Download Syntax 2

Fontys Hogescholen Tilburg
Lerarenopleiding Engels
Bachelor of Education
Syntax 2
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2
Syntax 2
Table of contents
Chapter 1
Introduction
p.
4
Chapter 2
The Phrase
p.
6
Chapter 3
The Structure of Phrases
p.
7
3.1
The Noun Phrase
p.
7
3.2
The Verb Phrase
p.
12
3.3
The Adjective Phrase
p.
15
3.4
The Adverb Phrase
p.
15
3.5
The Prepositional Phrase
p.
16
The Function of Phrases
p.
17
4.1
The Noun Phrase
p.
17
4.2
The Verb Phrase
p.
18
4.3
The Adjective Phrase
p.
19
4.4
The Adverb Phrase
p.
20
4.5
The Prepositional Phrase
p.
21
The Provisional Subject
p.
22
Chapter 6
Summary
p.
23
Extra:
Sample test Syntax 1
p.
29
Exercises
p.
31
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Additional notes
5.1
3
Syntax 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
In syntax, a distinction is made between:
 Simple Sentence
 Complex Sentence
 Compound Sentence
In the Complex Sentence, one (or more) of the functions is realized by a (sub)clause, instead of by
a phrase; whereas in the Simple Sentence all the functions are realized by phrases. The following
examples illustrate the difference. Note that the first sentences of each example are simple and
that the second sentences are complex, i.e. there is a subordinated clause.
1) a. Sven never believed her story.
b. The President of the Pakistan Mountaineering Association believes that
the big mountains need a rest.
DO = Clause
2) a. The truth is unpleasant.
b. The truth is that the roof of the world is polluted.
SA = Clause
3) a. Her news came as an unpleasant surprise.
b. What Jane told me came as a big shock.
S = Clause
4) a. At dawn the devils disappeared up the chimney.
b. When morning came, the terror of the dwarves grew less.
Adverbial = Clause
When we analyse a Complex Sentence, we must first recognize the constituents of the whole
sentence and state what function they have.
1) b. The … Association = Subject
believes
= Predicator
that the … rest
= Direct Object
Then the subclause must be analysed, in the usual way. But subordinating conjunctions like that,
when, until, etc.*1, are not given a function label. We simply call them subordinating conjunctions.
1) b. that
= subordinating conjunction
the big mountains need a rest
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before, as soon as, since and if.
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the big mountain = Subject
need
= Predicator
a rest
= Direct Object
We will first look at finite subclauses, which are clauses with a finite Predicator; the first verb form
is finite. Note that the finite can change tense: present – past. The following examples illustrate
the difference between a finite and a non-finite subclause.
5) a. While he clutched her arm, he crossed the square.
Adverbial = finite subclause
b. Clutching her arm, he crossed the square.
Adverbial = non-finite subclause
In the Compound Sentence there are two (or more) clauses which are linked by a coordinating
conjunction (and, but, or, for*2). These clauses are “on the same level”, they do not have a
function in another clause.
6) They were thirsty too, for they had very little water.
clause
c. conj.
clause
When the Subject of the second clause is the same as that of the first, it is often left out.
7) Edward called the Post Office and complained about his crumpled letters.
clause
c. conj.
clause
When we analyse a Compound Sentence, we simply analyse each clause separately. Various
combinations of subordination and coordination are also possible; these will be dealt with later.
D. Sentences for analysis (only main clause and subclause):
1. Here they sat on wooden benches, while Gandalf began his tale.
2. As readers of her earlier travel books know, Morris delivers meaty opinions in a dextrous
prose style.
3. After that my mother takes the clothes outside and hangs them onto the clothesline with
plastic clothespins.
4. Andrea looks upsettingly young, but she must be in her twenties.
5. James had not expected that his invention would make him a rich man.
6. That he was very unhappy about his dismissal was quite clear to everyone.
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nor, so
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7. When all the guests were seated in the back parlour, David fed the hungry kitten some
milk.
8. To our dismay the man at the desk politely informed us that he could not get us a room
with a balcony.
Chapter 2
The Phrase
Introduction
We discuss five types of phrases: the noun phrase (NP), the verb phrase (VP), the adjective phrase
(AdjP), the adverb phrase (AdvP) and the prepositional phrase (PP). For each phrase we describe
the elements of which it can consist (its structure) as well as the functions it can have at sentence
and phrase level. A phrase usually contains a word which may be looked upon as the central
element. This word functions as the head of the phrase. Thus a noun phrase is a linguistic structure
in which a noun normally functions as head. In the structure of the phrase the words that precede
and/or follow the head play a subordinate role.
Head
NP
:
AdjP :
AdvP :
many expensive cars with air-conditioning
extremely proud of her achievements
very fluently indeed
The verb phrase differs from the noun, adjective and adverb phrases in two respects. In the first
place, it contains verbal forms only and this includes the multiword verbs. Secondly, the verb
phrase head is always the last element in the structure of the phrase.
Examples:
VP
:
should have been punished
may have been sleeping
The head of a noun, adjective or adverb phrase can often be identified as that element which is
capable of being substituted for the whole phrase.
This country imports many expensive cars with air-conditioning
This country imports cars
Maureen is extremely proud of her achievements
Maureen is proud
Frank speaks Dutch very fluently indeed
Frank speaks Dutch fluently
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The prepositional phrase, exemplified by structures like on the beach and in the twentieth century,
differs from other phrase types in that it lacks a constituent which is capable of being substituted
for the whole phrase. In other words, on the beach cannot be replaced by either on or the beach in
the way that very fluently indeed can be replaced by its head fluently.
Chapter 3
The structure of phrases
3.1 The noun phrase (NP)
Noun phrases vary structurally from one-word phrases consisting of a head only to complex
structures in which the head is preceded and/or followed by other words. Consider, for example,
the following noun phrases, in all of which books functions as head:
books
the
books
books on linguistics
the
books on linguistics that I bought in London
the expensive books on linguistics that I bought in London
all the expensive books on linguistics that I bought in London
It is easy to see that the structure of the first noun phrase (books) can be made more and more
complex by adding words to the left and to the right of the head. In order to be able to describe
the structure of the noun phrase it is convenient to distinguish three functions: head, determiner
and modifier.
a. The noun phrase head (function)
The head of a noun phrase is usually realized by a noun or pronoun.
Jim lives in London
Canada is a vast country
Books are expensive
Do your children like music?
She doesn’t like me
Yours is over there
That is not true
Who told you?
Noun phrase heads can also be realized, however, by adjectives, by –ing and –ed participles and by
quantifiers or indefinite pronouns and numerals.
the rich
the French
the young
the grotesque
the bizarre
the irrational
the dying
the unknown
the unexpected
some
neither
(all) five
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b. Determiners
The determiner function occurs only in the structure of the noun phrase; it does not give a quality
or characteristic of a noun. It is realized by words that always precede the noun phrase head. Since
these words observe a fixed order, they can be divided into three subclasses: predeterminers,
central determiners and postdeterminers.
DETERMINERS
Central determiners
definite article
indefinite article
demonstrative pronoun
possessive pronoun
specifying genitive NP
quantifier
interrogative pronoun
relative pronoun
another, any, each, either,
enough, every, neither, no,
some, what, which, whose
Predeterminers
all
both
double
half
twice
three times, etc.
many (a)
such (a)
what (a)
Postdeterminers
cardinal numerals
ordinal numerals
next, last
few, fewer, fewest
further
little, less, least
much/many, more, most
only, other, own, same,
several, such
Note that there are restrictions on the possibility of combining determiners from each of the three
columns with each other.
The structure of the phrases
The following are examples of noun phrases with heads preceded by various kinds of determiners:
all these cases
both my parents
double the amount
half a minute
many a time
such a mess
the next problem
whose money
those few writers
his other job
John’s own house
what other books
every other week
the least trouble
her many lovers
the last exercise
all such problems
no further questions
In the noun phrase all these cases, for example, cases functions as head, realized by a noun, all
functions as predeterminer, realized by a quantifier, and these functions as central determiner,
realized by a demonstrative pronoun.
all
these
cases
NP
predet.central det. Head
Note that some postdeterminers can be combined with others:
the first two questions
many other opportunities
the last few years
several hundred cars
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the only other problem
many such cases
Note: In this case we will restrict ourselves to only one determiner in the NP.
c. Modifier
We can distinguish three types of modifier:



Premodifier; realized by items following the determiners and preceding the head.
Postmodifier; realized by items following the head.
Discontinuous modifier; realized by items interrupted by the head.
*Note that the discontinuous modifier won’t be part of the test.
The function premodifier can be realized by an adjective phrase, a noun phrase or a classifying
genitive. Premodifiers follow all the determiners.
ADJP
NP (clas.gen)
beautiful girls
a big Mercedes
some extremely complicated cases
his interesting essay
children’s books
cat’s eyes
boys’ shoes
thieves’ slang
NP
a disc jockey
her maiden name
girl guides
war crimes
Note the difference between a specifying genitive and a classifying genitive!
The specifying genitive is normally used to indicate ownership or possession.
Her children’s new books
This phrase makes reference to specific new books, in this case those belonging to her children.
The genitive form her children’s helps to identify which books we are talking about. The Dutch
translation for the whole noun phrase makes this clear: de nieuwe boeken van haar kinderen.
The classifying genitive refers to the category or class of objects something belongs to, or simply
expresses what kind of thing it is.
Her new children’s books
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This phrase makes reference to a certain type of books, i.e. those written for children. In Dutch we
often use a compound noun: kinderboeken. Thus, in new children’s books the genitive children’s is
meant to classify or categorize the books: nieuwe kinderboeken. In other words, a construction like
her children’s books can mean two totally different things, depending on the intonation with which
it is read: it can mean de nieuwe boeken van haar kinderen or haar nieuwe kinderboeken.
Specifying genitive (determiner)
Classifying genitive (prem.)
her children’s new books
NP
det prem head
her new children’s books
NP
det prem prem head
A specifying genitive functions as central determiner and may be separated from the head of a
noun phrase by a premodifier. In the example on the left her children’s is the central determiner
and new the premodifier.
A classifying genitive, on the other hand, always immediately precedes the noun phrase head. In
the example on the right below new does not qualify children’s but children’s books.
Postmodifier
The function postmodifier may be realized by an adjective phrase, an adverb phrase, a
prepositional phrase or a noun phrase.
ADJP
PP
Russia proper
nothing new
a problem reminiscent of yours
a woman too beautiful to ignore
students as intelligent as Helen
the letters on his desk
books from the library
the University of Cambridge
friends of mine
differences of opinion
ADVP
NP
the week ahead
the year before
the climb up
the crowd outside
shoes that size
a woman your age
The function postmodifier can also be realized by clauses, both finite and non-finite. Finite
postmodifying clauses comprise two types: relative clauses and appositive clauses. Relative clauses
are introduced by one of the relative pronouns who, whose, whom, which or that (Have a look at
KvdV). Who has personal reference, which has non-personal reference, while that has both
personal and non-personal reference.
There are two types of relative clause: the restrictive relative clause, which is used in order to
define the referent of the antecedent, and the non-restrictive relative clause, which has no such
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function; it provides additional information. The relative pronoun that is used in restrictive relative
clauses only. The difference between restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses is illustrated
by the following pair of examples. Note that a non-restrictive relative clause is preceded and
followed by a slight pause indicated in writing by a comma.
Englishmen who believe in ghosts are keen on Edgar Allen Poe
Englishmen, who believe in ghosts, are keen on Edgar Allen Poe
The first relative clause is restrictive, since it serves to identify the antecedent. The first sentence
does not state that all Englishmen are keen on Poe, but only those who believe in ghosts. In other
words, the function of the relative clause here is to set off one subclass of Englishmen (those who
believe in ghosts) from another (those who do not). The relative clause in the second sentence
does not have this function. The second sentence claims that all Englishmen are keen on Poe and
what the (non-restrictive) relative clause does is provide additional information (that all
Englishmen believe in ghosts).
Restrictive relative clauses:
This is the lady who/that sold me the tickets
Jim is a linguist for whom I have the greatest respect
The man (who(m)/that) you were talking to is my boss
Since his accident Peter has never been the man (that) he used to be
The lectures (which/that) he gave on Greek philosophy were very good
The brackets show that the relative pronoun in restrictive relative clauses can be left out unless it
functions as the subject of the clause or is immediately preceded by a preposition (as in the first
two examples).
Non-restrictive relative clauses:
Freud was an Austrian psychoanalyst, who died in 1939
This is Edward Jones, whose wife you have met, I believe
There are 25 students, who all specialize in linguistics
His library contained 5,000 books, which were all damaged by the fire
Appositive clauses:
Appositive clauses serve to describe the content of the preceding abstract noun. They are
introduced by that (subordinating conjunction) or by WH-words (interrogatives).
The proposal that he should retire
The question where he was hiding
The claim that the capital had been captured
The problem who should be invited
Note that appositive clauses can be preceded by a form of the copula be, but that relative clauses
cannot. The be-insertion test enables us to distinguish between the two types of clause.
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the proposal that he should retire
the proposal (that) he made
the proposal was that he should retire
*the proposal was (that) he made
In the last example that is a relative pronoun which functions as Direct Object and can be left out.
That in appositive clauses has no function, but is a subordinating conjunction and cannot be left
out.
Non-finite postmodifying clauses can also be divided into three types:
 infinitive clauses
 -ing participle clauses
 -ed participle clauses
their wish to emigrate to Australia
an example for you to imitate
children playing in the park
undergraduates wishing to read English
the situation described here
the plans outlined in this document
Discontinuous modifier (will not be dealt with in the test)
As we have seen above, in the structure of the noun phrase the head can be preceded by
premodifiers and followed by postmodifiers. In addition, it is possible for the modifying items to
partly precede and partly follow the head. In such cases the head interrupts a sequence of items
between which there exists a dependency (hence the label discontinuous modifier).
a difficult child to cope with
bigger cars than we had ever seen
as beautiful a city as Vancouver
3.2 The verb phrase (VP)
The verb phrase consists of verbal forms only which include multi-word verbs such as to bring up,
to turn on, to look down on, etc. If there is only one verbal form
(lexical verb or copula), we speak of a simple verb phrase. If there is more than one form the verb
phrase is complex. Both simple and complex verb phrases can be finite or non-finite. The first verb
of the VP determines whether a VP is finite or non-finite.
1. simple/finite
Peter writes novels
I admire his courage
Susan felt very tired
Curiosity killed the cat
2. simple/non-finite
We have, to put it mildly, our misgivings about your
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taking that job
To be quite frank, I did not like the performance very
much
They decided to leave
Considering all the things that could have gone
wrong, we really have no reason to complain
Absence makes the heart grow fonder
Convinced by this argument, she gave in at last
3. complex/finite
He has tried very hard
They will be meeting again next Tuesday
We should have discussed this earlier
They may have been arrested
4. complex/non-finite
Having waited there for two hours, we left
Having been warned in advance, she was a lot more
careful this time
She hates being invited to those awful parties
The examples show that in complex verb phrases the lexical verb or copula always comes last and
the modal auxiliary first. The auxiliary have, if present, invariably precedes the auxiliary be.
A complex verb phrase may contain one of the primary auxiliaries do, be and have. Note that the
auxiliary do does not as a rule occur with other auxiliaries. As illustrated by the examples below, be
functions as an auxiliary of the progressive or as an auxiliary of the passive. In general the
progressive denotes that the action expressed by the verb is, was or will be going on at a particular
moment or during a particular period, while the passive denotes that the action expressed by the
verb is undergone rather than performed by the subject of the sentence. The last two examples
show that the verb phrase can express progressive aspect and passive voice at the same time.
Progressive aspect only
He is writing a new novel
We were watching TV when the bell rang
She will be waiting for us at six
Passive voice only
Prisoners are punished if they do not comply with the
rules
Two children were killed in that accident
These measures will be introduced next year
Progressive aspect +
Passive voice
The house is being watched night and day
A new report was being written at the time
The whole finite verb phrase expresses tense. English has eight tenses in all. The examples below
show that the present perfect and past perfect tenses are formed by means of the auxiliary have,
the present future and past future tenses by means of the auxiliaries will/would or shall/should
and the present future perfect and past future perfect tenses by means of a combination of
will/would or shall/should and have.
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ACTIVE
PASSIVE
Simple Present
(o.t.t.)
Present Continuous
(o.t.t. + ‘duren’)
I walk
The letter is sent…
Ik loop
De brief wordt verstuurd
I am walking
It is being sent
Ik ben aan het lopen
Het wordt verstuurd
Simple Past
(o.v.t.)
Past Continuous
(o.v.t. + ‘duren’)
I walked
It was sent
Ik liep
Het werd verstuurd
I was walking
It was being sent
Ik was aan het lopen
Het werd verstuurd
Simple Perfect Present
(v.t.t.)
Present Perfect Continuous
(v.t.t. + ‘duren’)
I have walked
It has been sent
Ik heb gelopen
Het is verstuurd
I have been walking
---
Simple Past Perfect
(v.v.t)
Past Perfect Continuous
(v.v.t. + ‘duren’)
I had walked
It had been sent
Ik had gelopen
Het was verstuurd
I had been walking
---
Simple Present Future
(o.t.t.t.)
Present Future Continuous
(o.t.t.t. + ‘duren’)
I will walk
It will be sent
Ik zal lopen
Het zal verstuurd worden
I will be walking
---
Simple Past Future
(o.v.t.t.)
Past Future Continuous
(o.v.t.t. + ‘duren’)
I would walk
It would be sent
Ik zou lopen
He zou verstuurd worden
I would be walking
---
Ik heb gelopen
Ik had gelopen
Ik zal lopen
Ik zou lopen
Simple Present Future Perfect I will have walked
(v.t.t.t.)
Ik zal gelopen hebben
It will have been
sent
Het zal gestuurd zijn
Present Future Perfect
Continuous
(v.t.t.t. + ‘duren’)
I will have been walking
Simple Past Future Perfect
(v.v.t.t.)
I would have walked
---
Ik zal gelopen hebben
Ik zou gelopen hebben
It would have been
sent
Het zou gestuurd zijn
Past Future Perfect Continuous I would have been walking
(v.v.t.t. + ‘duren’)
Ik zou gelopen hebben
---
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3.3 The adjective phrase (AdjP)
The head of an adjective phrase is always realized by an adjective. Apart from the head the
structure of an adjective phrase may contain an optional modifier. There are three possibilities:
the modifier is realized by words that precede the head (premodifier), by words that follow the
head (postmodifier) or by sequences that are interrupted by the head (discontinuous modifier).
The function premodifier is realized by adverb phrases:
most interesting
rather good
horribly cruel
exceptionally intelligent
hardly less dull
considerably more readable
The function postmodifier may be realized by the adverb enough (AdvP), by a prepositional phrase
and by a clause (finite or non-finite).
wide enough
good enough to pass the exam
friendly to one’s neighbours
proud of her achievements
AdvP
good at playing tennis
surprised at what she said next
(My father was) glad that he was able to retire early
(I am not) sure who broke into your office
PP
Clause
(They were) afraid to disturb us
(Frank was) foolish not to turn up
In adjective phrases containing a discontinuous modifier the head is preceded by so, as, more, less
or too and followed by a clause or phrase. There exists a dependency relation between the words
that precede and those that follow the head.
We were so tired that we went straight to bed
Your daughter is as pretty as your wife
This sounds more attractive than what you said last night
She is too sensible to do such a stupid thing
*Note: no discontinuous modifier in the test.
3.4 The adverb phrase (AdvP)
The adverb phrase head is always realized by an adverb.
Modifier
The adverb phrase head, like the adjective phrase head, may be modified by three types of
(optional) modifiers: a premodifier, a postmodifier or a discontinuous modifier. The function
premodifier is realized by adverb phrases.
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fairly fluently
too soon
incredibly well extremely late
nearly always
much more frequently
The adverb phrase head can be postmodified by enough as well as by a finite than-clause.
easily enough
slowly enough to understand him
(This plane flies) faster than experts had expected
(This car is going to sell) better than our competitors predicted
In adverb phrases containing a discontinuous modifier the head is preceded by one of the items
so, as, more, less or too and followed by a clause or phrase.
He spoke so bluntly as to put us off
Mae West dies as recently as 1980
That statement has been formulated less carefully than it should have been
The taxi arrived too late for us to catch the plane
*Note: discontinuous modifier not in test.
3.5 The prepositional phrase (PP)
In the structure of the prepositional phrase the preposition (simple or complex) is followed by a
prepositional complement (PC). The PC can be realized by a noun phrase, a WH-clause, an –ing
participle clause or another prepositional phrase.
in London
after the news
across the river
beyond the horizon
(She felt hurt) because of what you said
(Are you afraid) of what might happen?
(Several people were sent to prison) for not paying their taxes
(Am I right) in believing that you would now vote Labour?
(He pulled a gun) from under his seat
(She beckoned) from behind the bar
Note that a prepositional phrase may be introduced by an adverb phrase or by a noun phrase.
straight over the wall
just after midnight
well behind schedule
two days before the meeting
some time after the accident
two miles under water
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The two immediate constituents of a prepositional phrase, the preposition and the prepositional
complement, do not always immediately follow each other. When the preposition is left on its
own at the end of a sentence or clause, it is said to be ‘stranded’. This is also referred to as
preposition stranding.
Chapter 4
The functions of phrases
All phrases can function as constituents of the sentence or clause. Moreover, with the exception of
the verb phrase, they can function in the structure of other phrases. Thus the noun phrase good
food, the adjective phrase very pretty, the adverb phrase beautifully and the prepositional phrase
in London function at sentence level in the first four examples below and at phrase level in the last
four examples.
Sentence level
I love good food
Your daughters are very pretty
She sings beautifully
I met your brother in London
Phrase level
I’ve just bought the good food guide
Jim’s solution was beautifully simple
You have very pretty daughters
I remember your brother in London
In this section we deal with the functions of each phrase at both sentence and phrase level. In the
structure of the sentence we distinguish the following functions, each of which can be realized by
a phrase:
Subject
Predicator
Direct Object
Indirect Object
S
P
DO
IO
Benefactive Object
Subject Attribute
Object Attribute
Adverbial
BO
SA
OA
A
For further information on functions see the reader Syntax 1.
4.1 The noun phrase
At sentence level the noun phrase can have any function except that of predicator. At phrase level
the noun phrase is typically used as an immediate constituent in prepositional phrases. Less typical
is its use in the structure of noun phrases, adjective phrases and adverb phrases.
Sentence level
S
Our chairman is very efficient
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DO
IO
SA
OA
A
We elected our chairman last year
We have given our chairman a new job
Jim will be our chairman next year
When did we elect Jim our chairman?
The accident occurred last week
Phrase level
in PP
throughout the country
without my permission
in NP
women your age
An ulcer the size of an egg
in AdjP
two miles long
in AdvP
a day earlier
in England
at Christmas
four inches wide
the week before
Noun phrases like women your age must be distinguished from appositional constructions like the
following:
Paul Flint, her present husband
pollution, a major political issue
Florence, the most beautiful city in Italy
Professor Atkins, the Dean of our Faculty
The units in apposition are called appositives. If both appositives are noun phrases, they can often
be reversed. They have the same reference, the same syntactic function and either of them can be
omitted.
Paul Flint, her present husband, is a musician
Her present husband, Paul Flint, is a musician
Her present husband is a musician
Paul Flint is a musician
4.2 The verb phrase
The verb phrase (both finite and non-finite) can only function as predicator in the structure of the
sentence or clause. The predicator is always realized by a verb phrase.
The children are sleeping
He must have been killed at once
You should have copied that letter
I have been ill since last week
(Treating him like that) is unfair
(To hold her responsible) was
impossible
We want (Catherine to marry him)
I hate (John doing such things)
Note that the constituents in brackets are clauses within sentences.
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4.3 The adjective phrase
At sentence level adjective phrases are used predicatively, that is as realizations of SA or OA. At
phrase level they are normally used attributively, that is as premodifiers in the structure of the
noun phrase. Examples of predicative use (sentence level):
SA
My beer is cold
John is rich
My soup is hot
OA
I prefer my beer cold
Would you call John rich?
I like my soup hot
Examples of attributive use (phrase level):
intelligent students
a wonderful solution
John’s expensive car
the new policy
bright sunshine
some exceptionally fine paintings
In some cases an attributive AdjP follows the noun phrase head.
a case apart
postmaster general
China proper
the people present
the facts concerned
the problems involved
Adjective phrases also follow the noun phrase head when they are further complemented:
A woman more jealous than John’s wife I have never met
Students willing to take the exam in May can do so
Plans capable of being realized now should not be delayed
Although the majority of adjectives can be used both attributively and predicatively, some
adjectives are always attributive, others always predicative.
Attributive only
Predicative only
the main cause
the principal reason
the inner city
a mere child
his former mistress
sheer stupidity
utter nonsense
afraid
alone
alive
asleep
awake
aware (of)
ill
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4.4 The adverb phrase
When used as constituents of the sentence, adverb phrases function as realizations of A. In the
structure of phrases they chiefly occur as premodifiers in adjective and adverb phrases, but also as
postmodifiers in noun phrases.
Note: Sometimes you can come across an adverb phrase at phrase level as a premodifier in the
prepositional phrase, e.g. straight through his heart. But this will not be asked in the test.
Sentence level
Jim paints beautifully
Surprisingly, he did not turn up
They had already left
Perhaps he is right
Have you ever been to Paris? Frankly, I do not believe you
Phrase level
Premodifier in AdjP
exceptionally brave
hardly fair
extremely nice
Premodifier in AdvP quite well
rather tolerantly
most carefully
practically impossible
increasingly difficult
awfully good
equally simple
too quickly
very frequently
As sentence constituents adverb phrases can have a wide range of meanings. First, they can
express time, place, manner and degree.
I am meeting Jane tonight
My brother does not live here
She speaks English fluently
The girls absolutely adore their French teacher
They can also serve to express the speaker’s attitude towards what he is saying, as in:
Frankly, I think you’re wrong
Fortunately, no one was injured
Finally, they function as links (not as conjunctions!) between one sentence and another:
My mother did not feel well. So she did not come
Mary does not work hard. She is very intelligent, though
Peter is seriously ill. Still, we have not lost all hope
My brother has a very good income. Besides he is married to a rich wife
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4.5 The prepositional phrase
At sentence level the prepositional phrase may realize the functions A, SA or OA (rarely S). At
phrase level it chiefly occurs as a postmodifier in noun phrases and adjective phrases, but also
sometimes as prepositional complement.
Sentence level
A
My parents live in the country
We met in a pub
This picture was painted by Turner
He is coming on Sunday
SA
After two years in prison he is at liberty (free)
OA
The news of the team’s victory sent the town into great excitement
S
After nine is a good time to ring
Phrase level
postmodifier in NP
whisky on the rocks
a room with a view
an introduction to syntax
differences of opinion
postmodifier in AdjP
fond of chocolate
afraid of being alone
green with envy
rich in minerals
prepositional complement in PP
From under the bed
21
Chapter 5
Additional notes
Provisional Subject and Provisional Object
When the subject of a sentence is a clause, finite or non-finite, an alternative structure is possible
in which the clause is put at the end. We then get a Provisional Subject, realized by a NP of which
the head is ‘it’ (personal pronoun). The clause at the end is called the Real Subject.
Provisional Subject: NP + real Subject = clause finite or non-finite
Prov.S = Provisional Subject
Real S = Real Subject
It
is
impossible at this late hour to talk about this.
prov.S P
SA
A
Real S.
NP
VP
Adjp
PP
non-finite clause
H :pers.pronoun
to-infinitive
Unfortunately it seems quite unlikely that Jerry used such an expression.
A
Prov.S P
SA
Real S.
Advp
NP
VP Adjp
finite clause
Provisional DO + real DO clause finite or non-finite
When the direct object of a sentence is a clause, finite or non-finite, followed by an object
attribute, the clause is normally put at the end. We then get a Provisional Direct Object, realized
by a NP of which the head is ‘it’. The clause at the end is called the Real Direct Object.
We consider it a bad plan that he should be chairman.
S
P prov.DO OA
Real DO
NP VP NP
NP
finite clause
That day we thought it desirable to start a little earlier.
A
S
P prov.DO OA
Real DO
NP
NP VP NP Adjp non-finite clause
to-infinitive
= S – P – prov. DO – OA – real DO clause
22
Chapter 6
Summary
Phrases can function as constituents of the sentence but also (with the exception of the verb
phrase) in the structure of other phrases. The major possibilities are given below:
Phrase type
NP
In sentence
S, DO, IO, BO, SA,
OA, A
VP
AdjP
AdvP
Predicator
SA, OA
Adverbial
PP
Adverbial, SA, OA,
IO, BO
Function
In other phrases
prepositional complement in PP
postmodifier in NP
premodifier in AdjP or AdvP or NP
--premodifier in NP
premodifier in AdjP or AdvP
postmodifier in NP
postmodifier in NP or AdjP
prepositional complement
Room for personal notes:
23
Extra notes Syntax 2
Functions on sentence/clause level: S, P, SA, DO, IO, BO, OA, A
Functions inside phrases:
det, prem, head, postm, prep, pc
Realizations:
phrase or clause
Word class:
noun, adjective, def. article, copula, etc.
The Noun Phrase
Structure (constituents):
Functions:
Realizations:
The angry man in the corridor (looks rather agitated)
det. prem. head
d.art. AdjP noun
Determiner
Premodifier
 occurs only in
 can be more
the NP
than one
 realized by word  can only be
class or NP
realized by a
(specifying
phrase
genitive)
 doesn’t give a
quality of the
head
postmod.
PP
Head
Postmodifier
 realized by word  can be more
class
than one
 can be realized
by a phrase or a
clause
NP
Adjp
Advp
Phrase → PP
restrictive
NP→ postm. →
rel. clause → non-restrictive
Clause → finite → ap. clause
non-finite → -ed participle clause
-ing-participle clause
to-infinitive clause
Example: the dog kidnapped by the villain
Genitive → specifying or classifying?
Specific genitive
my neighbour’s house
my neighbour’s large house
NP
det



head
prem.
my neighbour’s = equivalent to ‘his’
specifies who it belongs to/refers to a specific person (not a quality!)
can have a premodifier between the determiner (genitive) and the head
24

mind that the whole phrase is determiner, f.e. my previous neighbour’s
Classifying genitive
a children’s book
d



NP
prem.
head
only the noun in the genitive indicates the class of the following noun, it gives a quality
classifying genitive is a premodifier
genitive + noun can sometimes be a compound noun
Room for personal notes:
25
26
27
THE INTRANSITIVE OR TRANSITIVE VERBS
Lexical Verb
A main verb is also known as a lexical verb. The main verb in a verb phrase is the word that expresses the
activity, event, or feeling etc. that is being described in the sentence. There are two kinds of lexical verb:
i) Intransitive verb
ii) Transitive verb
i) Intransitive Verb
A lexical verb that has neither a Subject Attribute nor a Direct Object is an intransitive verb. All
intransitive verbs are action verbs. E.g.:
My brother never smokes in the house.
ii) Transitive Verb
A lexical verb that has a direct object is a transitive verb. Some transitive verbs have both a direct
object (DO) and an indirect object (IO). Transitive comes from the Latin word 'transire', meaning 'to
go across'. The action of the verb 'goes across' from the subject of the verb to the DO. E.g.:
I like cows.
It is further divided into three classes:
a) Monotransitive Verbs
Monotransitive verbs have only one object, a direct object. E.g.:
I know the answer (DO).
b) Ditransitive Verbs
Ditransitive verbs have two objects: a direct object and an indirect object or a benefactive
object. E.g.:
I told him (IO) the answer (DO).
c) Complex Transitive Verbs
Complex transitive verbs have a direct object and a word or phrase that says something
about the direct object. This is called the object attribute (OA). E.g.:
They have painted their house (DO) purple (OA).
I will prove you (DO) wrong (OA).
N.B. Some verbs can be transitive, intransitive and linking verbs (copulas)! Which class of verb it is depends
on the sentence:
She could smell the smoke. (transitive verb)
The rose smells sweet. (copula)
Your feet smell. (intransitive)
Source: http://english.learnhub.com/lesson/12077-classification-of-verbs
28
Syntax 1 Voorbeeldtentamen
 Analyse the following sentences (Subject, etc.) – 30 points
1. In the first century AD Pompeii was a prosperous resort town.
2. The Chinese created a huge empire in the centuries before Christ.
3. Professor Wallace-Hadrill was standing in the well-preserved courtyard of an ancient town.
4. Rome set up a quasi-representative form of government in 509 BC.
5. The Italian archaeologist Antonio Varone showed me his collection of some 5,000 pieces of
plaster.
6. Japan has become a global economic superpower over the past half century.
7. American geologists consider the south of the island an unsafe zone.
8. Joe Devine, a scientist from Brown University, got his colleague some rock samples.
9. Unfortunately, those houses could not resist the force of Hurricane Hugo.
10. Because of the protests, the government has given the farmers new land.
 Do the following sentences contain a Subject Attribute, a Direct Object, or neither? Underline
them. – 5 points
1. The gambler’s luck turned sour one stormy night.
2. The volcano remained relatively silent until July 1995.
3. Many farmers will not remain on their land so close to the crater.
4. The lava turned a tree-shaded valley into a moonscape.
5. A mile further south the road turned toward the old villages.
 Underline all the adverbials in the following sentences – 6 points
1. There were essentially three classes of people in republican Rome.
2. Inside the hot sports hall, sweat was running in rivers down the chest of the sumo wrestler.
3. Half a mile from the volcano, Gerard Dyer was rapidly loading the sweet potatoes into an
old pickup truck.
29
4. Since July 1995 about 5,000 people have been evacuated to the northern hills from villages
near the crater because of the eruptions.
 Underline the Predicator in the following sentences, point out the finite verb, and say what kind
of non-finite forms follow. State also of each verb what kind of verb it is. – 9 points
1. Until 1995 the islanders led idyllic lives.
2. Judith and Cedric have been staying with friends in Plymouth.
3. The Roman state must have been a cultural melting pot.
4. The defeated general and his army were led away in chains by the Romans.
 Parse the following sentences (Noun, etc.) – 18 points
1. Two marvellous pictures in that sale were small portraits by Renoir.
2. Their quarrel over a lottery ticket has now become absolutely ridiculous and they will
perhaps go to a lawyer.
3. Which book is creating all this fuss?
 Translate the underlined words into English and account for your translations – 10 points
1. Hij weigerde heel beleefd een vierde portie van die vreselijk droge rijstschotel.
2. Hun aankomst om 8 uur is nog niet zeker; we zullen het u zeker laten weten als we meer
weten.
3. “Zoveel warme aandacht lijkt aangenaam, maar gaat buitengewoon onaangenaam op de
zenuwen werken,” zei hij droog
 Are the following clauses Direct Object clause or Adverbial clause? – 4 points
1. At the ticket window Mr Evans asked when the next train left for Durham.
2. He opened the letter when he felt calmer.
3. The men were fighting when the police came.
4. Sally could not remember when she has last been to the cinema.
The end
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Syntax 2: Exercises
Warm-up:
1. Give a definition of the phrase.
2. How many types of phrases can we distinguish?
3. What do we understand by the structure of a phrase?
4. What is the head of a phrase?
5. In what respects do the verb phrase and the prepositional phrase differ from
the other phrase types?
What kind of phrase are the underlined constituents? In the case of noun, adjective or adverb
phrase, indicate the head.
1. To the Kogi Indians of Columbia the three things at the beginning of life are mother, night
and water.
2. The farmers were becoming very angry about the water shortage.
3. The wildly popular Flying Dragon snake farm in Panyu sells snake-based meals and
traditional medicines.
4. I met Ping in a clothing factory’s four-storey dormitory.
5. An estimated 1.5 billion dollars will be spent on underground rail lines.
6. In the 1980s Hong Kong very rapidly evolved into a capital of banking, insurance and trade
management.
7. Australian Aborigines endured a policy of cultural and linguistic assimilation.
8. Young children were quite often sent to boarding schools.
9. A dozen members of the native American Tlingit tribe were sitting in a circle at the
community centre in Klawock.
10. Forty years ago, every tribe member was completely fluent in the language.
11. For much of this century in New Zealand, the decline in fluent Maori speakers was
seemingly irreversible.
12. The Maori salutation “kia ora” is increasingly used instead of “hello”.
13. The outside of the building can be cleaned from the walkway gutters.
14. Bill’s skill at managing the magazine’s finances was truly amazing.
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15. A group of singers very slowly made its way to the front of the church.
16. The current International Boxing Federation light heavyweight champion considers an
imminent defeat highly unlikely.
1) Identify the noun phrases at sentence level in the sentences below.
1. I’m sure the book will be an important historical document.
2. His novel is going to be published as a paperback.
3. A free press is essential to a democracy.
4. Our cash machines allow you to withdraw cash 24 hours a day.
5. She had been writing songs since she was a kid.
6. The album surprised even her closest colleagues.
7. If you are not satisfied, return within 7 days for a refund.
8. This was the most unglamorous task in my daily routine.
9. The fact that I love her is irrelevant.
2) Describe the structure of the following noun phrases, i.e. identify the head,
the determiner(s) and the pre- and postmodifier(s).
1. This tiresome task I had to perform
2. A lengthy meeting to thrash out a strategy
3. A stool at the end of the bar
4. A delightful sense of humour
5. Travels with my aunt
6. Another totally pointless idea from America
3) Analyse the following noun phrases and give the different types of
modifiers and the realisations.
1. our English customers
2. a fairy-tale castle in France
3. her new career as a song writer
4. this course of action
5. a letter from your bank
6. the house they had bought in the country
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7. a good example of ambiguity
8. students wishing to enrol on this course
4) Analyse the following phrases. Are the genitives below classifying or
specifying? Explain your answer.
1. her parents’ marriage
2. Germany’s wines
3. a dog’s life
4. my neighbour’s grandson
5. children’s books
6. a workaholic’s schedule
7. her husband’s secretary
8. a summer’s day
9. Peter’s signature
5) Identify the whole NP and then state by what type of clause the italicized nouns in
the sentences are post-modified?
1. A long time ago there was a pop group called The Beatles.
2. We knew we’d never have time to go out a lot.
3. The fact that he has retired doesn’t matter.
4. She was a waitress dreaming of a holiday in Paris.
5. Is this the car you rented?
6. She talked about the new spirit sweeping through Russian literature.
7. He was the first man to arrive on the spot.
8. The first prize went to a film directed by Tim Walsh.
9. She introduced me to David, who turned out to b a dentist.
6) Say whether the relative clauses in the sentences below are restrictive or
non-restrictive. Explain your answer.
1. You may recall a story I wrote some time ago.
2. He has fallen in love with Felicity, who is good-looking and intelligent.
3. There were 10 questions, none of which he could answer.
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4. He is a man whose loyalty I doubt.
5. Add up the monthly repayments you’re making now.
6. I was standing in a queue with two friends, one of whom was an American.
7. The Prime Minister, who is in the United States, is returning tomorrow.
8. This is the kind of car that I would like to have.
9. He is a talented pianist, who could play Mozart at 12.
10. The windows, which hadn’t been cleaned for months, were quite dirty.
7) Identify the verb phrase(s) in the sentences below.
1. Candidates will be called up for an interview next week.
2. This is made worse by the uncertainty that comes from having a Socialist President.
3. Some signs already point to better times ahead.
4. The first of these questions is no longer controversial as it was.
5. He should accept that his future lies in the Tory Party.
6. More competition could do much to improve the National Health Service.
7. Until this week few people in England believed in fairy tales.
8. Applications should be forwarded to the Personnel Manager.
9. Academic economists who have taken early retirement would be welcome to apply.
10. This is an interesting position providing the prospect of real job satisfaction.
8) Are the verb phrases in the following sentences finite or
non-finite?
1. The lower oil price has left Middle East countries poorer.
2. To begin with, the agreement has three aims.
3. We asked to see samples of the type of work they had done.
4. That means encouraging individuals to accept responsibility.
5. Why go to work when most of your neighbours stay at home?
6. Britain can learn several lessons from America’s experience.
7. Many countries have started making their own equipment.
8. The Protestants have spent 20 months opposing the Anglo-Irish agreement.
9. Britain has never found it easy to take cultural diplomacy seriously.
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10. Obliging the jobless to work is more acceptable than it used to be.
9) a) Give the functions.
b) Pick out the adjective phrases and give their functions.
c) Identify the head and the pre- and postmodifiers.
1. Many people are desperate for a roof over their heads.
2. She’s now a very active member of the parents’ council.
3. It was a most depressing experience.
4. My children are very fond of reading.
5. Parking space is predictably inadequate.
6. She is afraid that she might fail the exam again.
10) a) Give the functions.
b) Pick out the adverb phrases and give their functions.
c) Identify the head and the pre- and postmodifiers.
1. I slowly began to feel a sense of hope.
2. Hurriedly, I made a second appointment to see my client.
3. Muslim parents are more frequently concerned about religious teaching.
4. Behind him a group of teenagers quietly played softball.
5. He will presumably remain his party’s choice as presidential candidate.
6. Many investors, quite rightly, regard America as the land of opportunity.
7. Frankly, what he said is nonsensical.
8. We take the question of quality very seriously.
9. Don’t you think they work hard enough?
11) a) Give the functions.
b) Pick out the prepositional phrases and give their functions.
c) Identify the prepositional complement and state how it’s realised.
1. This book is about a role for a non-nuclear Britain.
2. In fighting this epidemic, it is crucial that attention is paid to the facts.
3. She’s terribly fond of her children.
4. Life in the south is not all roses.
5. It is not my intention to be patronising in the slightest degree.
35
6. I’m afraid he is beyond help.
7. Jane practices the piano for two hours a day.
8. The bullet went straight through his heart.
9. My initial reaction was one of anger.
10. Those who fail the test will be punished by having their driving licenses taken away for a
year.
12) a) Identify all the phrases in the following sentences (at both sentence or
clause level and phrase level); indicate in each case whether the phrase
functions at sentence or at phrase level.
1. Three die in Belfast bar attack. (note: this is a newspaper headline)
2. Three men were shot dead in a crowded bar.
3. The shooting in the bar was a ‘loyalist’ attack.
4. Crowbars and baseball bats were used to kill a 19-year-old youth.
5. The police described the attack as inhuman.
6. The gang of between six and eight youths escaped in a taxi.
7. The judge will give the terrorists the opportunity to put their side of the story.
8. The security aspects have not been fully studied.
9. What did you call the device which set of the explosives?
b) Label the functions of all the noun phrases in the previous exercise at
sentence level.
c) Consider once more the verb phrases in sentences 5-9, and identify the
sentence/clause in which each verb phrase functions as P.
d) Label the functions of all the adjective phrases (at both sentence and
phrase level). State in each case whether the adjective phrase is used
predicatively or attributively.
e) What is the function of the adverb phrase fully in sentence 8?
f) Label the functions of the prepositional phrases in sentences 1-3. Both at
sentence and at phrase level.
h) Label the functions of the three prepositional phrases in sentence 6.
13) Determine whether the italicized noun phrases below function at sentence
or at phrase level.
1. The woman had lost her jewelry box.
2. Manuel is the leader of our movement.
36
3. Someone your age should not drink malt whisky.
4. I have never seen a hotel this size.
5. Sally is only five foot tall.
14) State whether the verbs are a) monotransitive b) ditransitive c) complex
transitive d) copula verbs e)intransitive.
1. Ursula met Justin in Budapest.
2. Her mother is a Hungarian countess.
3. The victim was wearing red gym-shoes.
4. This novel has made Lincoln immortal.
5. Twelve students failed the exam in June.
6. A friend of mine is giving a party on her birthday.
7. The streets in Vienna are immaculate.
8. He called himself a victim of society.
9. The headmistress gave more than half of the pupils a formal warning.
10. Lady Wyndham’s mother lived until 1972.
15) Determine the Subject of each of the following sentences. How is the
Subject realized in each of the sentences?
1. Money in the form of credit cards is becoming a national obsession in Britain.
2. The British are head and shoulders above the rest of Europe as users of plastic money.
3. Salisbury has hotels and guest houses of all sizes.
4. Ten black miners fell to their deaths in a lift accident at the Harmony gold mine, south of
Johannesburg.
5. It is the dream of every journalist to bring down and incompetent government singlehanded.
6. Two boys were sent home after the incident.
7. Police this year are likely to get a pay award of between 7 and 8 per cent.
8. There is no heavy industry or high technology in this area.
9. In most London gentlemen’s clubs it is bad form to talk shop.
37
16) State whether there is a copula or a lexical verb. Then state if the lexical verb is a
a) intransitive, b) monotransitive, c) ditransitive or d) complex transitive
verb.
1. The United States has the fourth-largest Spanish-speaking population in the world.
2. Lawsuits against universities are becoming increasingly common.
3. His heart felt heavy and sad.
4. They lived in a small flat off Cavendish Square.
5. Peter slammed the door shut.
6. This neighbourhood has not changed much.
7. She poured the children each a mug of hot chocolate.
8. It is hard for me to speak about it now.
9. What did she say to you?
10. Could you give me his telephone number, please?
17) a) Identify the DO in the following sentences, and in each case state:
how the DO is realized.
b) State what kind of VP/lexical verb precedes it (monotransitive, di…).
c) Identify the IO in the sentences and state in each case how the IO is realized.
d) Identify the BO in the sentences and state in each case how the BO is realized.
1. He picked up the old leather valise in his left hand.
2. What have you eaten for lunch?
3. Jennie gave him a winning smile.
4. I’ll have to have your name and address, sir.
5. We know that we must try again.
6. Did he tell the police what had happened to him?
7. We could hear the football crowd shouting.
8. He sometimes called his wife ‘old girl’.
9. Next time I will make you a delicious quiche Lorraine.
10. The accident has cost several people their lives.
11. The gentleman nodded his head reflectively.
12. Most politicians think it unlikely that a peace agreement will soon be reached.
13. Put all the details in a letter.
14. Martin hoped that some day he would also be able to make a speech like that.
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15. He bought himself an expensive bottle of malt whiskey.
16. She saw the man staring at her.
17. We asked them where they lived.
18. The policeman offered her a cigarette.
18) Identify the SA in the following sentences, and in each case state how the
SA is realized.
1. These are things you don’t think about.
2. Michael was at pains to warn the children not to go near the fire.
3. Your omelette tastes delicious.
4. ‘What is your name, my dear?’
5. We were left in no doubt that he really meant what he was saying.
6. His favourite sports remain tennis and golf.
7. None of this may seem of crucial importance.
8. The main consideration is that the refugees should go home as soon as possible.
9. Admiral Gorshkov was made a Hero of the Soviet Union in 1965.
10. Both of my friend’s parents died young.
19) Identify the OA in the following sentences, and in each case state how the
OA is realized.
1. The police caught the man red-handed.
2. We are holding you responsible for all this.
3. This makes Athens one of the world’s most polluted cities.
4. He considered it wiser not to react to their blunt questions.
5. Why did they call us traitors?
20) Identify the adverbials in the following sentences, and in each case state
how it is realised.
1. Incidentally, have you ever been in London?
2. The letters had been found in her jewellery box after her death.
3. In the final days of the war, Max was held prisoner in a bunker.
39
4. Betty stuck to the lie through thick and thin, thinking she would be punished if she told the
truth.
5. If you get too close, the dog may bite you.
6. Where do I go from here?
7. To start with, there’s no proof that any of the allegations are true.
8. He stopped suddenly, alert.
21) What are simple, complex and compound sentences? Give examples.
22) State whether the following sentences are simple, complex or compound.
1. Earlier this year, at their conference, teachers proposed a contract which would hold
parents financially responsible for any damage their children cause at school.
2. What constitutes really reprehensible behaviour varies considerably from school to school.
3. Parents want their children to be treated sensitively.
4. Whenever I visit the United States, I am struck by the American belief that with hard work
everything is still possible.
5. Mr Harris opened the envelope and unfolded the message.
6. John’s nose seems permanently damaged.
7. Given a few more years he will be able to buy a piece of land.
8. The children sang while they played.
9. She was listless and depressed much of the time.
23) Complex and compound sentences for analysis. Categories and functions at first
level only.
Example:
John
S
NP
/
said
P
VP
/
that he was ill.
DO
finite clause
1. Travelling across Russia on the Trans Siberian Railroad is a journey of epic
proportions.
2. My very first night on the train I learned how persistent old Soviet attitudes can be.
3. At one point in our conversation, Zakharova told me to look out the window.
4. Even a brief visit made it plain that Boris Yeltsin’s reforms have badly affected the city.
40
5. The main problem is that we do not yet know the effects of exposure to such smoke-laden
air.
6. Supplementing his meager income, Lawrence translated The Odyssey for an American
publisher.
7. Though he believed in their drive for independence, Lawrence knew that the Bedouin
would not be moved to heroism by Western ideals.
8. He was often called in to settle petty disputes.
9. In the daytime the algae add oxygen to the water, but at night they use it up.
10. The officer threatened to flog the man in front of the whole village.
11. Attaching the heavy skull and jaws at the end of the skeleton’s long neck could prove
dangerous.
12. The journalist scribbled in his notebook, as the shadow of the helicopter floated over the
Millennium Dome.
13. Shivering in my wet sleeping bag, I woke up on the 58th day of my journey.
14. At least eleven North American tribes understood that they could relieve pain with extracts
from the willow tree.
15. This environmental organization works with local people to preserve the country’s natural
resources.
16. In 1994, the country was considering selling off up to 40 per cent of its forest to Asian
logging concerns.
17. If we had travelled here overland from Paramaribo, the trip would have taken a month.
18. What disturbed some Afghans was the Taliban’s religious orthodoxy.
19. Our vision for business people is that better communication will improve their business
relationships.
20. It is understandable that they rely on their shortwave radio.
41
ADDITIONAL MATERIAL
Produce ten English sentences with one or two (optional or obligatory) adverbials, the A’s being
realized as follows (the A’s may occur initially, medially or finally in the sentence; if a sentence is
to contain two A’s, you must put them in the order given).
1. A: Advp
2. A: non-finite clause
3. A: PP
4. A: Advp (place) and A: Advp (time); both A’s in sentence-final position
5. A: verbless clause
6. A: NP
7. A: finite clause
8. A: Advp and A: PP; both A’s in sentence initial position
9. A: PP and A: Advp; both A’s in sentence initial position
Identify the tenses in the following sentences.
1. I am sure that Jenny would have passed that exam.
2. Ownership of consumer durables is pretty evenly spread across the country.
3. You had not told me that you were moving.
4. The programme will be seen next year by millions of Chinese each week.
5. Visitors to England and Wales are annoyed that they cannot buy a glass of beer in the midafternoon.
6. Five British men in every 100,000 die of liver cirrhosis each year.
7. In 2000 she will have been teaching for 25 years.
8. Liberalisation in Scotland has had little influence on problem drinking.
9. The Portuguese discovered the art of navigating the world.
10. Would you agree that this solution is more satisfactory?
THE END
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