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PARTS OF SPEECH,
WORDS, CLAUSES
and CONJUNCTIONS
DR. ANEEQA AHSAN
A MUST FOR EFFECTIVE
COMMUNICATION IN BUSINESS
GOALS and OBJECTIVES
• Display a functional understanding of
English for everyday use as well as for an
effective business environment
• To overall improve oral/spoken and written
English language
• Have an understanding of contemporary
styles and formats of writing for business
communication
Parts of Speech
• Learning about the parts of speech is the first step
in grammar study just as learning the letters of the
alphabet is the first step to being able to read and
write
• From learning the parts of speech we begin to
understand the use or function of words and how
words are joined together to make meaningful
communication.
• To understand what a part of speech is, you must
understand the idea of putting similar things
together into groups or categories.
Categories
COLORS
FRUITS
DRINKS
LANGUAGES
blue
banana
milk
Spanish
red
apple
water
Arabic
yellow
orange
soda
Japanese
green
grape
beer
English
black
lemon
coffee
Korean
Categorize the following things:
a) violin
b) hammer
c) drums
d) piano
e) guitar
a) hammer
b) saw
c) violin
d) screwdriver
e) wrench
8 Parts of Speech
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Noun
Pronoun
Adjective
Adverb
Conjunctions
Interjections
Verb
Preposition
THE FUNCTION OF “WORDS”
• FORM A SENTENCE TO CONVEY MEANING
•
SOME GIVE NAMES TO THINGS ( IDENTITY )
•
OTHERS DESCRIBE THINGS ( ABOUT )
•
OTHERS TELL WHAT HAPPENED TO THEM
( ACTION )
WORD STUDY
A word is a linguistic unit that
can be moved around relatively freely in a
sentence;
can be stressed;
can be pronounced naturally on its own.
CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS
• By level of usage
– Common words
– Literary words
– Colloquial words
– Slang words
– Technical words
• Common words
– Common words are connected with the ordinary
things or activities necessary to everyday life. The
core of the common words is the basic word
stock. They are stylistically neutral, hence they are
appropriate in both formal and informal writing
and speech. For example: far, away, joy, happy
• Literary words
– Literary words are chiefly used in writing, especially in
books written in a more elevated style, in official
documents, or in formal speeches. They are comparatively
seldom used in ordinary conversation. In English, most of
the literary words are of French, Latin or Greek origin.
Many of them have their everyday synonyms. For
example,far(remote,distant),happy (gleeful,gay,hilarious),
cast (throw), edifice (building), endeavor (try), purchase
(buy), etc.
– More examples: recognition, distinction, inclination…
• Colloquial words
– In contrast with literary words, colloquial words or
expressions are used mainly in spoken English, as
in conversations amongst friends and colleagues.
They can also be used in informal writings, but are
inappropriate in formal speeches or writings. They
are marked colloq. or informal in dictionaries.
Such as: kid, guy, fellow, gay…
• Slang words
• being often used by uneducated speakers , with dialectal
words
• being highly informal , vivid and interesting
– Slang is defined as language, words or phrases of a colorful (playfully
jocular; humorous), or taboo nature, invented for specific occasions,
or uses, or derived from the unconventional use of the standard
vocabulary.
– The chief reason for the formation and use of slang expressions is to
secure freshness and novelty.
– A slang usage is not generally used in formal conversation unless the
speakers are on intimate terms; slang embraces those daring and new
expressions that have not been accepted by the majority of people as
Standard English.
Eg:
– Smoky, bear (police)
– Nut, bean, block (head)
• Technical words
– Most of these technical terms are Latin or Greek in origin.
In fact, they are part of literary words. Most of the
technical words remain essentially foreign to outsiders,
even to educated native speakers.
– However, under the influence of radio, television,
newspaper and the Internet, we are witnessing a
remarkable breakdown of the barrier between technical
and common words.
– Many technical words created yesterday by specialists are
today heard in ordinary conversation, e.g. moonwalk,
space shutter, gene, transgenic, clone, etc.
SMALL EXERCISE
– Feeling fatigued , Tom retired early.
– Tom felt so dog-tired he hit the sack early.
– John was dismissed for petty thieving.
– John was fired for petty thieving.
– Penalties for overdue books will be strictly
enforced.
– You have got to pay fines for overdue books.
– They approved of the plan.
– They agreed to the plan.
NOUN
Word that names
• A Person
• An Idea
• A Thing
• A Place
Kinds of noun; common and proper, singular
and plural;
VERB
•
A word that expresses action or otherwise helps to make a
statement.
• A verb is often defined as a word which shows action or
state of being.
• The verb is the heart of a sentence - every sentence must
have a verb.
• Recognizing the verb is often the most important step in
understanding the meaning of a sentence.
• In the sentence :The dog bit the man, bit is the verb and the
word which shows the action of the sentence.
• In the sentence: The man is sitting on a chair, even though
the action doesn't show much activity, sitting is the verb of
the sentence.
PRONOUN
• The pronoun is a word used in place of one or more
nouns. It may stand for a person, place, thing, or
idea.
• Personal Pronouns : I, me, mine you, your, yours she,
her, hers, it, its we, us, our, ours they, them, their,
theirs myself yourself
• Indefinite Pronouns anybody, each other, no one,
someone, one, etc.
• Interrogative Pronouns who, whom, what, which,
whose
• Demonstrative Pronouns this, that, these, those
ADJECTIVE
• The Adjective Modifies or describes a noun or
pronoun .
• Eg; Is that a wool sweater?
Just give me five minutes.
Did you lose your address book?
Answers these questions: What kind? Which?
How many?
ADVERB
• The Adverb Modifies or describes a verb, an
adjective, or another adverb.
• An adverb is usually defined as a word that gives
more information about a verb, an adjective or
another adverb
• Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives and adverbs
in terms of such qualities as time, frequency and
manner
• Sue runs fast
• Sue runs very fast
•
•
•
•
Most, but not all adverbs end in -ly
ugly is an adjective
supply and reply can both be nouns or verbs
Many times an adjective can be made into an
adverb by adding -ly as in nicely, quickly,
completely, sincerely
• Adverbs of time tell
when something
happens and adverbs
of frequency tell how
often something
happens
Do it now.
I always do my
homework
I will see you
then.
We sometimes
get confused.
They will be
here soon.
He usually gets
good grades.
I can't meet you I never went
today.
skiing.
Let's go
tomorrow.
She rarely eats a
big breakfast.
They told me
yesterday.
He was once on
TV.
Have you
traveled
recently?
He saw the movie
twice.
PREPOSITIONS
• A preposition introduces a noun or pronoun or a phrase or
clause functioning in the sentence as a noun. The word or
word group that the preposition introduces is its object . Eg;
They received a postcard from Bobby telling about his trip to
Canada.
• The preposition never stands alone !
• preposition always has a noun and a pronoun.
• Examples;
You can press those leaves under glass .
Her telegram to Nina and Ralph brought good news.
It happened during the last examination.
• The preposition is almost always before the
noun or pronoun and that is why it is called a
preposition. The preposition and the object of
the preposition together are called a
prepositional phrase
CONJUNCTION
• A conjunction is a word that joins words or
groups of words. and or but either/or
neither/nor
INTERJECTION
• The interjection is an exclamatory word that
expresses emotion
• For example:
• Goodness ! What a cute baby!
• Wow! Look at that sunset!
THE SENTENCE
IS THE BASIC UNIT OF COMPLETE MEANING
 DECLARATIVE SENTENCE
Makes a
statement
 INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE
Asks a
question
 IMPERATIVE SENTENCE
Gives a
command
 EXCLAMATORY SENTECE
Expresses feeling
Write down ONE example of each of the above
NOUN – THE CORE OF A SENTENCE
 GIVES INFORMATION ABOUT THE NOUN
 ASKS FOR INFORMATION ABOUT THE NOUN
 CONVEYS FEELINGS ABOUT A NOUN
 TELLS A NOUN TO DO SOMETHING
THE BODY OF THE SENTENCE
 THE SUBJECT ( A NOUN – PERSON OR THING)
 THE PREDICATE ( SAY SOMETHING ABOUT THE SUBJECT)
1.
2.
3.
4.
I expect my first day at the Iqra university is a memorable one.
Meera and Miral are sisters yet they are so different.
The trees in Lahore are very green and fresh.
Maintaining a positive approach in life will always get you
through.
5. The cackling of geese saved Rome.
(EXTRACT THE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE FROM THE ABOVE )
THE POSITION OF SUBJECT AND
PREDICATE
 THE SUBJECT OF A SENTENCE MOSTLY COMES BEFORE THE
PREDICATE
 BUT, SOMETIMES THE SUBJECT IS PUT AFTER THE PREDICATE
a) Attaining heaven is the reward of being an honest
person.
b) Down went the rebels.
 TO FIND OUT THE SUBJECT OF A SENTENCE, ASK :




WHO
WHAT
WHICH
WHY
THE SENTENCE WITHOUT A
SUBJECT !!!
1) Sit down.
2) Do not even think of being late.
3) Please pass the mushrooms.
THE PHRASE
 A SENSELESS GROUP OF WORDS LACKS A MEANING
 LACKS THE COMPONENTS OF A SENTENCE
 WHEN ADDED TO A SENTENCE AUGMENTS ITS MEANING
a. My overdrawn bank account
b. The car in the garage
c. The papers on my desk
THE PHRASE TYPES
 NOUN PHRASE/ PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE
ADJECTIVAL PHRASE
ADVERBIAL PHRASE
THE CLAUSE
•WHEN TWO OR MORE SENTENCES ARE COMBINED TO
FORM A LONGER SENTENCE, THEY CEASE TO BE CALLED
SENTENCES AND, IN RELATION TO THE LONGER SENTENCE
OF WHICH THEY BECOME PART, ARE KNOWN AS CLAUSES,
EACH WITH A SUBJECT AND PREDICATE OF ITS OWN.
•DISTINCT PART OF A SENTENCE
THE CLAUSES
1. He had a fortnight’s holiday.
2. He went to Spain.
3. He did not enjoy himself.
PLEASE FORM ONE SENTENCE BY COMBINING THE
ABOVE THREE
THE CLAUSES
He had a fortinght’s holiday and (he) went to Spain,
CLAUSE 1
CLAUSE 2
but (he) did not enjoy himself.
CLAUSE 3
THE CLAUSE TYPES
 LIKE PHRASES, CLAUSES MAY SERVE
AS NOUNS, ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
CONJUNCTIONS - LINKERS
A WORD THAT LINKS
WORDS, PHRASES AND
CLAUSES
THE CONJUNCTIONS
 COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
 CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS
 SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
JOIN SIMILAR ELEMENTS IN A SENTENCE:
1. SUBJECT + SUBJECT
2. VERB PHRASE + PHRASE
CNJN. WHAT IS LINKED
SAMPLE SENTENCE
and
Noun phrase +
Noun phrase
We have tickets for the play and the concert.
but
Clause + Clause
The blue team practices on Monday but the grey team
practices on Friday.
or
Verb + Verb
Have you seen or heard Yanni’s opera ?
so
Sentence +
Sentence
I wanted to sit in the front of the balcony, so I ordered my
tickets early.
CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTION
Both…….and Not only ….but also Either…..or
 Always used in pairs
 Join similar elements
Neither…nor
CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTION
EXAMPLES
CNJN.
WHAT IS LINKED
SAMPLE SENTENCE
Both…..and
Subject + Subject
Both my sister and my brother play the piano.
Either….or
noun + noun
Tonight’s program is either Mr. Been or Beethoven.
Neither…nor
subject + subject
Neither the batsmen nor the bowlers showed a
fighting spirit.
Not only…….
But also
Sentence +
Sentence
Not only does Sana raise money for the charity, but
she also works as a volunteer worker.
THE SUBORDINATING
CONJUNCTIONS
 MOST COMMONLY USED
 LINKS SUBORDINAT CLAUSE TO A MAIN CLAUSE
THE SUBORDINATING
CONJUNCTIONS
TIME
CAUSE + EFFECT
OPPOSITION
CONDITION
after
Because / for
Although
If
before
since
though
Unless
when
Now that
Even though
Only if
while
as
whereas
Whether or not
since
In order that
while
Even if
until
so
In case
HOME ASSIGNMENT
•
STUDY THE USE OF CONJUNCTIONS THOROUGHLY
•
TEST IN NEXT CLASS