy for minerals to pass
through
To absorb sunlight (needed
for photosynthesis)
 Large surface area
 Many chloroplasts
(containing chlorophyll,
for photosynthesis)
palisade mesophyll and
spongy mesophyll.
To conduct water, minerals,
and nutrients through out a
plant
 Elongated, tubular shape
with thin walled sieve
tubes
 Consists of xylem and
phloem vessels
 Gives mechanical strength
to the plant
Red blood cells
Nerve cell
Large
Round
Empty looking
Fat cells
Root hair cells
Leaf cross section
Stem cells
Unit 2 Biomolecules!!!! You are what you eat!!!
Carbohydrates-You get these from all plant matter!
Carbohydrates are made of CARBON, HYDROGEN, and OXYGEN.
Monomers (BUILDING BLOCKS) are sugars. Also called monosaccharides or glucose. C6 H12 O6.
Functions (THEIR JOB) is to supply the body with ENERGY!! Also in plants they are for structure
and support (CELL WALL)
Examples are
Glucose-Blood Sugar
STARCH-Complex sugar found in Potatoes, Corn, and Pasta. NOT found in MEAT!!! This is
energy!!!!
Cellulose-Used to make cell walls in plants, Support and Structure, Fiber for humans. We
cannot digest it!!!
Polysaccharides (Polymers) are long chains of monosaccharides. Like a chain. Very Complex
Sugar!!!
Chemical Indicators- Benedicts Solution tests for Sugar!!! Will turn sugars ORANGE!! Lugol’s
or Iodine will turn STARCH black.
Molecular Structure
Monosaccharide
Bread
Polysaccharides are Complex. EX STARCH
Pasta
Fruit and Vegetables
Potatoes=Starch
ALL CARBOHYDRATES ARE FOR ENERGY!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Unit 2 Biomolecules!!!! You are what you eat!!!
Lipids- You get these from Animal Fats, Oils, Nuts, and BEESWAX!!!
Lipids are made of CARBON, HYDROGEN, AND OXYGEN.
Monomers (BUILDING BLOCKS) are or is 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acid tails.
Functions of lipids are to STORE ENERGY. Ex BODY FAT. Also MAKES up part of the cell
membrane. Lipids function also as an insulator in the winter. Ex Coat or Blanket. Reduces heat
loss.
Examples are
Body Fat-Storage
Oils and Waxes!! Cooking Oil, Beeswax, Car Wax, Candle Wax!!!!
Cell Membrane- Phospholipid Bilayer or Plasma Membrane.
Hormones-Testosterone and Estrogen.
Chemical Indicators- None.
Identify lipids by placing a drop of a substance on a piece of paper. If it becomes translucent it
is a lipid. Ex. French Fries from McDonalds that have been sitting in a bag for a while. Oil or
Grease will make the bag somewhat see through.
Saturated Fat=Solid at room temperature. Unsaturated=Liquid at room temperature.
Molecular Structure
Saturated and Unsaturated Fats
Meat(Saturated)
Glycerol and 3 Fatty Acid Tails
Fish
Oils(Unsaturated)
Beeswax
All LIPIDS ARE FOR STORAGE!!!!!!!!
Unit 2 Biomolecules!!!! You are what you eat!!!
Proteins- You get these from All Animal Products and Beans. Does not come from
POTATOES (Starch)!!!!!
Proteins are made of CARBON, HYDROGEN, OXYGEN, NITROGEN, and SULFER.
Monomers (Building Blocks) are AMINO ACIDS , there are 20 different amino acids.
Functions of proteins are to BUILD MUSCLE, MAKES ENZYMES, and STRUCTURE AND
SUPPORT OF ALL ORGANISMS. ENZYMES SPEED UP CHEMICAL REACTIONS.
Examples are
Muscles- If you want big muscles eat a lot of protein and lift weights!!
Hair and Cartilage- Protein Rich Shampoo and Lotion!!!
Hormones- Testosterone and Estrogen.
Polypeptides (Polymers) are long chains of amino acids. They are together by peptide bonds.
Chemical Indicator- Biuret Solution tests for protein. Protein will turn light purple if it is
present in the food source.
Molecular Structure
Amino Acid
Farm Animals (Animal Products)
Polypeptides
Beans
Polypeptides
Tofu
ALL PROTEINS ARE FOR STUCTURE AND SUPPORT (MUSCLE
GROWTH). THEY ALSO MAKE ENZYMES AND HORMONES!!!!
Unit 2 Biomolecules!!!! You are what you eat!!!
Nucleic Acids- You do not eat these!!! DNA and RNA you get this from your parents!
Monomers (Building Blocks) are Nucleotides. They are made of a PHOSPHATE, 5 CARBON
SUGAR, and a NITROGEN BASE. Phosphate and the 5 carbon sugar make the backbone of DNA
and RNA.
Functions (THEIR JOB) are to store genetic material (DNA-Blue Print of Life) and to make
proteins (RNA-Protein Synthesis). Synthesis means to create or make!!!
Examples are Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA-Double Stranded) and Ribonucleic Acid (RNASingle Stranded)
Molecular Structure
Nucleotide
DNA-Blueprint (instructions)
Nucleotide
RNA-Makes Proteins
DNA IS THE BLUEPRINT OF LIFE AND RNA MAKES PROTEINS!
TEKS 6C -
Protein Synthesis (Transcription and Translation)
Protein Synthesis
DNA Contains double strand of nucleotides made of deoxyribose sugar, phosphate, and nitrogen bases (Guanine,
Thymine, Adenine, Cytosine)
 provides instructions for the production of proteins in a process known as protein synthesis
 too large to leave the nucleus, so the cell needs to make RNA to send the protein making instructions to the
ribosomes
RNA

contains single strand of nucleotides made of ribose sugar, phosphate, nitrogen bases (guanine, adenine,
cytosine, Uracil)
3 types of RNA:
o Messenger (mRNA)- transcribes (copies) the DNA instructions to take to the cytoplasm
o Transfer (tRNA)- uses anticodons to read sections of mRNA so amino acids can attach to form a protein
o Ribosomal (rRNA)- structural parts of ribosomes that help to build proteins
Base Pairing Rules:
DNA
RNA
A–T
A–U
C–G
C–G
Steps of protein synthesis:
 Transcription- mRNA is made from DNA template and the mRNA single strand is sent to cytoplasm to find a
ribosome. This begins the protein making process.
 Translation- tRNA brings amino acids to the mRNA codon sections to be “read” to create the polypeptide strand
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mrna.gif
CELLULAR RESPIRATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS- HANDOUT
*Energy, ATP and Cellular Respiration: Energy is the ability to do work (muscle contraction). Energy can
change from one form to another, but is not created or destroyed. Chemical energy stored in ATP can be
converted to muscle contraction. Our bodies constantly use chemical energy for necessary cellular processes.
*ALL organisms use a 2-step process to provide the energy needed for most of their biological processes:
1) Chemical energy from organic molecules like glucose is used to produce ATP in a process called cellular
respiration
2) ATP provides energy for most biological processes.
The process of Cellular Respiration
takes place in the mitochondria!!
*Cellular respiration is the process that transfers some of the chemical energy in glucose or another organic
molecule to chemical energy in ATP, so energy is available in a form that is useful for biological processes.
Cellular Respiration Equations = C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
Note that not all of the energy released from glucose by cellular respiration is captured in ATP: some of the
energy is converted to heat.
*To use energy from food: Cellular respiration transfers energy in organic molecules such as glucose to
energy in ATP. Then, ATP is used to provide energy for cellular processes.
*Fermentation-produces energy from food molecules by producing ATP in the absence of oxygen. It is said
to be anaerobic.
 The 2 main types of fermentation are alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid fermentation. Alcoholic
fermentation produces carbon dioxide gas and is the reason bread dough rises. Lactic acid
fermentation can cause muscle soreness due to lactic acid build-up in muscle
Photosynthesis equation = 6CO2 + 6H2O  6O2 + C6H12O
*Photosynthesis begins with light reactions which convert the energy in sunlight to chemical energy in ATP
and NADPH. In the 2nd stage of photosynthesis, known as the Calvin Cycle, ATP and NADPH provide the
energy and H needed to convert CO2 to a 3-carbon molecule which is converted to glucose. Glucose can also
be used to produce starch (a storage molecule) and cellulose (a major structural molecule in plants).
The process of Photosynthesis takes place
in the chloroplast!!
Relating Photosynthesis and Cellular respiration: Plants must also carry out cellular respiration to
provide ATP for cellular processes.
 Notice that the equation for photosynthesis and the equation for cellular respiration are FLIPPED!
 The reactants become the products and the products become the reactants.
Heterotrophs use the process of Cellular Respiration to obtain the energy needed stored in glucose.
Autotrophs use the process of Photosynthesis to obtain their energy stored in glucose by making glucose.
Darland/Spaniel
(Punnett Squares) Monohybrid/Dihybrid crosses
Steps for setting up a Punnett Square
1. Make a Key for trait(s) observed
2. Determine Genotypes of each parent
3. Determine possible gametes of each parent
4. Set up offspring in Punnett square
5. Analyze your results
Example: A green pea plant (GG) is being crossed with a green pea plant (Gg), yellow is the recessive color.
Step 1
Step 2
Key:
Genotypes:
G= green
Parent #1 Gg
ParentG#2 gametes
G
Step 4
Step 3
g= yellow
Parent #2 GG
Step 3
GG
GG
Gg
Gg
Analysis of results Step 5
G
Parent #1 gametes
g
Genotype =
2 GG: 2 Gg ; 0 gg
Phenotype = 4 Green pea plants: 0 yellow pea plants
DNA Structure
In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick established the structure of DNA (Nucleic Acid). The structure is a
double helix, which is like a twisted ladder. The sides of the ladder are made of alternating sugar and
phosphate molecules. The sugar is deoxyribose. The rungs of the ladder are pairs of 4 types of nitrogen
bases. Two of the bases are purines - adenine and guanine. The pyrimidines are thymine and cytosine. The
bases are known by their coded letters A, G, T, C. These bases always bond in a certain way. Adenine will
only bond to thymine. Guanine will only bond with cytosine. This is known as the Base-Pair Rule. The bases
can occur in any order along a strand of DNA. The order of these bases is the code that contains the
instructions. For instance ATGCACATA would code for a different gene than AATTACGGA. A strand of
DNA contains millions of bases. (For simplicity, the image only contains a few.) Note that the bases attach to
the sides of the ladder at the sugars and not the phosphate. The combination of a single base, a deoxyribose
sugar, and a phosphate make up a nucleotide. DNA is actually a molecule or repeating nucleotides. Examine
the nucleotides closer. Two of the bases are purines - adenine and guanine. The pyrimidines are thymine and
cytosine. Note that the pyrimidines are single ringed and the purines are double ringed. The two sides of the
DNA ladder are held together loosely by hydrogen bonds.
Karyotypes:
A karyotype is an organized profile of a person's chromosomes. In a karyotype, chromosomes are arranged
and numbered by size, from largest to smallest. This arrangement helps scientists quickly identify
chromosomal alterations that may result in a genetic disorder.
To make a karyotype, scientists take a picture of someone's chromosomes, cut them out and match them up
using size, banding pattern and centromere position as guides.
Why It Is Done
Karyotyping is done to:






Determine whether the chromosomes of an adult have an abnormality that can be
passed on to a child.
Determine whether a chromosome defect is preventing a woman from becoming
pregnant or causing miscarriages.
Determine whether a chromosome defect is present in a fetus. Karyotyping also may
be done to determine whether chromosomal problems may have caused a fetus to
be stillborn.
Determine the cause of a baby's birth defects or disability.
Help determine the appropriate treatment for some types of cancer.
Identify the sex of a person by determining the presence of the Y chromosome. This
may be done when a newborn's sex is not clear.
Karyotype Station:
1. What is a karyotype?
2. List at least 2 types of information karyotypes provide.
3. How many chromosomes do humans have?
4. Look at the karyotype below. What gender is revealed?
5. Is the karyotype “normal” or “abnormal” in the picture below? Describe how you can tell.
6.
Look at the karyotype below. Is the karyotype “normal” or “abnormal” in the picture below? Describe how you
can tell.
7. What is the gender of the karyotype below?
TEKS 5B: Examine specialized cells, including roots, stems, and leaves of plants; and animal cells such as blood,
muscle, and epithelium (ANALYZE)
Blood Cells
Red blood cells carry oxygen to all parts of the body. They also carry carbon dioxide back to the lungs. The blood does
not have a nucleus. Blood cells do not have many mitochondria. The do not need very much energy (ATP) to carry out
their function. White blood cells are also known as leukocytes. They help the body fight infection.
Red blood cells
Blood vessel
White blood cells
Plasma (blood component)
platelets
.
Muscle Cells
1. Skeletal muscles are for movement. They are usually attached to bones. Skeletal muscles are voluntary. That means
we are in control of moving them. They also use a lot of ATP or energy.
2. Smooth muscles cells are involuntary; we do not control them. Stomach cells, blood vessels, and intestinal cells
contain smooth muscle. These cells also have a lot of mitochondria.
3. Cardiac cells are found only in the heart. The heart is a muscle and it never stops beating until you die or it is induced
to stop. The heart functions involuntarily, meaning we do not have control over it. It also uses a lot of mitochondria.
Skeletal
Smooth
Cardiac
Characteristics
Archaebacteria
Prokaryotic or
Eukaryotic
Cells
Prokaryotic
Eubacteria
Fungi
Plantae
Animalia
Prokaryotic
Eukaryotic
Eukaryotic
Eukaryotic
Eukaryotic
Has a Nucleus
Has a Nucleus
Has a Nucleus
Has a Nucleus
Can be both
Multicellular
and singlecellular
Can be both
Multicellular
and singlecellular
Multi-Cellular
Multi-Cellular
Autotroph(algae)
Heterotroph
(protozoa)
Heterotroph
Autotroph
Heterotroph
asexual /
sexual
asexual /
sexual
asexual /
sexual
Has a nucleus
in cells?
NO Nucleus
NO Nucleus
Single-celled
or Multicellular
Single-Celled
Single-Celled
Chemoautotroph
Autotroph
Chemoautotroph
Heterotroph
Method for
Obtaining
Energy
Protista
Type of
Reproduction
asexual
asexual
asexual / sexual
Method of
Movement
flagella
flagella
cilia, flagella,
pseudopods
immobile
Examples
methanogens
Amoeba,
Paramecium,
Euglena, algae
Shelf fungus
Mushrooms
Puffballs
Yeast
E coli
Cyanobacteria
Streptococcus
immobile
Ferns, mosses,
conifers,
flowering
plants, grasses
mobile
(various)
Sponges,
jellyfish,
insects, coral,
Slugs, retiles,
mammals
Terms to be familiar with when distinguishing between the 6 Kingdoms of Life.
Prokaryote – A cell that does not contain a true nucleus. The cell contains DNA; however, the DNA is not
encapsulated within a nucleus. Simple cell, less complex, does not have membrane-bound organelles.
Eukaryote – A cell that contains a true nucleus. The cell contains DNA within a nucleus. Larger cell, more
complex, has membrane-bound organelles.
Heterotroph – used to explain an organism that consumes its energy. These organisms cannot make their
own food and do not have organelles to do so.
Autotroph – An organism that synthesizes its energy within the cell itself. The organism can do this by using
sunlight or chemicals. Both are considered inorganic. Examples: Photoautotroph or Chemoautotroph. Plants
have chloroplasts that aid in photosynthesis
Cell Wall – An extra layer that surrounds the Cell Membrane. Can be composed of Cellulose (a carbohydrate
found in plant cell walls) or Chitin (a carbohydrate found in Fungal Cell Walls). Eubacterial Cell Walls contain
peptidoglycan, Archaebacteria contain uncommon lipids, some Protists contain pectin.
Flagella – a long whip-like tail attached to a cell that is used for mobility.
Cilia – many tiny little hairs that surround the cell and are also used for mobility.
. Viruses
A. Structure & Function
o Among smallest biological particles that can cause disease in organisms
o Nucleic acid core – genetic material
o Protein coat (capsid) – for protection
o Some have outer envelope – allows the virus to infect the host cell, tricks the cell into allowing it inside
B. Comparing Viruses and Cells
o Viruses are generally thought to be non-living because they do not metabolize & must have a host cell for reproduction
CHARACTERISTICS
VIRUS
CELL
DNA or RNA core, protein coat called a cell membrane, cytoplasm; eukaryotes also contain nucleus and
structure
capsid
organelles
reproduction
only within a host cell
independent cell division (either asexual or sexual)
genetic code
DNA or RNA
DNA
yes; in multicellular organisms, cells increase in number and
growth & development no
differentiate
obtain and use energy
no
yes
(metabolism)
response to
no
yes
environment
change over time
yes
yes
C. Virus Reproduction
Viruses can only reproduce when inside of
a host cell.
1) ATTACHMENT 2) ENTRY - genetic material injected into the
cell
3) REPLICATION - viral parts are produced by
the host cell’s organelles
4) ASSEMBLY - viral parts are assembled into
viruses
5) RELEASE - viruses released from the host
cell, sometimes bursting from the cell and
destroying it Lytic cycle. Sometimes the
virus is latent (non active) for a time
period inside the cell and becomes active
later when conditions are suitable,
Lysogenic cycle. These viruses are often
activated by stress.
D. How Viruses Maintain and Disrupt Equilibrium
o Maintaining Equilibrium (Benefits)
 All viruses are parasitic; however, they have constructive uses in genetic engineering. A
Bacteriophage is a virus that infects bacteria and can be used to carry genes into bacteria.
o Disrupting Equilibrium (Harmful)
 All viruses are parasitic.
 Major diseases: smallpox (vaccine/eradicated), flu (vaccine/epidemic), HIV, common
cold, warts, encephalitis (mosquito-transmitted viral diseases), SARS, West Nile disease.
E. Retroviruses have RNA instead of DNA for their genetic material

The best known retrovirus is the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). It is shown in the diagram above. The enzyme
reverse transcriptase is introduced into the host cell along with the viral RNA and the enzyme synthesizes viral DNA
using the RNA template. The DNA moves into the nucleus of the host cell and integrates into a chromosome. The viral
DNA may be inactive for a period of years before being activated. Once it is activated, RNA is activated from the viral
DNA and the host cell manufactures and assembles new HIV particles.
Immune response
A. pathogens: any organism that causes disease
B. Cells involved in an immune response:
1. Macrophage (white blood cell)
2. Antigen
Scout for the immune system; finds pathogens, consumes them and warns helper
T cell of the invader
Foreign proteins
3. Helper T cells
General of the immune system; coordinates the attack on the pathogen
4. Killer T cells
Destroys pathogen and sick infected body cells
5. Plasma B cells
Produce antibodies
antibodies
Chemicals that attach to foreign proteins or pathogens to mark them for
destruction
Remember and recognize pathogens so that a second response to infection
happens more rapidly
Shut down the immune response
6. Memory B cells
7. Suppressor T cells
HOMEOSTASIS UNIT CONTENT GUIDE
Sens
rs
nso
ors
Se
I. Homeostasis
Environment is HOT
Environment is COLD
A. Definitions:
o Homeostasis: process by which organisms keep internal conditions relatively
B
constant despite changes in external environments
o Stimulus: something that excites an organism or part of an organism into a
A
function or action
L
Brain
o Response: behavior or function that results from a stimulus
A
o Feedback inhibition: process in which the product or result stops or limits the
N
process
C
II. Interdependence of organ systems in homeostasis
Sweat
Chills
E
A. (Feedback loops ) promote homeostasis
o Balancing Human Body Temperature:
 Systems that work together are the nervous system, integumentary system (skin), and muscular system
 Feedback loop: drop in temperature→brain senses temperature change→ muscles contract (shivering)→goose
bumps form on skin→ body temperature regulates→brain senses temperature change
o Balancing water content of the blood and body
 Systems that work together are the nervous, circulatory and excretory,
and integumentary (skin releases water in sweat)
 Feedback loop: high amount of
water goes into the kidney from the
blood→sensed by the brain→kidneys→release
water→water content of the blood is restored
to normal→brain
o Balancing sugar content of the blood
 Systems that work together:
Nervous system; endocrine system (the organ is the pancreas; insulin is the
hormone); circulatory system; digestive system
 Feedback loop: Blood sugar is high→brain senses change in blood glucose
(sugar)→pancreas→makes insulin→cells take up glucose→brain senses
change in glucose
o Balancing metabolism : metabolism is all of the chemical reactions of the body
 Systems that work together: the nervous system and the endocrine
system
ns
o
Ho
rm
on
e
Se
ors
Se
L
A
Brain and
rs
Pancreas
Ho
rm
on
e
N
C
E
e
on
rm
Ho
ns
o
A
rs
excess water
o
ns
Kidneys release
Se
L
Thirst/Kidneys
reabsorb water
Se
Ho
rm
on
e
rs
nso
B
ors
rs
ns
o
Se
Se
E
Blood sugar is HIGH
rs
C
e
on
rm
Ho
N
Blood sugar is LOW
o
ns
Brain
A
Sens
rs
nso
A
Sens
Se
B
Water content is HIGH
Hunger/
Eat/
conserve i nsuli n
Secrete insulin
ors
ns
rs
Se
e
on
rm
Ho
Water content is LOW

Feedback loop: low thyroxine produces low metabolism→sensors from the brain alert the
hypothalamus→hypothalamus sends a hormone to the pituitary→the pituitary sends a hormone to the thyroid
gland→the hormone thyroxine is released into the blood stream→thyroxine levels go to normal
B. Regulation of homeostasis is the function of the nervous and endocrine systems
Nervous
Endocrine
Function
Respond to external and internal stimuli
Control growth, metabolism, homeostasis
Message
Sensory neurons carry impulses caused by stimuli to
hormones travel through the blood
delivery
the brain; motor neurons cause muscles or glands to
act
Systems it
All
Nervous system, and circulatory system
works with:
Structures
Brain, spinal cord, sensory & motor neurons
Glands
Thalamus and hypothalamus: connection between the nervous system and endocrine
Thalamus: sends messages to the brain
Hypothalamus: hunger (glucose levels), thirst (water content) and body temperature
Type of
message,
speed, and
duration
Nerve tissue is made of sensory neurons and motor
neurons. Neuron parts are axon, cell body, and
dendrite.
Response is fast and short-lived (like e-mail); message
is an electrochemical pulse along a neuron
Epithelial tissue
Chemicals called hormones travel through the blood;
the duration of the response is long lasting (like letters
through the post office)
III. Nutrient absorption (digestive system): Glucose is burned up for energy in the body cells. Glucose comes from carbohydrates
in foods like fruit, rice, bread, potatoes & pasta. The mouth, stomach and small intestine all help to break down carbohydrates.
Enzymes in the mouth and small intestine help to break down carbohydrates to make glucose. The stomach continues
carbohydrate digestion. The small intestine breaks the carbohydrates down into molecules of glucose. The glucose is absorbed into
the blood (circulatory system) by villi in the small intestine. Glucose cannot leave the blood and enter fat or muscle cells if the
glucose channels are closed. The pancreas detects an increase in glucose levels in the blood and pumps insulin into the blood.
Insulin unlocks the glucose channels of the fat cells so cells can take up the glucose. The glucose levels in the blood fall as glucose is
taken up by the body cells and muscles. The pancreas detects the falling blood glucose levels and switches off its release of insulin.
ENZYMES
Catalysts provide a site for chemical reactions.
Catalysts in cells are proteins called enzymes.
The molecules entering into reactions are called substrates.
For a catalytic reaction to occur, a substrate must fit into a groove on the surface of the enzyme called the active site.
The amount of energy needed to activate the reaction (activation energy) is reduced. Reactions occur faster.
Enzymes pair with substrates, each with a specific substrate it can catalyze.
Enzymes are not used up or destroyed.
CELL REPRODUCTION AND DIFFERENTIATION UNIT CONTENT GUIDE
I.
DNA Replication
 DNA unwinds
 DNA separates to form two complementary strands
 Each DNA strand acts as a template for the new,
complementary strand
 Using the principles of base-pairing, two complete,
identical copies of the DNA molecule are created
1.
Cell Cycle

Interphase
o Cell Growth, Cell
performs functions
o DNA Replication
o Preparation for Mitosis
 Cell Division
o Mitosis
o Cytokinesis
o
II. Mitosis - cell division for somatic (body) cell production
Cell division will be covered in terms of chromosome
activity. Do not use names of phases.
 Cell has undergone DNA replication
 Chromatin condenses into chromosomes,
nuclear membrane breaks down
 Chromosomes line up across the center of the
cell
 Chromosomes separate and move to opposite
poles
 Chromosomes unwind, nuclear membrane
reforms

Cell separates into two identical daughter cells,
each with the same number of chromosomes as
the original cell
III. Meiosis – cell division for gamete (sperm or egg) cell production
Cell division will be covered in terms of chromosome activity. Do not use names of phases.
 Cell has undergone DNA replication
 Each chromosome pairs with its corresponding homologous chromosome and the nuclear envelope breaks down,
crossing over takes place
 Chromosomes line up across the center of the cell
CODOMINANCE AND MULTIPLE
 Homologous chromosome pulled to opposite ends of the cell
ALLELES
 Nuclear membrane reforms, cell separates into two daughter cells,
BLOOD TYPE
GENOTYPES
each with half the number of chromosomes as the original cell
A
IAIA, IAi
 In each of these two cells
B
IBIB, IBi
the nuclear membrane breaks down (DNA does not replicate again)
AB
IAIB
Chromosomes line up in the center
O
ii
Chromosomes separate and move to the opposite poles
Chromosomes unwind, nuclear membrane reforms
Cells separate into 2 daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the original cell
 Summary: 4 mature gametes produced in males; 1 mature gamete produced in females, each with half the number of
chromosomes as the original cell
IV. Reproduction and Embryology
 Sexual Reproduction – reproductive cells from male and female parents unite, in a process known as fertilization, to
produce the first cell of the new organism (zygote)
o The new individual will have characteristics from each parent
 Asexual Reproduction – the first cell of the new organism comes from one parent

The new individual is identical to the parent.
 The new individual arises from that single cell through a process of cellular differentiation during the embryonic phase
MULTIPLE ALLELES COAT COLOR IN RABBITS
Full color (C) – brown (dominant to all other alleles) CC, Ccch, Ccch, Cc
Chinchilla (cch) – gray (dominant to ch and c) cchch, cchcch, cchc
Himalayan (ch) – mostly white (dominant to c allele) chch, chc
Albino (c) – no color (recessive to all other alleles) cc
o
o
o
o
o
o
HEREDITY CONTENT GUIDE
I. Classic Mendelian Genetics
 Gregor Mendel is known as the father of
genetics
 Different forms of a gene are called alleles
- dominant vs. recessive
 Punnett squares are used to determine
the possible genetic combinations between two parents.
Dominant homozygous (DD) vs. heterozygous (Dd) vs. recessive homozygous (dd)
Genotype vs. phenotype (with the ability to determine ratios)
Students should be able to complete Punnett squares for monohybrid and dihybrid crosses. They should be able to analyze
the gametes formed, giving phenotypic and genotypic ratios as well as other probability questions.
Multiple alleles occur when there are more than two Alleles for a certain trait. Chinchilla rabbits – four alleles for coat color
 Human blood groups – three alleles for blood type
Sex-linked traits
 Hemophilia - recessive
 Colorblindness - recessive
 Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy – dominant
SEX LINKED INHERITANCE
GENOTYPE
PHENOTYPE GENDER
XNXN
Normal
Female
XNY
Normal
Male
XNXn
Normal (carrier) Female
XnY
Not normal
Male
XnXn
Not normal
Female
Codominance occurs when both alleles contribute to the phenotype of an organism as in blood types.
Sickle-Cell Anemia – Heterozygote has sickle and normal shaped red blood cells NANS
o
o
o
II. Human Genetics
 Autosomes (44) vs. sex chromosomes (2, the X and Y)

Karyotypes are pictures of chromosomes arranged in homologous pairs by number. Students should be able to identify
the following disorders by analyzing a karyotype:
o Down Syndrome – Three copies of chromosome 21
o Turner’s Syndrome – Female with only 1 X chromosome
o Klinefelter’s Syndrome – Male with XXY
Mutations
 Mutations are changes in the genetic material. Point mutations involve changes in
one or
more of the nucleotide sequences.
 Substitution, in which one base is changed to another, usually affects
no more than a single amino acid, if any.
 Insertion, in which a base is inserted into the sequence, will affect the amino
acid
with the insertion and all those following
in the sequence.
 Deletion, in which a base is removed from the sequence, will affect the amino acid with
the deletion and each amino acid following in the sequence.
 Chromosomal mutations involve changes in the number or structure of chromosomes.
This will be discussed further in the “Heredity” unit.

Many mutations are neutral, having little or no effect on the expression of genes. Generally, insertion and deletion which
result in frame-shifts have the greater impact. Mutations in gametes or early in fetal development have greater impact
than those in mature body cells.
 Mutations are the source of genetic variability in a species. Some may be highly beneficial. This will be discussed further in
the “Evolution” unit.
 Harmful mutations may result in genetic disorders or cancer.
 Some mutations are genetically engineered to create new variations of an existing organism (seedless watermelons), to
replace or correct defective genes, or to produce hybrids such as bacteria that can produce human insulin.
 Some environmental causes of mutations are UV rays, radiation, pollution, etc.
V. Recombinant DNA from Genetic Engineering
o Gene splicing: genetic engineering that makes recombinant DNA
o Recombinant DNA: a combination of DNA cut from one organism and added to the DNA of another
o Restriction enzyme: an enzyme that can cut DNA only in specific spots
o The steps of gene splicing are shown in order from left to right. The scissors represent a restriction enzyme
CONTENT GUIDE FOR PLANTS
I.
Transport System
A. Nonvascular – does not have tubes to transport materials so plants are necessarily small, must live in water, and
must have water to reproduce
1. materials (water) are absorbed across membranes
2. cannot exceed 2-3 cell layers thick, must remain small
3. no true roots, leaves, stems
B. Primitive vascular: Ferns have vascular system but reproduce using spores or sperm that must swim, so must live
near water and in moist environments
B. Vascular – has tubes to transport materials
1. xylem and phloem tubes act as a transport system similar to the circulatory system of animals
2. have true roots, stems and leaves (definition of true is to have tubes)
3. vascular tubes provide support for the plant similar to the skeletal system of animals
4. function of xylem and how water moves in plants
5. function of phloem and how nutrients move in plants
6. size can vary greatly, very large like Sequoia trees or very small like grass
II.
Leaves
A. Primary function of leaf is to produce food through photosynthesis.
1. blade exposure to sunlight – surface area ratio in varying environments
2. gas exchange through stomata in leaf, relate to environmental conditions
3. cross-section of leaf - function/adaptations such as cuticle, stomata, spongy mesophyll
B. Structural adaptations to the environment: needle-like, broadleaf, succulent, spines, carnivorous, stolons
III.
Roots
A. Primary functions of roots
1. absorb water and nutrients (true roots have tubes)
2. root hairs – increase surface area
3. anchorage of plant
4. rhizoids –primitive plants have root-like rhizoids (no tubes) that function similar to roots (moss)
B. Structural adaptations to the environment
1. fibrous roots – branched and net-like; increased surface area to absorb water near surface over larger area;
also prevent soil erosion
2. taproot – single long root (may have some small offshoots); small surface area but reach into water deeper
underground; food storage (carrot, beet)
3. some plants are not rooted in soil such as epiphytes (orchids) and Spanish moss
4. mycorrhizae – mutualistic symbiotic association between the roots of plants and a fungus - known as
mycorrhizae, aid plant in absorbing water & nutrients (increase surface area), critical in evolution of plants onto
land
IV. Stems
A. Primary functions of stems
1. produce leaves, branches and flowers
2. hold leaves up to sunlight
3. transport substances between roots and leaves
B. Structural adaptations to the environment:
1. vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) for conducting food and water through plant
2. modified stems store food: tubers (potatoes), bulbs (amaryllis), rhizomes (ginger), corms
(gladiolus)
V. Hormonal control
auxins
modify the growth of plants, especially root formation, bud growth, and fruit and leaf drop.
cytokinins
produced by the roots and traveling upward through the xylem, that promote tissue growth and budding
and, on application, retard plant aging.
gibberellins main action is to cause elongation of the stem
ethylenes
promotes the ripening of fruit
VI.Tropisms
gravitropism
oriented growth with respect to the force of gravity; also called geotropism
Phototropism
the growth response of plant parts to the stimulus of light, producing a bending towards
the light source
thigmotropism)
the directional growth of a plant, in response to the stimulus of direct contact
VII.Reproduction
(All Plants Undergo Both Sexual And Asexual Reproduction. It is not necessary to cover alternation of
generations.)
A. Need of Water for Sexual Reproduction in Plants
1. nonvascular plants and primitive vascular plants must have moisture present for the sperm to swim to the egg
during the sexual reproduction phase and for the embryo to be kept moist
B. Spores – nonvascular plants and primitive vascular plants reproduce by spores (small asexual reproductive
structures)
C. Seeds – embryo of a plant that is encased in a protective seed coat and surrounded by a food supply
1. Vascular plants have flowers or cones; developed pollination (pollen is carried the sperm to the
egg so moisture is not needed) and seeds (allow the embryo to survive during dry conditions and protect the
seed). This released plants from the need to have moisture present for reproduction.
2. uncovered seeds (naked seeds) – the gymnosperms - do not have a protective layer of tissue
outside the seed coat, most produce seeds in female cones and pollen in male cones
3. covered seeds – the angiosperms - have a tissue layer outside the seed coat to protect the seed
a. flower
b. fruit
4. pollination
5. adaptations for germination
a. dormancy
b. temperature variations
6. seed dispersal – to ensure dispersal away from parent
a. wind dispersal – all conifers, some angiosperms (grass, tumble weeds, dandelion)
b. water dispersal – coconut
c. animal – eat fruit and deposit seed (in fertilizer) or carry it on their body
d. explosive – pea pods – explode and send seeds flying
Plant Adaptations to various biomes
Desert
ROOT
Tundra
Rainforest
Desert
LEAF
STEM
Tundra
Rainforest
Desert
Tundra
Rainforest
Special Adaptations
carnivorous plants
poisonous plants
thorny plants
fibrous roots for short lived plants – roots spread over wide area to absorb as much water as possible in rainy
season
deeper taproots can reach water supply deeper under ground during dry season
roots all shallow, cannot grow into permafrost
epiphytes live high in trees and can absorb water from the air through their roots; large trees sometimes have
adventitious roots to help support the plant in moist soil
leaves modified to be narrow or small or even into spine-like structures
leaves may be lost during dry season
stomata stay closed more during the day, cuticle thick
leaves narrow or small
leaves large with flat blades; numerous stomata that are often open
sometimes modified to large “blade” with chloroplast (cactus), most trees stunted
plants very small; willow tree only
often very tall to reach light above forest canopy
must get minerals from organisms they trap because the soil is too poor to have the nutrients they
need
poison made by the plant prevents herbivores from eating them
thorns help prevent herbivores from eating them
Re-read your evolution unit 8 test review, and your unit 9 ecology notes.