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Amity School of Business
Amity School of Business
BBAGEN, SEMESTER II
ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR (BBAHR-10201)
Ms. Kushi Sharma
Amity School of Business
Perception
– The process by which we become aware of, and give
meaning to, events around us.
– Perception helps define “reality.”
• Objective reality—what truly exists in the physical world to
the best abilities of science to measure it.
• Perceived reality—what individuals experience through one
or more of the human senses, and the meaning they ascribe
to those experiences.
– Behavioral problems arise when an individual’s
perceived reality does not match objective reality.
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INFLUENCED BY
SITUATION AND PERCEIVER’S
CHARACTERISTICS
Characteristics of
stimuli or input
Perceptual inputs
• Objects
• Events
• People
PERCEPTUAL
PROCESS
Perceptual Mechanism
Selection
BEHAVIOUR
Interpretation
Organisation
Perceptual Outputs
• Attitudes
• Opinions
• Feelings
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Basic Elements in the Perceptual Process
Observation
Environmental
Stimuli
Perceptual Selection
* External factors
* Internal factors
Interpretation
* Perceptual errors
* Attributions
* Taste
* Hearing
* Touch
* Smell
* Sight
Perceptual
Organization
* Perceptual grouping
Response
* Covert
* Overt
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Figure 1.1 The perceptual process. The steps in this process are arranged in a circle to
emphasize the fact that the process is dynamic and continually changing. Blue arrows point
to stimuli; green to processing; red to perceptual responses. Arrows A, B, and C indicate
three important relationships that researchers measure.
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The Perceptual Process
• Environmental stimuli
– All available stimuli for an observer
• Attended stimuli
– Stimuli that are the point of focus for the
observer
• Stimulus on the receptors
– “Image” of stimulus on receptor cells
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The Perceptual Process - continued
• Transduction
– Change from environmental energy to
electrical energy in the nervous system
• Neural processing
– Interconnected neurons that propagate the
electrical signal from receptor cells
throughout the brain
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The Perceptual Process- continued
• Perception
– Conscious sensory experience
• Recognition
– Ability to place objects in categories that
provide meaning
• Action
– Motor activities that occur in reference to
the perceived and recognized object
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Figure 1.6 Perception is determined by an interaction between bottom-up processing, which
starts with the image of the receptors, and top-down processing, which brings the observer’s
knowledge into play. In this example, (a) the image of the moth on Ellen’s retina initiates
bottom-up processing, and (b) her prior knowledge of moths contributes to top-down
processing.
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Factors Influencing the
Perceptual Process
• Perceiver:
– Perception influenced by person’s values,
attitudes, past experiences, needs, personality
• Setting/Environment:
– Physical context, social context, organizational
context
• Perceived/target:
– Target’s contrast, intensity, figure-ground
separation, size, motion, repetition.
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FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEPTION
SITUATIONAL FACTORS
• Work setting
• Social setting
• Time
CHARACTERISTICS
OF PERCEIVED/TARGET
CHARACTERISTICS
OF PERCEIVER
• Expectations
• Experience
• Values
• Attitudes
• Personality
INDIVIDUAL’S
PERCEPTION
• Motion
• Size
• Appearance
• Proximity
• Sound
• Background
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BARRIERS/ERRORS/BIASES
IN PERCEPTION
 The Similar-to-me Effect/Projection.
 Attribution error.
 First Impression Error-confirming one’s expectation/primacy
error.
 The Halo/Horn Effect.
 Selective Perception.
 Stereotyping.
 Self-fulfilling prophecy/pygmallion effect.
 Recency effect.
 Contrast effect.
 Self-serving bias.
 Skewing errors.
– Central tendency, leniency, strictness bias.
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Projection
Projection = assigning one’s personal
attributes to another individual.
• Happens at interpreting stage of
perception.
• E.g., when manager assumes subordinate
reacts to a work opportunity the same way
as the manager.
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Projection
• Controlled through:
– self-awareness (realizing one’s
own needs) and
– strong empathy (being able to
put oneself in the other’s
position and understand their
perspective)
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FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR
• The tendency to underestimate the
influence of external factors and over
estimate the influence of internal factors
while making judgements about the
behaviour of others.
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IS THE CAUSE OF THE BEHAVIOR SEEN AS INTERNAL
OR EXTERNAL? WE LOOK FOR THREE TYPES OF
INFORMATION TO DECIDE:
DISTINCTIVENESS
IS THIS PERSON’S PERFORMANCE DIFFERENT ON OTHER
TASKS AND IN OTHER SITUATIONS?
CONSISTENCY
OVER TIME, IS THERE A CHANGE IN BEHAVIOR OR RESULTS ON
THIS TASK BY THIS PERSON?
CONSENSUS
DO OTHERS PERFORM OR BEHAVE SIMILARLY WHEN IN A
SIMILAR
POSITION?
“YES” answers lead to EXTERNAL attributions (Environmental
causes)
“NO” answers lead to INTERNAL attributions (Personal causes)
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Primacy error
•
The disproportionately high weight given
to the first information obtained about a
stimulus.
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Halo Effects
Halo effect = one attribute of a person or situation is used
to develop an overall impression of that individual or
situation. (positive aspect)
•
if negative aspect is given more weightage it leads to
horn effect.
•
Happens at organizing stage of perception.
•
Common – e.g., when we meet a new person who
smiles at us, we have immediate first impression that
the person is friendly.
•
Can create distortion in performance appraisals, e.g.,
good attendance = intelligent, responsible
–
Need to ensure appraisal based on facts, not biased
impressions.
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Selective Perception
Selective perception = tendency to notice
those aspects of a person or situation that
are consistent with or reinforce the
perceiver’s existing attitudes, beliefs or
needs.
• Influences attention stage – what we notice.
• Most easily overcome by gathering
perceptual info from others to see if one has
only picked up on part of the picture.
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Stereotypes
• Judging someone on the basis of one’s
perception of the group to which that person
belongs and thus cause problems in accurate
retrieval of information.
• Can be misleading in case of employment
interviews and one can lose a very deserving
candidate too. Basically the person is having
closed windows and doesn’t let fresh, new ideas
to pop-in.
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STEREOTYPING PROCESS
Develop social categories
And assign traits
To them.
Person is identified with a
Social category based on
Observable information
Assign social category’s
Cluster of traits
In the person
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Self-fulfilling prophecy = the tendency to create
or find in a situation or individual what one
expects to find.
• Because one believes something, one acts in a way
that makes the outcome more likely.
– Negative example: assume individual has no ambition
so gives no challenging work; individual is bored and
does not work well, confirming manager’s initial belief
– Positive example: believe exceptional potential in
employee so give challenge, support, praise; employee
thrives in this attention and support, performing well, thus
confirming manager’s expectations.
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Supervisors form
Expectations
About employees
Employee’s behaviour
Becomes consistent
With supervisors
expectations
SELF-FULFIILING
PROPHECY
CYCLE
Expectations affect
Supervisor’s behaviour
Towards employee
Supervisor’s behaviour
Affect employees’
Abilities and self-efficacy
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Contrast effect = when an individual’s
characteristics are contrasted with those of
people recently encountered who rank higher or
lower on those characteristics.
• Person in job interview appears stronger when
immediately following a weak candidate.
• Awareness of potential distortion from contrast
effect needed.
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Recency effect
•
The disproportionately high weight given
to the last information obtained about a
stimulus.
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Self-serving Bias
• This is a tendency for individuals to
attribute their own success to internal
factors and place blame for failures
on external factors. Their approach is
self-serving.
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Leniency
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the rater may be lenient to prove his
worthiness, to maintain relationships, to
win promotions for subordinates, approval
of others.
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Central Tendency
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this occurs when employees are incorrectly
rated near the average or middle of the
scale. The attitude of the rater is to play
safe
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Improving Perceptual process
• For improved usefulness
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Train raters.
Regular ongoing observation of employees.
Limit number appraised by one supervisor.
Clear standards.
Avoid ambiguous terms like “average.”
Applying Johari window.
Being empathic.
• Impression Management
– People often systematically attempt to behave in ways that will
create and maintain impressions which the person wants
others to have of him or her
• E.g., clothing, handshake, resume preparation for a job interview
• E.g., associating with “right” people, doing favours to gain
approval, agreeing with others.
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• Self-understanding
• - The acknowledgement that you and people who
interact with you are susceptible to perceptual errors.
• Conscious information processing
• - Carefully considering the “facts” during the perceptual
process and consciously questioning the accuracy of
what you perceive.
• Reality testing
• - The comparison of developed perceptions about a
stimulus object
to another (objective) measure of the object.
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Business Implications
•
•
•
•
Perception and Hiring
Perception and Performance Appraisal
Perception and Motivation
Perception and Corporate Image
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Perception and Hiring
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Hiring new employees can be affected by perception in
many ways
Contrast or novelty in the job applicant can affect his
chances of getting the job.
The employers may stereotype applicants on the basis
of race or gender, or
May allow the halo effect to color an overall perception
of an applicant.
Ex – a manager , who believes that people should
dress professionally for a job interview, is likely to be
unimpressed by an applicant who shows up wearing
sunglasses.
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Perception and Performance
Appraisal
• Performance evaluation is the assessment of an
employee’s performance to correct
shortcomings, identify strengths, and provide a
basis for giving rewards.
• An employee’s performance appraisal is
dependent on the perceptual process to a great
extent.
• What a manager perceives to be “good” or “bad”
employee characteristics/behaviors will
significantly influence the appraisal outcome.
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Perception and Motivation
• Perception of workplace and management
can play a major role in motivation.
• If a person feels that he is getting
equitable pay for his work, he will be
satisfied with his pay.
• If he feels that he will get promotion and
pay raise if he works hard, he will be
motivated to work hard.
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