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1 LATIN GRAMMAR REVIEW NOUNS DECLENSION: Stem Vowel Gender SINGULAR: Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative Ablative Vocative PLURAL: Nom./Voc. Genitive Dative Accusative Ablative First Second A 0 F -a -ae -ae -am -a -a -ae -arum -is -as -is M N -um -i -o -um -o -um -e -us -a -orum -is -os -a -is -i Third consonant M&F N i-stem M&F N -s/-- --is -- Fourth Fifth u E M&F N F -us -ii -es -us -is -i -i -ui -ii -em nom. -em nom. -um -ii -e -e -i -ii nom.nom. nom.nom. -us -ii -ei -s/-- -es -a -um -ibus -a -es -ibus -es -ia -ium -ibus -is/-es -ia -ibus -ei -em -e -es -ua -us -uum -ibus -ua -us -ibus -es -erum -ebus -es -ebus NOTE: -us. -a. -um adjectives use 1st/2nd-declension noun endings; comparative adjs. use 3rddecl. consonant noun endings; all other adjs .. including pres. participles. use 3rd-decl. i-stem noun endings: -i in abl. sg .. -ium in gen. pl.. -is (later -es) in masc./fem. acc. pl.. and-ia in neut. nom./voc./acc. pl. The 5th-decl. nouns !ides. res. and spes have a short e in gen./ dat. sg. (-ei). PERSONAL PRONOUNS SING.: ·Norn. Gen. Dat. Acc. Abl. PLUR.: Norn. Gen. Dat. Acc. Abl. rst pers. ego (I) mei mihi me me 2ndpers. ru (you) tui tibi te te 3rd pers. masc. is (he) eius ei eum eo 3rd pers. fem. ea (she) eius ei earn ea 3rd pers. neut. id (it) eius ei id eo nos (we) nostrum/-i nobis nos nobis (you) vestrum/-i vobis ei /ii (they) eorum eis/iis eos eis/iis eae (they) ea rum eis eas eis ea (they) eorum eis/iis ea eis/iis VOS VOS vobis REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS SING.: rst pers. gen. mei (of myself) dat. mihi acc. me abl. me 2ndpers. tui (of yourself) tibi te te 3rdpers. sui(of him/her /itself) sibi se se PLUR.: gen. nostri (of ourselves) vestri (of yourselves) sui(of themselves) dat. nob is acc. nos abl. nob is vobis VOS vobis sibi se se 2 PERSONAL PRONOUNS & POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES SUMMARY OF USES PERS. PRONOUNS USES POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES meus, -a, um (my. my own) ego (I) 1st-person personal pronoun nos (we) noster. -tra. -trum (our. our own) & reflexive pronoun tuus. -a. -um (your, your own [one til (you [one person]) 2nd-person personal person's]) pronoun vester. -tra. -trum (your. your own vos (you [more than one & reflexive pronoun person]) [more than one person's]) is. ea, id (he, she, it) ei, eae, ea (they) --. sui, sibi. se. se (him/her I itself. themselves) SING.: Norn. Gen. Dat. Acc. Ahl. PLUR.: Norn. Gen. Dat. Acc. Abl. NOTE: 3rd-person personal pronoun only 3rd-person reflexive pronoun only RELATIVE PRONOUNS (who, whom. which, that) masculine feminine neuter qui quae quod cuius cuius cuius cui cui cui quern quam quod quo qua quo INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS (who? whom? what? which?) neuter masc./ fem. quid quis cuius cuius cui cui quid quern quo quo qui, quae quae quorum. quorum qua rum quibus quibus quibus quibus quibus quos quas quae quos. quas quae quibus quibus quibus quibus quibus The relative pronouns are identical in form with the interrogative adjectives. qui quorum quae qua rum no adjectives: genitive of pronoun used instead: eius (of him/her/it): eorum.earum,eorum(of them) suus. -a, -um (his own. her own, its own, their own) quae quorum DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS feminine neuter masc. haec ille (that) hoc huius huius illius huic huic illi hanc hoc ilium hac hoc ilio SING.: masculine fem. neut. Norn. hie (this) ilia illud Gen. huius illius illius Dat. huic illi illi Acc. hunc illud iliam Abl. hoc ilio ilia PLUR.: Norn. hi (these) hae illi (those) haec illae ilia Gen. ho rum ha rum ho rum illorum illorum ilia rum Dat. his his his illis illis illis Acc. hos has haec illos illas ilia Ahl. his his his illis iliis iliis NOTE: iste and ipse are declined just like ille. but ipse uses -um, not -ud. in neut. sg. nom./ acc. 3 DIRECTIONAL ADVERBS hie hinc from this place, from here, hence at this place, here illinc or istinc illic or istic at that place, there from that place, from there, thence ibi inde from there, thence there ubi? unde? at what place? where? from what place? from where? whence? alibi or aliubi aliunde in another place. elsewhere from another place NOTE: alias= at another time nonne hue to this place, to here, hither illiic or isti1c/isto to that place, to there. thither eo to there. thither quo? to what place? to where? whither? alio to another place INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS DIRECT QUESTION INDIRECT QUESTION begins single direct question expecting begins single indirect question expecting the answer YES the answer YES; means "whether" num begins single direct question expecting the answer NO begins single indirect question that may expect the answer NO; means "whether" -ne r. attached to rst word of single direct r. attached to rst word of single indirect question expecting YES or NO answer attached to rst word of alternative direct question; means "either"; is correlated with an ("or") or annon ("or not") question expecting YES or NO answer; means "whether" 2. attached to rst word of alternative indirect question; means "whether"; is correlated with an ("or") or necne ("or not") begins alternative direct question; means "either"; is correlated with an ("or") or annon ("or not") begins alternative indirect question; means "whether"; is correlated with an ("or") or necne("or not") 2. utrum CONJUGATION: Pres. Act. Indic. First laudo VERBS - PRINCIPAL PARTS Second Third moneo ago Third-io capio Fourth audio Pres. Act. Infin. laud.are monere agere capere audire Perf. Act. Indic. laudavi monui egi cepi audivi Perfect Passive Participle laudatus. -a, -um monitus, -a, -um actus. -a, -um captus, -a. -um auditus, -a, -um Present laud.a- VERB STEMS moneage- cape- audi- Perfect Active laudav- monu- eg- cep- audiv- Perfect Passive laudat- monit- act- capt- audit- 4 PARTICIPLES Present Perfect Future EXAMPLES: Present Perfect Future ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE present stem +-ns (genitive. -ntis) NONE NONE perfect passive stem +-urus, -ura, -urum agens. agentis (doing) NONE acturus. -a. -um (about to do. going to do) perfect passive stem +-us. -a. -um (= 4th principal part) present stem +-ndus, -nda. -ndum NONE actus. -a. -um (having been done, done) agendus, -a. -um (needing to be done. to be done) FORMATION OF TENSES - ACTIVE INDICATIVE Formula: Present Stem + -6 rst = -6. -as, -at, -amus. -a tis, ant -s -t 2nd= -eo. -es. -et. -emus. -etis. -ent I call. do call, am calling. etc. 3rd= -6. -is, -it, -imus. -itis. -unt 3rd -i6 = -i6, -is. -it. -imus, -itis. -iunt 4th= -i6, -is, -it, -imus. -itis, -iunt PRESENT TENSE IMPERFECT TENSE I was calling. used to call. etc. FUTURE TENSE I shall call, shall be calling. etc. PERFECT TENSE Formula: Present Stem+ rst = -abam. etc. 2nd. 3rd = -ebam, etc. 3rd-i6 & 4th= -iebam. etc. -mus -tis -nt -barn -bas -bat -bamus -batis -bant First & Second Conjugations Formula: Present Stem + 1st= -abo. etc. 2nd= -eb6, etc. -b6 -bis -bit -bimus -bitis -bunt Third & Fourth Conjugations Formula: Present Stem + 3rd= -am. -es. etc. 3rd -i6 & 4th= -iam, -ies, etc. -am -es -et -emus -etis -ent -imus -i -is tis -is ti I called, have called, etc. -erunt -it PLUPERFECT TENSE Formula: Perfect Active Stem + era.mus -eram -era tis -eras I had called, etc. -erant -erat FUTURE PERFECT TENSE Formula: Perfect Active Stem+ -erimus -er6 -eritis -eris I shall have called, etc. -erint -erit NOTE: The perfect tense may also be called the present perfect tense. especially when it indicates a present state of completion ("I have _'d") rather than a past action ("I_'d"). Formula: Perfect Active Stem+ 5 FORMATION OF TENSES - PASSIVE INDICATIVE Formula: start with the present active forms; replace the active -r endings with passive endings: I am called, am being called. -ris (-re) etc. -tur Exceptions: in rst-person sg.. add -r to the ending -o: 2ndpers. sg.of 3rd conjugation = -eris, not -iris PRESENT TENSE -bar Formula: Present Stem + rst =-a.bar. etc.; 2nd. 3rd= -ebar, -baris (-re) etc.; 3rd -io & 4th = -iebar. etc. -batur IMPERFECT TENSE I was being called, etc. FUTURE TENSE I shall be called, etc. PERFECT TENSE I was called. have been called, etc. PLUPERFECT TENSE I had been called, etc. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE I shall have been called, etc. -mur -mini -ntur -bamur -bamini -bantur First & Second Conjugations -bor Formula: Present Stem + -beris (-re) rst = -abor. etc.; 2nd= -ebor. etc. -bitur Third & Fourth Conjugations -ar Formula: Present Stem + -eris (-re) 3rd= -ar. -eris. etc. 3rd-i6 & 4th= -iar, -ieris, etc. -etur -emur -emini -entur Formula: Perf. Pass. Participle + sum es est sumus es tis sunt Formula: Perf. Pass. Participle+ eram eras erat Formula: Perf. Pass. Participle + er6 eris erit era.mus eratis erant erimus eritis erunt -bimur -bimini -buntur FORMATION OF TENSES - PRESENT ACTIVE IMPERATIVE (Regular verbs have only ACTIVE imperatives.) CONJUGATION: Present Stem Pr. act. imper. 2nd sg. Pr. act. imper. 2nd pl. First laudalauda laudate Second monemone monete Third ageage agite Third-i6 capecape capite Fourth audiaudi audite FORMATION OF TENSES - PRESENT PASSIVE IMPERATIVE (Deponent verbs have only PASSIVE imperatives.) CONJUGATION: Present Stem Pr. pass. imp. 2nd sg. Pr. pass. imp. 2nd pl. First hortahortare hortamini Second fatefatere fatemini Third sequesequere sequimini Third-io patepatere patimini Fourth experiexperire experimini 6 Pr. Act. Imperative 2nd -person sg. die due fac fer VERBS EXCEPTIONAL IN THE IMPERATIVE MOOD: dic6. -ere, dixi. dictum (say. tell) duco, -ere, duxi. ductum (lead) facio, -ere, feci, factum (do. make) fero, ferre. tuli. latum (bear. carry) Pr. Act. Imperative 2nd-person P 1. dicite ducite fa cite ferte For a NEGATIVE COMMAND (prohibition). use noli(te) ["don't wish"]+ an infinitive, or ne +perfect subjunctive. EXAMPLES: voca me= "call me"; noli me vocare (ne me vocaveris) = "don't call me." Never combine non with an imperative. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD - PRESENT TENSE Start with the present stem; replace the stem vowel with E (first conjugation), EA (second conjugation). A (third conjugation). IA (third-i6 conjugation). or IA (fourth conjugation). To remember those vowels, think of this sentence: RULE: Wg HEAR A LIAR. FRIAR! I 2 3 3-io ACTIVE: Add the personal endings: or PASSIVE: 4 -m -s -t -mus -tis -nt -r -ris -tur -mur -mini -ntur ACTIVE: lauda- mone- age- cape- audi- laudem laudes laudet laudemus laudetis laudent moneam moneas moneat moneamus moneatis moneant agam a gas agat agamus agatis agant capiam capias capiat capiamus capiatis capiant audiam audias audiat audiamus audiatis audiant PASSIVE: lauda- mone- age- cape- audi- lauder lauderis (-re) laudetur laudemur laudemini laudentur monear monearis (-re) moneatur moneamur moneamini moneantur agar agaris (-re) agatur agamur agamini agantur capiar capiaris (-re) capiatur capiamur capiamini capiantur audiar audiaris (-re) audiatur audiamur audiamini audiantur Present Subjunctive of sum sim simus sis sitis sit sint Present Subjunctive of ossum possimus possim possitis poss is ossint ossit 7 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD - PERFECT TENSE RULE: ACTIVE VOICE: Start with the perfect active stem; add the infix -eri- and then the active personal endings. laud.av- mo nu- eg- cep- audiv- laudaverim laudaveris laudaverit laudaverimus laudaveritis laudaverint monuerim monueris monuerit monuerimus monueritis monuerint egerim egeris egerit egerimus egeritis egerint ceperim ceperis ceperit ceperimus ceperitis ceperint audiverim audiveris audiverit audiverimus audiveritis audiverint Perfect Subjunctive of possum potuerimus potuerim potueritis potueris potuerint potuerit Perfect Subjunctive of sum fuerim fuerimus fueris fueritis fuerit fuerint RULE: PASSIVE VOICE: Combine the perfect passive participle with the present subjunctive of sum. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD - IMPERFECT TENSE RULE: Start with the present stem: add the infix-re- and then the active or passive personal endings. [Looks like present active infinitive +endings.] ACTIVE: lauda- mone- age- cape- audi- laudarem laudares laudaret laudaremus laudaretis laudarent monerem moneres moneret moneremus moneretis monerent agerem ageres ageret ageremus ageretis agerent caperem caperes caperet caperemus caperetis caperent audirem audires audiret audiremus audiretis audirent PASSIVE: lauda- mone- age- cape- audi- laudarer laudareris laudaretur laudaremur laudaremini laudarentur monerer monereris moneretur moneremur moneremini monerentur agerer agereris ageretur ageremur ageremini agerentur caperer capereris caperetur caperemur caperemini caperentur audirer audireris audiretur audiremur audiremini audirentur Imperfect Subjunctive of sum essem essemus essetis esses esset essent Imperfect Subjunctive of possum possem possemus possetis posses possent poss et 8 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD - PLUPERFECT TENSE RULE: ACTIVE VOICE: Start with the perfect active stem; add the infix-isseand then the active personal endings. [Looks like perf. act. infin. +endings.] laudav- monu- eg- cep- audiv- laudavissem laudavisses laudavisset laudavissemus laudavissetis laudavissent monuissem monuisses monuisset monuissemus monuissetis monuissent egissem egisses egisset egissemus egissetis egissent cepissem cepisses cepisset cepissemus cepissetis cepissent audivissem audivisses audivisset audivissemus audivissetis audivissent Pluperfect Subjunctive of sum fuissem fuissemus fuisses fuissetis fuisset fuissent RULE: Plu erfect Sub·unctive of ossum potuissem potuissemus potuisses potuissetis potuissent potuisset PASSIVE VOICE: Combine the perfect passive participle with the imperfect subjunctive of sum. SEQUENCE OF TENSES p R I M A R y s Main Verb PRESENT TENSE FUTURE TENSE FUTURE PERF. TENSE Main Verb Subordinate Verb PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE--to show action incomplete at the time of the main verb PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE--to show action completed at the time of the main verb Subordinate Verb E c 0 N D IMPERFECT TENSE PERFECT TENSE PLUPERFECT TENSE A R IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE--to show action incomplete at the time of the main verb PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE--to show action completed at the time of the main verb y NOTE: The perfect (rather than imperfect) subjunctive is used in result clauses in secondary sequence if the completed state of the action needs to be emphasized. It is also common for a main verb in the present perfect tense ("has/have _'d") to be regarded as primary. Hoc facis (fades) ut me iuves. Hoc fecisti (faciebas) ut me iuvares. Rogant quid scripserimus. Rogaverunt quid scripsissemus. Tam severus est magister ut vitetur. Tam severus erat magister ut vitaretur. You do (will do) this to help me. You did (were doing) this to help me. They are asking what we wrote. They asked what we had written. The teacher is so strict that he is avoided. The teacher was so strict that he was avoided. 9 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES CLAUSES: I. PROTASIS =condition ("if... ") APODOSIS =conclusion ("then ... ") SIMPLE FACT A. PRESENT Present Indicative* Si hoc fa cit, If she does/is doing this, Present Indicative priidens est. she is wise. *Present subjunctive may be used in the protasis if the subject is an indefinite "you" (second-person singular) and the action is generalized, not occurring at a particular time: Si hoc facias. priidens es. "If [ever] you do this, you are wise." · B. PAST Imperfect or Perfect Indicative* . Si hoc faciebat/fecit, If she was doing this, If she did (has done) this. Imperfect or Perfect Indicative priidens erat/fuit. she was wise. (imperfect) she was (has been) wise. (perfect) *Imperfect subjunctive (faceret) may be used in the protasis if the action is repeated or customary: "if she did this [habitually]. she was wise." Cicero rarely used the subjunctive in this way. but the practice became much more common in later Latin. II. FUTURE A. MORE VIVID Future Indicative* Si hoc f aciet. If she does/will do this. Future Indicative priidens erit. she will be wise. *Future perfect (fecerit) may be used in the protasis to show a future action that will be completed before the action in the apodosis. B. LESS VIVID ("should-would") Present Subjunctive* Si hoc faciat. If she did/were to do/should do this. Present Subjunctive priidens sit. she would be wise. *Perfect subjunctive (fecerit) may be used in the protasis to show a future action that would be completed before the action in the apodosis. III. CONTRARY-TO-FACT A. PRESENT Imperfect Subjunctive Si hoc faceret. If she were doing this. B. Imperfect Subjunctive priidens esset. she would be wise. PAST Pluperfect Subjunctive Si hoc fecisset. If she had done this. Pluperfect Subjunctive priidens fuisset. she would have been wise. 10 INDEPENDENT USES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD I. JUSSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE The jussive subjunctive is also called the hortatory subjunctive. In the present tense (rarely the perfect) it expresses a command or an exhortation (e.g.. hos Jatrones interficiamus "let us kill these robbers" - Caes .. BG 7.38). In the imperfect or pluperfect tense it denotes an unfulfilled obligation in past time (e.g.. morerentur "they should have died"; if pluperfect tense had been used, it would simply have given more emphasis to the fact that the obligation was in the past). The negative is introduced by ne. The jussive subjunctive may also show concession (present or perfect tense). The negative is introduced by ne. Example: ne sit summum malum dolor. malum certe est ("granted that [conceding that] pain is not the greatest evil. it certainly is an evil" - Cicero. Tusc. 2.14). 2. OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE The optative subjunctive expresses a wish. Present tense shows that the wish is possible (e.g .. sint incolumes "may they be safe"); imperfect tense shows that the wish is unaccomplished in present time; pluperfect tense shows that the wish is unaccomplished in past time; perfect tense is archaic and solemn-sounding (e.g.. di faxint "may the gods bring about"). The optative subjunctive is often (and always if the tense used is imperfect or pluperfect) introduced by utinam (e.g .. utinam viverent "would that they were alive [but they aren't]"). In poetry the optative subjunctive may be introduced by ut or uti (e.g .. ut pereat positum robigine telum "may the weapon. unused, perish with rust" - Hor. Sat. 2.r.43) or by si (e.g .. si nunc se nobis ille aureus arbore ramus I ostendat "if only that golden branch would show itself to us now!" - Verg .. Aen. 6.187-188). The negative has ne. 3. DELIBERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE The deliberative subjunctive is used in questions implying doubt or indignation (any tense. most often present) or the impossibility of a thing's being done (imperfect or pluperfect tense). The negative has non. Examples: quid agam? ("What am I to do?"); ego non venirem? ("Should I not have come?"); quid diceres ("What were you to say [could you have said]?"). 4. POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE The potential subjunctive suggests that an action is possible or conceivable. It often expresses a cautious or modest assertion in the 1st-person singular of verbs of saying. thinking. or wishing. or in the indefinite 2nd-person singular of such verbs. The present and perfect tenses refer to the future. imperfect tense to the past. The negative has non. Examples: non dixerim ("I would/ could not venture to say"); freto assimilare possis ("you might compare it to a sea" - Ovid, Met. 5.6); videres susurros ("you might have seen the whispers [i.e .. them whispering]" - Hor .. Sat. 2.8.77). 5. EXCLAMATORY SUBJUNCTIVE The exclamatory subjunctive (present or imperfect tense) is used in exclamatory questions. It may be introduced by ut. by the enclitic -ne, or by no word at all. Examples: egone ut te interpellem ("the very idea that I might interrupt you!" - Cic.. Tusc. 242): ego tibi irascerer ("the thought that I might have been angry at you!" - Oc .. Q. fr. I .3). 11 While the exclamatory subjunctive usually refers to something only contemplated as occurring. the EXCLAMATORY INFINITIVE refers to something that actually is occurring (present tense) or has occurred (perfect tense). Examples: mene incepto desistere victam ("the shame that I. beaten. am giving up on my attempt!" - Verg .. Aen. r.37); te in tantas aerumnas propter me incidisse ("alas. that you have fallen into such grief for me!" - Cic.. Fam. 14.r). DEPENDENT USES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD I. 2. 3. PURPOSE CLAUSE A. Purpose clause (adverbial): utor ne+subjunctive Vivit ut cenet. He lives to eat (so that he might eat. in order to eat, etc.). Hoc facit ne erret. He does this lest he make (in order that he not make) a mistake. B. Relative purpose clause: if it is descriptive. a purpose clause may be introduced by a relative pronoun instead of ut. Magister misit puerum qui fratrem iuvaret. The teacher sent the boy to help his brother (literally. who might/should help his brother). C. Comparative purpose clause: if it contains a comparative. a purpose clause may be introduced by quo instead of ut. Dux eos Jaudavit quo audacius pugnarent. The general praised them so that they would fight more boldly (literally. by which they would fight more boldly). RESULT CLAUSE A. Result clause (adverbial): utor ut non+ subjunctive; may be signaled by ita. sic. talis. tam. tantus. etc. in the main clause. Laborat tam diligenter ut sit defessus. He works so hard that he is tired out. B. Relative result clause: if it is descriptive, a result clause may be introduced by a relative pronoun instead of ut. Nemo est tam stultus qui hoc non faciat. No one is so foolish as not to (literally. who would not) do this. C. Noun result clause (a clause indicating result and acting as direct object after a main verb of making. effecting. or bringing about or as subject of an impersonal main verb): utor ut non +subjunctive; utis often omitted with facio and with the impersonal verbs Jicet. oportet. and necesse est. Fae [ut] pugnent. Make them fight (literally. bring it about that they fight). RELATIVE CLAUSE OF CHARACTERISTIC (a relative clause with a general. indefinite, interrogative, or negative antecedent; indicates a characteristic of the antecedent): relative pronoun + subjunctive Relative clauses of characteristic are common after these expressions: nemo est qui there is no one who... sunt qui there are some who ... nihil est quad there is nothing that... quis est qui who is there who ... ? Nemo erat qui hoc crederet. There was no one who believed this. 12 4. INDIRECT QUESTION (a noun clause acting as direct object after a main verb of saying. asking. knowing. etc.): interrogative word+ subjunctive Scio quid putes. I know what you think. 5. INDIRECT COMMAND (a jussive noun clause acting as direct object after a main verb of asking. commanding. persuading. urging. warning. wishing. etc.): ut or ne (utis sometimes omitted)+ subjunctive Impero ut laboretis. I order you to work. 6. FEAR CLAUSE (a noun clause acting as direct object after a main verb of fearing): ne (affirmative, "lest," "that") or ut(negative, "lest...not," "that...not") +subjunctive Timeo ne properes. I fear that you are hurrying. Timeo ut labores. I fear that you are not working. 7. PROVISO CLAUSE (an adverbial clause stating a provisional circumstance): dummodo or modo + subjunctive (+ ne if negative) Brunt felices dummodo ne discedas. They will be happy. provided that (so long as) you do not leave. 8. CAUSAL CLAUSE A. quad or quia: introduces a reason; takes the indicative mood when the reason is given on the authority of the author, the subjunctive mood when the reason is given on the authority of another. Cur igitur pacem nolo? quia turpis est. Why then do I not wish for peace? Because (as I myself say) it is disgraceful. (Cic., Phil. 7.9) Mea mater irata est quia non redierim. My mother is angry because (as she says) I did not return. (Plaut., Cist. IOI) B. g. quoniam or quando: introduces a reason given on the authority of the author; takes the indicative. Quoniam !idem magistri cognostis. cognoscite nunc discipuli aequitatem. Since you have learned the teacher's integrity. now learn his pupil's fairness. (Cic., Pro Rose. rrg) QUIN CLAUSE A. quin literally means "how not?" or "why not?" and may be used at the start of an independent clause with indicative or subjunctive. Quin ego hoc rogem? Why shouldn't I ask this? B. quin may also introduce a dependent subjunctive clause after verbs of hindering. resisting. refusing. doubting. delaying. etc .. when they are negatived (expressly or by implication). ne or quominus may take the place of quin if the main verb is positive. Facere non possum quin cotidie ad te mittam. I cannot help but (there's nothing I can do except) send to you every day. (Cic .. Att. 12.27.2) Non erat dubium quin Helvetii plii.rimum possent. There was no doubt that the Helvetians were most powerful. (Ca es .. BG r.3) 13 C. IO. quin (= qui. quae. quad+ non) may introduce a relative clause of characteristic or a relative clause of result. Ecquis fuit quin lacrimaret? Was there anyone who did not shed tears? (Cic., Verr. 5.r2r) CUM CLAUSE: an adverbial clause, either causal. concessive (adversative). or temporal. describing the circumstances under which the action of the main verb takes place. The choice of subjunctive or indicative mood in the cum clause depends upon its type. TYPE OF CUM CLAUSE ENGLISH LATIN CUM CAUSAL Cum veniat, discedimus. Subjunctive mood is used; tense is determined by sequence of tenses. Cum veniret. discessimus. Cum venerit, discedimus. Cum venisset, discessimus. CUM CONCESSIVE Cum veniat. discedimus. Subjunctive mood is used; tense is determined by sequence of tenses. Cum veniret, discessimus. Cum venerit, discedimus. Cum venisset. discessimus. CUM TEMPORAL Indicative mood is used if cum clause refers to the present or the future. Cum venit. discedimus. Cum veniet, discedemus. Cum venerit. discedemus. CUM TEMPORAL Cum veniret, discessimus. Subjunctive mood is used Cum venisset. discessimus. if cum clause refers to the past; follows sequence of tenses. Indicative may be Cum venit, discessimus. used if the past actions in the sentence took place at exactly the same time. Because he is coming. we are leaving. Because he was coming. we left. Because he has come, we are leaving. Because he had come, we left. Although he is coming. we are leaving. Although he was coming. we left. Although he has come, we are leaving. Although he had come, we left. When he is coming. we are leaving. When he comes (literally. "shall come"), we shall leave. When he has come (literally. "shall have come"), we shall leave. When he was coming. we left. When he had come, we left. When he came [i.e .. at that precise moment]. we left. USES OF THE ABLATIVE CASE In Classical Latin the ablative case performs the duties of three originally distinct cases: the ablative. the locative, and the instrumental. Thus the ablative has many different uses. I. AGENT(+ a or ab): COMPARISON: DEGREE OF DIFFERENCE: MANNER (+ cum; cum is optional if noun is modified by an adjective): MEANS (INSTRUMENT): RESPECT (SPECIFICATION): A patre monebatur. Sori5re sapientior es. Sori5re multi5 sapientior es. Cum ciJ.ra lodlti sunt. Magna (cum) ciJ.ra Jodi.ti sunt. Gladii5 interfectus est. Sapientia excellit. 14 SEPARATION: TIME WHEN: TIME WITHIN WHICH: MetiJ. liberabimur. Tertio anno discessit. Tribus annis regressus est. II. An ablative may be used with each of the following ADJECTNES: contentus. -a. -um. dignus. -a. -um. fretus. -a. -um. indignus. -a. -um. praeditus. -a. -um III. An ablative of means may be used with each of the following DEPONENT VERBS: fruor. frui. friJ.ctus sum; fungor. fungi. fiJ.nctus sum: potior. potiri, potitus sum; iJ.tor. iJ.ti, iJ.sus sum: vescor, vesci. --. These five verbs take no direct object in the accusative. IV. A phrase that can be detached from the main framework of a sentence without leaving the structure incomplete is called an absolute phrase. Example: School having started(or with school having started). I have begun to think about Latin again. An ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE is an absolute phrase that combines a noun or pronoun with a participle. an adjective, or another noun or pronoun. both in the ablative case. Absolute absolutes are much more common in Latin than in English because Latin has no perfect active participle. It is impossible. for example. to say "having broken her leg" in Latin; instead one must say "her leg having been broken" (criJ.re fractO). An ablative absolute usually indicates time. cause. or attendant circumstance. It may be translated with a participial phrase. an adverbial clause. or a prepositional phrase. EXAMPLES: Noun+ participle: PeciJ.nia accepta. Sibylla libros tradidit. Having received the money. the Sibyl handed over the books. Noun+ adjective: Caelo sereno. obsciJ.rata Jax est. Although the sky was clear. the light was obscured [in an eclipse]. Noun+noun: Nihil desperandum Teucro duce. Under Teucer's leadership there should be no despairing. TRANSLATING LATIN PARTICIPLES As verbal adjectives. participles are capable of being modified by adverbs and prepositional phrases; if active in voice. they may also take direct and/ or indirect objects. Often the best way to translate a participle is with an ADVERBIAL CLAUSE introduced by a conjunction such as "when," "while," "after," "since," "because," "if," or "although." I. PRESENT ACTNE PARTICIPLE A. Femina. !ilium videns. gaudet/gaudebat/gaudebit. The woman. seeing her son. rejoices/rejoiced/will rejoice. Here. no matter what the tense of the main verb is. the action of seeing takes place at the SAME TIME as the rejoicing. so both Latin and English require a present participle. Instead of the literal translation "seeing her son," you may prefer to use an adverbial clause: B. The woman. when she sees her son, rejoices; when she saw her son. rejoiced; when she sees/will see her son, will rejoice. 15 II. PERFECT P ASSNE PARTICIPLE A. Femina, filii5 visa. gaudet/gaudebat/gaudebit. The woman, having seen her son. rejoices/rejoiced/will rejoice. Here, no matter what the tense of the main verb is. the action of seeing takes place BEFORE the rejoicing. so both Latin and English require a perfect participle. Instead of the literal translation "having seeing her son," you may prefer to use an adverbial clause: B. The woman. after she has seen her son. rejoices; after she had seen her son. rejoiced; after she sees/will see her son, will rejoice. Notice that the Latin literally says "the son having been seen"; this perfect passive construction (ablative absolute) is necessary because Latin has no perfect active participle ("having seen"). To avoid sounding stilted, you may choose to translate the participle as if it were active. III. FUTURE ACTNE PARTICIPLE A. Femina. !ilium visura. gaudet/gaudebat/gaudebit. The woman. about to see her son. rejoices/rejoiced/will rejoice. Here. no matter what the tense of the main verb is. the action of seeing takes place AFTER the rejoicing. so both Latin and English require a future participle. Instead of the literal translation "about to see her son," you may prefer to translate with an adverbial clause: B. The woman. because she will see her son. rejoices; because she would see her son. rejoiced; because she will see her son. will rejoice. USES OF THE FUTURE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE (GERUNDIVE) In Latin the future passive participle, also called the GERUNDIVE. shows NECESSITY ("needing to be _'d"), implying that something had, has, or will have to be done. It often appears as a predicate adjective (agreeing with the subject in gender, number, case) combined with a form of sum and modified. not by the ablative of agent as one might expect, but by the DATIVE OF AGENT. showing the person on whom the necessity or obligation falls. This construction is called the PASSIVE PERIPHRASTIC because it is a roundabout (= periphrastic) way of expressing what could be said straightforwardly with debe6 +an active infinitive. The examples below illustrate how to transform statements of necessity from active to passive voice, using the gerundive. Active voice: Passive voice: Omnes duces quaerere pacem debent/debebant/debebunt. Omnibus ducibus pax quaerenda est/erat/erit. All leaders have to/must seek peace. All leaders had to seek peace. All leaders will have to seek peace. = Peace has to/must be sought by all leaders. = Peace had to be sought by all leaders. = Peace will have to be sought by all leaders. Notice that it is the form of sum. and not the gerundive. that indicates whether the expression is past, present, or future in tense. Despite its name. the future passive participle does not imply anything about the time of the action; this distinguishes it from the other three Latin participles. which all show time relative to the main verb. 16 The gerundive has a second use connected with the GERUND. A gerund is a verbal noun meaning "the action of _-ing" or simply "to_." In Latin a gerund can appear in any of five cases and be used in any way a regular noun can be. In the nominative case it is identical with the infinitive; in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative cases, it is identical with the neuter singular gerundive (e.g.. iuvandi, iuvand6, iuvandum, iuvand6). It never occurs in the vocative or in the plural. Like participles. gerunds are capable of being modified by adverbs and prepositional phrases, and of taking direct and/ or indirect objects. The gerund is frequently combined with the prepositions ad, causfi, or gratifi to show PURPOSE. as an alternative to a purpose clause (ut +subjunctive) or a supine. EXAMPLES: adiuvandum iuvandi causa/grfitifi ad amic6s tm5s iuvandum amicos tu6s iuvandi causfi/grfitia ="for the purpose of helping" or "to help" ="for the sake of helping" or "to help" ="for the purpose of helping your friends" or "to help your friends" ="for the sake of helping your friends" or "to help your friends" You will rarely see the last two examples because the Romans found the combination gerund+ direct object ugly. They preferred to transform it, putting what would have been the direct object into whatever case the gerund would have been in. then modifying that ex-direct object with a gerundive in the appropriate gender, number, and case. This is the other common use of the gerundive: as a SUBSTITUTE (less logical but more elegant) for the gerund. EXAMPLES: ad amic6s tu6s iuvandum amicos tuos iuvandi causa/grfitifi > ad amic6s tu6s iuvand6s > amic6rum tu6rum iuvandorum causfi/gratifi When it takes the place of a gerund, the future passive participle no longer shows necessity and thus should not be translated "needing to be_'d." Translate the gerundive construction exactly as you would have translated the original gerund+ direct object. INFINITIVES ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE Present -are, -ere, -ere (3rd-i6 =-ere), -ire -ari, -eri. -i (3rd-i6 = -i). -iri Perfect perfect active stem+ -isse Future perfect passive stem +-urus, -ura, -urum+esse perfect passive stem +-us, -a, -um + esse perfect passive stem +-um+ iri EXAMPLES: Present laudare, monere, agere (capere), audire Perfect laudavisse, monuisse, egisse (cepisse). audivisse Future laudaturus,moniturus,acturus (capturus), auditurus, -a. -um esse ..-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ laudari, moneri, agi (capi), audiri laudatus, monitus, actus (captus), auditus, -a, -um esse laudatum, monitum, actum (captum), auditumiri NOTE: Infinitives may be used either as verbal nouns (gerunds) or as verbs (complementary infinitives, object infinitives, substitutes for finite verbs in indirect discourse). 17 INDIRECT DISCOURSE (= INDIRECT STATEMENT) VERBS that commonly introduce indirect discourse: SAYING: ait. dico, doceo, narro, nego. ni1nti6. ostendo, scribo KNOWING: intellego. memoria teneo. nescio, scio THINKING: credo. puto. spero PERCEIVING: audio, sentio. video TENSES of the infinitive in indirect discourse: r. PRESENT infinitive indicates same time as that of the main verb. 2. PERFECT infinitive indicates time before that of the main verb. 3. FUTURE infinitive indicates time after that of the main verb. Dicunt eum iuvare earn. eum iilvisse earn. eum ii1ti1rum [esse] earn. They say that he is helping her. that he helped her. that he will help her. Dixerunt eum iuvare earn. eum iilvisse earn. eum ii1ti1rum [esse] earn. They said that he was helping her. that he had helped her. that he would help her. Dicent eum iuvare earn. eum iilvisse earn. eum ii1ti1rum [esse] earn. They will say that he is helping her. that he helped her. that he will help her. jLATIN WORDS THAT LOOK ALIKE! ab (prep.) = away from. by ad (prep.)= to, toward. near ac (conj.) = and at (conj.)= but atque (conj.) = and also alienus, -a, -um= belonging to another person, someone else's, not one's own aliquis, aliquid =someone, something alius, alia, aliud =other. another audeo, audere, ausus sum = dare audio, audire, audivi, auditum = hear, listen to aut (conj.) =or autem (conj.)= however, moreover civis. civis (m. or f.) = citizen civitas, civitatis (f.) =citizenship. city-state, state cogito. cogitare. cogitavi. cogitatum = think. ponder cogo. cogere. coegi. coactum =drive together, force, compel dico, dicere. dixi, dictum= say diico, diicere. diixi, ductum =lead 18 discedo, discedere, discessi. discessum =go away. depart disco, discere, didici =learn gens, gentis (f .) = clan. race, nation, people genus. generis (n.) =kind. sort. class ibi (adv.) = there ubi (adv.) =where idem, eadem, idem = the same quidem (adv.) = indeed, certainly mora, morae (f.) =delay mors, mortis (f.) =death mos. moris (m.) =habit, custom. manner (mores. morum =habits, character) noster, nostra, nostrum= our vester, vestra, vestrum =your peto. petere, petivi, petitum =seek, aim at, beg. beseech puto, putare. putavi, putatum =reckon, suppose. judge, think, imagine quidam, quaedam, quiddam = a certain person. a certain thing quis, quid (after si, num nisi. or ne) = anyone, anything. someone, something quisquam. quidquam/ quicquam =anyone, anything quisque, quaeque, quidque/ quicque =each person. each thing quisquis, quidquid/quicquid =anyone who. whoever, anything that, whatever senectG.s, senecti1tis (f .) =old age senex, senis (adj. and noun) = old. aged; old man servio, servire, servivi, servitum= serve. be a servant to(+ dat.) servo, servare. servavi, servatum =save, preserve tamen (adv.)= nevertheless. still tandem (adv.) = at last, finally terreo. terrere, terrui, territum =frighten, terrify timeo, timere. timui =fear, be afraid. be afraid of vinco, vincere. vici, victum =conquer vito, vitare, vitavi, vita tum= avoid, shun vivo, vivere. vixi, victum =live vir. viri (m.) = man vis. vis (f.) =force. power. violence (pl. vires. virium =strength); vis also= 2nd pers. sg. of volo vita, vitae (f .) =life vitium, vitii (n.) = fault, crime, vice To help remember quidam, quisquam, quisque, and idem, here is a useful ditty: "Be dam certain not to have any quam's about each quebecause dem's the same!" 19 THE ROMAN NAME Praenomen corresponds to our first name, but not in its use as a sign of familiarity or intimacy. The number of praenomina was very limited, and the eighteen most common ones were regularly abbreviated: A. App. (Ap.) *C. *Cn. D. K. Aul us Appius Gaius Gnaeus Decimus Kaeso L. M. M'. Mam. N. (Num.) P. Lucius Marcus Mani us Mamercus Numerius Publius Q. Ser. Sex. (S.) Sp. T. Ti. (Tib.) Quintus Servius Sextus Spurius Titus Tiberius *C was the original symbol for a G sound; in the abbreviations for Gaius and Gnaeus, the old value of C is preserved. The eldest son often took his father's praenomen; a woman usually had no praenomen. Nomen is the name of the gens or family; it is actually an adjective identifying the person as "belonging to the _ _ family." Every child in the family had the same nomen, in the masculine form for sons, in the feminine form for daughters. Thus the sons of a man named C. Julius might be called C. Julius (the older son) and L. Julius (the younger son). The daughters of C. Julius would all be called Julia, distinguished by the addition of adjectives like maior, minor, altera, secunda, tertia, etc. Cognomen is a semi-descriptive name that was usually handed down in a family; many cognomina were originally nicknames, often describing a physical feature of an ancestor (e.g., Caesar = "hairy"; Naso = "nose"; Cicero = "chickpea" or perhaps "wart"). Possession of three names (or just two since the cognomen was optional) was a sign of citizenship. Additional cognomina might be added to a name to commemorate a notable event or accomplishment or to indicate adoption from another gens. The Romans of the classical period had no special name for these extra cognomina, but later grammarians invented the word agnomina for them. Example: P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus Aemilianus (Africanus refers to his military exploits in Africa, Aemilianus identifies his original nomen as Aemilius; he had been adopted by P. Cornelius Scipio and taken on his adoptive father's three names). The full formal name of a Roman citizen also included filiation, i.e., the identification of his father's praenomen; grandfather's and great-grandfather's praenomina might be mentioned as well. Filiation showed that one's father (and grandfather and great-father in some cases) had been a citizen. Example: M. Tullius M. f. (=Marci filius "son of Marcus") M. n. (=Marci nepos "grandson of Marcus") M. pr. (= Marci pronepos "great-grandson of Marcus") Cicero. Membership in a tribe or voting group, another sign of citizenship, might also be noted. Example: C. Julius C. f. Sergia tribu ("from the Sergian tribe") Caesar. Slaves were customarily given single names in the Greek fashion, whether or not they were Greeks or Greek-speaking (which most of them were). Example: Chryseros Gaii servus ("Goldy-love, slave of Gaius"). A freed slave would adopt the praenomen and nomen of his former master and use his own old name as cognomen. Example: C. Julius C. lib. (= Gaii libertus, "freedman of Gaius") Chryseros. A slave freed by an emperor would be called Aug. lib. (= Augusti libertus "freedman of Augustus"). Thus a freedman, even in his name, could not escape his servile past. 20 THE ROMAN CALENDAR AND DATING Traditionally, the Romans referred to a particular year by giving the names of the consuls of that year. Another method was to reckon the date relative to the founding of Rome in 753 B.C. A.U.C. 1, for example, meant the first year ab urbe condita ("after the foundation of Rome"), i.e., 753 B.C.; A.U.C. 2 = 752 B.C.; A.U.C. 753 = 1 B.C.; A.U.C. 754=1 AD., etc. The Roman year had 12 months: Ianuarius (Ian.), Februarius (Feb.), Martius (Mart.), Aprilis (Apr.), Maius (Mai.), Iunius (Iun.), Iulius (Iul.--originally Quinctilis, changed to honor Julius Caesar), Augustus (Aug.--originally Sextilis, changed to honor Augustus Caesar), September (Sept.), October (Oct.), November (Nov.), December (Dec.). The names are adjectives modifying mensis "month." During the Republic the year began on Mar. 1, the day military operations started, or on Mar. 15, the day the consuls took office. In 153 B.C. the first day of the consulship was changed to Jan. 1, and that became the first day of the civil year. Until Julius Caesar reformed the calendar in 46-45 B.C., a normal year consisted of 355 days. Each month had 29 days except for March, May, July, and October with 31 and February with 28. Every other year an extra month of 22 or 23 days would have to be added ("intercalated") between February 23 and February 24. Caesar instituted a regular cycle of four years, of which three had 365 days, the fourth 366 days (with a leap or bissextile day added after February 23). To indicate which day of the month it was, the Romans used one of three reference points: the Kalends (always the 1st of the month), the Nones (either the 5th or the 7th day of the month), and the Ides (either the 13th or the 15th of the month). "In March, July, October, May, the Ides are on the 15th day, the Nones the 7th; all else besides have two days less for Nones and Ides." As soon as one of the reference days had passed, a Roman would start counting how many days were left until the next reference point. March 2, for example, would not be the day after the Kalends of March; instead, it would be 6 days before the Nones of March. The Romans counted inclusively, i.e., they included the present day in their calculations. March 5, for example, would not be 2 days, but 3 days, before the Nones of March (March 7). ROMAN NUMERALS: I= 1, V = 5, X = 10, L = 50, C = 100, D = 500, M = 1000. Usually no more than three of the same symbol can stand in a row. Right shows addition; left shows subtraction. One symbol cannot be subtracted from two; e.g. 19 should be XIX, not IXX; 1900 should be MCM, not CMM. March 1 =Kai. Mart. (abbreviation of Kalendis Martiis - "on the Kalends of March") March 2 =a. d. VI Non. Mart. (abbreviation of ante diem VI Nanas Martias "on the 6th day before the Nones of March") March 3 = a. d. V Non. Mart. March 4 =a. d. IV Non. Mart. March 5 =a. d. III Non. Mart. March 6 = prid. Non. Mart. (abbreviation of pridie Nanas Martias "on the day before the Nones of March") March 7 =Non. Mart. (abbreviation of Nanis Martiis - "on the Nones of March") March 8 =a. d. VIII Id. Mart. (abbreviation of ante diem VIII Idus Martias "on the 8th day before the Ides of March") March 14 = prid. Id. Mart. March 15 =Id. Mart. (abbreviation of Idibus Martiis - "on the Ides of March") March 16 =a. d. XVII Kai. Apr. (abbreviation of ante diem XVII Kalendas Apriles "on the 17th day before the Kalends of April") March 31 = prid. Kai. Apr. April 1 =Kai. Apr. (abbreviation of Kalendis Aprilibus - "on the Kalends of April") The CURSUS HONOR UM during the late Roman Republic CONSUL (2 per yr.) - minimum age 42 - chief civil and mili.tary magistrate of Rome, held imperium (supreme authority), was escorted by 12 lictors PRAETOR (6 or 8 per yr.) - minimum age 39 - judicial magistrate in Rome, held imperium (supreme authority), was escorted by 6 lictors TRIBUNUS PLEBIS (10 per yr.) - plebeian tribune, had immunity from harm, could veto any decree of the senate or any act of a magistrate AEDILIS (2 plebeian, 2 curule per yr.) - aedile, city manager of Rome, in charge of markets, roads, sewers, baths, temples, theaters, public games QUAESTOR (20 per yr.)- minimum age 30 - financial manager who served in Rome or as assistant to a proconsul or propraetor in a province VIGINTI(SEX) VIRI (26, later 20 per yr.) - minor magistrates responsible for running the mint and the prisons, holding executions, judging minor law suits, cleaning streets, keeping the peace at night in Rome TRIBUNUS MILITUM (6 per legion; some were elected, some appointed) - tribune of the soldiers, senior military officer of a Roman legion To become a consul in Rome, a man (women could not hold political office) had to move up through a "course of offices" (cursus honorum) whose order was fairly fixed. The quaestorship and praetorship were required; the other magistracies were optional. All the offices above the military tribunate were elective and had one-year terms. ' Only men from plebeian families (i.e., those that did not belong to the traditional social elite of Rome) were eligible to be plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles; the other magistrates could be either patrician or plebeian. Consuls, praetors, and curule aediles were called CURDLE magistrates because they were entitled to use a special chair (sella curulis). Consuls and praetors were escorted by LICTORS, men who walked in front of them, carrying fasces (bundled rods), and cleared the way for the magistrates. Once he had served as quaestor, a man was automatically admitted to the Roman SENATE. A person who succeeded in becoming a senator (or better yet, even a consul) despite having no senators among his ancestors was called a novus homo. Attaining a curule office (especially the consulship) gave nobilitas to the man and his descendants; a noble had the right to decorate the atrium of his home with wax masks (imagines) of all his ancestors who had been curule magistrates. After holding the consulship, a man could not be consul again for ten years. Praetors and consuls were sent to govern provinces the year after they held office; they were then called PROPRAETORS or PROCONSULS. Every five years two ex-consuls were elected to be CENSORS, whose job was to update the list of citizens. They also had the power to add members to the senate or expel senators guilty of illegal or immoral behavior. No office was more respected than the censorship. In emergencies a dictator might be appointed to serve (with the imperium of a consul) until the crisis ended; he chose his own assistant, the magister equitum. The pontifex maximus, elected for life, was the chief priest in the state religion. AUGURS were elected officials who took the auspices (i.e., interpreted the signs) before every major public undertaking to see whether the gods approved of it. 21 22 SIGNIFICANT EVENTS DURING THE AGE OF CICERO (all dates= B.C.) Birth (approximate year) of L. Sergius Catilina (Catiline) C. Marius serves 1st term as consul, reforms Roman army. Birth of M. Tullius Cicero & Cn. Pompei us Magnus (Pompey) Marius serves 6th term as consul; birth of C. Julius Caesar Social War; Rome's Italian allies are granted Roman citizenship. L. Cornelius Sulla seizes Rome; Marius flees, joins L. Cornelius Cinna. Marius & Cinna seize Rome while Sulla is fighting in Greece; proscriptions Marius serves 7th term as consul, with Cinna; Marius dies in office. Cinna is killed in a mutiny; birth (approximate year) of C. Valerius Catullus Sulla returns to Italy, supported by Pompey & M. Licinius Crassus. Civil war; Sulla wins, serves as dictator for 3 years; proscriptions Sulla resigns dictatorship & retires from public life (dies in 78). Cicero serves as quaestor in Sicily. Spartacus leads slave rebellion but is defeated by Crassus & Pompey. Consulship of Pompey & Crassus; birth of Publius Vergilius Maro (Vergil); Cicero successfully prosecutes proconsul C. Verres for governing Sicily corruptly. 69 Cicero serves as plebeian aedile. Pompey clears pirates from Mediterranean Sea in 3 months. 67 Cicero serves as praetor; Catiline's 1st conspiracy; Pompey defeats Mithridates VI. 66 63 Cicero serves as consul; Catiline's 2nd conspiracy; Pompey captures Jerusalem; Caesar elected pontifex maximus; birth of Octavian(= future emperor Augustus) 62 Defeat & death of Catiline; Pompey returns to Italy, disbands his army. 61 Caesar serves as propraetor of Further Spain; Pompey triumphs in Rome; P. Clodius Pulcher is put on trial for violating Bona Dea festival (acquitted). 1st triumvirate (Pompey, Crassus, & Caesar) is formed. 60 Caesar serves as consul; Pompey marries Caesar's daughter Julia; death of Clodia's 59 (= Lesbia's?) husband Q. Caecilius Metellus Celer 58-50 Caesar serves as proconsul of Gaul & Illyricum, fights Gallic Wars. 58 Clodius serves as tribune, instigates exile of Cicero; Cicero flees to Macedonia; Clodius' gangsters destroy Cicero's house on the Palatine. 57 Pompey & T. Annius Milo promote Cicero's recall; Cicero returns to Rome. 57-56 Catullus visits Bithynia, accompanying the propraetor C. Memmius. 56 Pompey, Crassus, & Caesar reaffirm triumvirate at a meeting at Luca in Italy; Cicero and Crassus successfully defend M. Caelius Rufus. 55 Consulship of Pompey & Crassus; Pompey builds 1st stone theater in Rome. 54 Death of Julia; death (approximate year) of Catullus 53 Crassus is defeated and killed by Parthians at Carrhae; Cicero is elected augur. 52 Clodius is killed by Milo's gang; Clodius' gang burns the Senate House; Milo is exiled. 51-50 Cicero serves in Cilicia as proconsul, corresponds with Caelius. 49 Caesar crosses Rubicon (iacta alea est), beginning civil war against Pompey; Caesar defeats Pompey's men at Ilerda, Spain, returns to Rome, serves as dictator. 48 Caesar serves as consul, defeats Pompey at Pharsalus in Greece; Pompey is killed in Egypt; Caelius and Milo are executed for stirring up rebellion in Italy. 47 Caesar serves as dictator, defeats Ptolemy XIII, reinstates Cleopatra as queen of Egypt, defeats Pharnaces II at Zela in Pontus (veni, vidi, vici). 46 Caesar serves as dictator & consul, reforms calendar, defeats Pompey's men at Thapsus in Africa, causing M. Porcius Cato Uticensis to commit suicide. 45 Caesar serves as dictator & consul, defeats Pompey's men at Munda, Spain. 44 Caesar serves as dictator for life & consul; Cleopatra visits Rome with her son Caesarian; Caesar is murdered on the Ides of March; Cleopatra and Caesarian return to Egypt. 44-43 Cicero writes the Philippics against M. Antonius (Antony). 43 2nd triumvirate (Antony, Octavian, M. Aemilius Lepidus) formed; proscriptions; murder of Cicero on December 7 42 Caesar is deified; M. Iunius Brutus & C. Cassius Longinus (murderers of Caesar) commit suicide after being defeated by Antony & Octavian at Philippi in Greece. 108 107 106 100 91-87 88 87 86 84 83 82-80 79 75 73-71 70 23 STYLISTIC DEVICES Alliteration: repetition of the same letter(s) at the beginning of successive words for an impressive sound effect. Anaphora ("carrying back"): repetition of the same word at the beginning of successive phrases or clauses for emphasis. Apostrophe ("turning away"): a dramatic address to a (usually absent) person or thing. Asyndeton ("not bound together"): allows rapid accumulation of ideas. omission of conjunctions; creates a staccato effect and Chiasmus: inverted (ABBA) word order, e.g., noun-adjective-adjective-noun; named after the x-shaped Greek letter "chi." Climax ("ladder"): arrangement of ideas (often three) in ascending order (i.e., in phrases or clauses of increasing length or significance) for greater impact. Hendiadys ("one through two"): joining two nouns in the same case with a conjunction instead of (more logically) putting one of them in the genitive case or making one of them an adjective. Puts equal weight on the two nouns instead of subordinating one to the other. Irony: stating the opposite of what is meant; frequently associated with sarcasm and ridicule. Litotes ("plainness"): affirming a thing by denying its opposite. Metaphor: an implied comparison (i.e., not using "like" or "as"). Oxymoron ("sharp-dull"): a seeming contradiction. Its use startles the audience and gives emphasis to the idea. Paronomasia: a pun, a play on words that sharpens the meaning. Personification: attributing personal qualities to an inanimate object for greater vividness. Polysyndeton ("much bound together"): the use of more conjunctions than necessary; produces a smooth, dignified rhythm. Preterition (praeteritio, "passing over"): a pretended omission. It actually calls attention to the "passed over" topics. Prosopopoeia ("impersonation"): speaking in the character (literally, "wearing the mask") of another person, dramatizing what someone else would say or would have said. Rhetorical Question: a type of question that does not expect a reply; the speaker is not in doubt about the answer. It is a forceful way of making a statement. Simile: an expressed comparison (i.e., using "like" or "as"). Synecdoche ("understanding with"): naming just a part of something when the whole is meant, or vice versa, for variety. This is a subcategory of metonymy ("change of name"): using a word as a substitute or a symbol for another word that is related to it in meaning.