Download LATIN GRAMMAR REVIEW

1
LATIN GRAMMAR REVIEW
NOUNS
DECLENSION:
Stem Vowel
Gender
SINGULAR:
Nominative
Genitive
Dative
Accusative
Ablative
Vocative
PLURAL:
Nom./Voc.
Genitive
Dative
Accusative
Ablative
First
Second
A
0
F
-a
-ae
-ae
-am
-a
-a
-ae
-arum
-is
-as
-is
M
N
-um
-i
-o
-um
-o
-um
-e
-us
-a
-orum
-is
-os
-a
-is
-i
Third
consonant
M&F N
i-stem
M&F N
-s/-- --is
--
Fourth
Fifth
u
E
M&F N
F
-us
-ii
-es
-us
-is
-i
-i
-ui
-ii
-em nom. -em nom. -um -ii
-e
-e
-i
-ii
nom.nom. nom.nom. -us
-ii
-ei
-s/--
-es
-a
-um
-ibus
-a
-es
-ibus
-es
-ia
-ium
-ibus
-is/-es -ia
-ibus
-ei
-em
-e
-es
-ua
-us
-uum
-ibus
-ua
-us
-ibus
-es
-erum
-ebus
-es
-ebus
NOTE: -us. -a. -um adjectives use 1st/2nd-declension noun endings; comparative adjs. use 3rddecl. consonant noun endings; all other adjs .. including pres. participles. use 3rd-decl. i-stem
noun endings: -i in abl. sg .. -ium in gen. pl.. -is (later -es) in masc./fem. acc. pl.. and-ia in neut.
nom./voc./acc. pl. The 5th-decl. nouns !ides. res. and spes have a short e in gen./ dat. sg. (-ei).
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
SING.:
·Norn.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Abl.
PLUR.:
Norn.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Abl.
rst pers.
ego (I)
mei
mihi
me
me
2ndpers.
ru (you)
tui
tibi
te
te
3rd pers. masc.
is (he)
eius
ei
eum
eo
3rd pers. fem.
ea (she)
eius
ei
earn
ea
3rd pers. neut.
id (it)
eius
ei
id
eo
nos (we)
nostrum/-i
nobis
nos
nobis
(you)
vestrum/-i
vobis
ei /ii (they)
eorum
eis/iis
eos
eis/iis
eae (they)
ea rum
eis
eas
eis
ea (they)
eorum
eis/iis
ea
eis/iis
VOS
VOS
vobis
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
SING.:
rst pers.
gen.
mei (of myself)
dat.
mihi
acc.
me
abl.
me
2ndpers.
tui (of yourself)
tibi
te
te
3rdpers.
sui(of
him/her /itself)
sibi
se
se
PLUR.:
gen.
nostri (of
ourselves)
vestri (of
yourselves)
sui(of
themselves)
dat.
nob is
acc.
nos
abl.
nob is
vobis
VOS
vobis
sibi
se
se
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PERSONAL PRONOUNS & POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
SUMMARY OF USES
PERS. PRONOUNS
USES
POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
meus, -a, um (my. my own)
ego (I)
1st-person personal
pronoun
nos (we)
noster. -tra. -trum (our. our own)
& reflexive pronoun
tuus.
-a. -um (your, your own [one
til (you [one person])
2nd-person personal
person's])
pronoun
vester. -tra. -trum (your. your own
vos (you [more than one
& reflexive pronoun
person])
[more than one person's])
is. ea, id (he, she, it)
ei, eae, ea (they)
--. sui, sibi. se. se
(him/her I itself.
themselves)
SING.:
Norn.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Ahl.
PLUR.:
Norn.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Abl.
NOTE:
3rd-person personal
pronoun only
3rd-person reflexive
pronoun only
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
(who, whom. which, that)
masculine
feminine
neuter
qui
quae
quod
cuius
cuius
cuius
cui
cui
cui
quern
quam
quod
quo
qua
quo
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
(who? whom? what? which?)
neuter
masc./ fem.
quid
quis
cuius
cuius
cui
cui
quid
quern
quo
quo
qui, quae
quae
quorum.
quorum
qua rum
quibus
quibus
quibus
quibus
quibus
quos
quas
quae
quos. quas
quae
quibus
quibus
quibus
quibus
quibus
The relative pronouns are identical in form with the interrogative adjectives.
qui
quorum
quae
qua rum
no adjectives: genitive of pronoun used
instead: eius (of him/her/it):
eorum.earum,eorum(of them)
suus. -a, -um (his own. her own, its own,
their own)
quae
quorum
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
feminine
neuter
masc.
haec
ille (that)
hoc
huius
huius
illius
huic
huic
illi
hanc
hoc
ilium
hac
hoc
ilio
SING.:
masculine
fem.
neut.
Norn.
hie (this)
ilia
illud
Gen.
huius
illius
illius
Dat.
huic
illi
illi
Acc.
hunc
illud
iliam
Abl.
hoc
ilio
ilia
PLUR.:
Norn.
hi (these)
hae
illi (those)
haec
illae
ilia
Gen.
ho rum
ha rum
ho rum
illorum
illorum
ilia rum
Dat.
his
his
his
illis
illis
illis
Acc.
hos
has
haec
illos
illas
ilia
Ahl.
his
his
his
illis
iliis
iliis
NOTE: iste and ipse are declined just like ille. but ipse uses -um, not -ud. in neut. sg. nom./ acc.
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DIRECTIONAL ADVERBS
hie
hinc
from this place, from here, hence
at this place, here
illinc or istinc
illic or istic
at that place, there
from that place, from there,
thence
ibi
inde
from there, thence
there
ubi?
unde?
at what place? where?
from what place? from where?
whence?
alibi or aliubi
aliunde
in another place. elsewhere
from another place
NOTE: alias= at another time
nonne
hue
to this place, to here, hither
illiic or isti1c/isto
to that place, to there. thither
eo
to there. thither
quo?
to what place? to where?
whither?
alio
to another place
INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS
DIRECT QUESTION
INDIRECT QUESTION
begins single direct question expecting begins single indirect question expecting
the answer YES
the answer YES; means "whether"
num
begins single direct question expecting
the answer NO
begins single indirect question that may
expect the answer NO; means "whether"
-ne
r. attached to rst word of single direct
r. attached to rst word of single indirect
question expecting YES or NO answer
attached to rst word of alternative
direct question; means "either"; is
correlated with an ("or") or annon
("or not")
question expecting YES or NO answer;
means "whether"
2. attached to rst word of alternative
indirect question; means "whether";
is correlated with an ("or") or necne
("or not")
begins alternative direct question;
means "either"; is correlated with
an ("or") or annon ("or not")
begins alternative indirect question;
means "whether"; is correlated with an
("or") or necne("or not")
2.
utrum
CONJUGATION:
Pres. Act. Indic.
First
laudo
VERBS - PRINCIPAL PARTS
Second
Third
moneo
ago
Third-io
capio
Fourth
audio
Pres. Act. Infin.
laud.are
monere
agere
capere
audire
Perf. Act. Indic.
laudavi
monui
egi
cepi
audivi
Perfect Passive
Participle
laudatus. -a,
-um
monitus, -a,
-um
actus. -a, -um
captus, -a.
-um
auditus, -a, -um
Present
laud.a-
VERB STEMS
moneage-
cape-
audi-
Perfect Active
laudav-
monu-
eg-
cep-
audiv-
Perfect Passive
laudat-
monit-
act-
capt-
audit-
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PARTICIPLES
Present
Perfect
Future
EXAMPLES:
Present
Perfect
Future
ACTIVE VOICE
PASSIVE VOICE
present stem +-ns (genitive.
-ntis)
NONE
NONE
perfect passive stem +-urus,
-ura, -urum
agens. agentis (doing)
NONE
acturus. -a. -um (about to do.
going to do)
perfect passive stem +-us. -a. -um
(= 4th principal part)
present stem +-ndus, -nda. -ndum
NONE
actus. -a. -um (having been done, done)
agendus, -a. -um (needing to be done. to be
done)
FORMATION OF TENSES - ACTIVE INDICATIVE
Formula: Present Stem +
-6
rst = -6. -as, -at, -amus. -a tis, ant
-s
-t
2nd= -eo. -es. -et. -emus. -etis. -ent
I call. do call, am calling. etc.
3rd= -6. -is, -it, -imus. -itis. -unt
3rd -i6 = -i6, -is. -it. -imus, -itis. -iunt
4th= -i6, -is, -it, -imus. -itis, -iunt
PRESENT TENSE
IMPERFECT TENSE
I was calling. used to call. etc.
FUTURE TENSE
I shall call, shall be calling. etc.
PERFECT TENSE
Formula: Present Stem+
rst = -abam. etc.
2nd. 3rd = -ebam, etc.
3rd-i6 & 4th= -iebam. etc.
-mus
-tis
-nt
-barn
-bas
-bat
-bamus
-batis
-bant
First & Second Conjugations
Formula: Present Stem +
1st= -abo. etc.
2nd= -eb6, etc.
-b6
-bis
-bit
-bimus
-bitis
-bunt
Third & Fourth Conjugations
Formula: Present Stem +
3rd= -am. -es. etc.
3rd -i6 & 4th= -iam, -ies, etc.
-am
-es
-et
-emus
-etis
-ent
-imus
-i
-is tis
-is ti
I called, have called, etc.
-erunt
-it
PLUPERFECT TENSE
Formula: Perfect Active Stem +
era.mus
-eram
-era tis
-eras
I had called, etc.
-erant
-erat
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
Formula: Perfect Active Stem+
-erimus
-er6
-eritis
-eris
I shall have called, etc.
-erint
-erit
NOTE: The perfect tense may also be called the present perfect tense. especially when it
indicates a present state of completion ("I have _'d") rather than a past action ("I_'d").
Formula: Perfect Active Stem+
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FORMATION OF TENSES - PASSIVE INDICATIVE
Formula: start with the present
active forms; replace the active
-r
endings with passive endings:
I am called, am being called.
-ris (-re)
etc.
-tur
Exceptions: in rst-person sg..
add -r to the ending -o: 2ndpers. sg.of 3rd conjugation =
-eris, not -iris
PRESENT TENSE
-bar
Formula: Present Stem +
rst =-a.bar. etc.; 2nd. 3rd= -ebar, -baris (-re)
etc.; 3rd -io & 4th = -iebar. etc. -batur
IMPERFECT TENSE
I was being called, etc.
FUTURE TENSE
I shall be called, etc.
PERFECT TENSE
I was called. have been called,
etc.
PLUPERFECT TENSE
I had been called, etc.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
I shall have been called, etc.
-mur
-mini
-ntur
-bamur
-bamini
-bantur
First & Second Conjugations
-bor
Formula: Present Stem +
-beris
(-re)
rst = -abor. etc.; 2nd= -ebor. etc.
-bitur
Third & Fourth Conjugations
-ar
Formula: Present Stem +
-eris (-re)
3rd= -ar. -eris. etc.
3rd-i6 & 4th= -iar, -ieris, etc. -etur
-emur
-emini
-entur
Formula: Perf. Pass. Participle + sum
es
est
sumus
es tis
sunt
Formula: Perf. Pass. Participle+ eram
eras
erat
Formula: Perf. Pass. Participle + er6
eris
erit
era.mus
eratis
erant
erimus
eritis
erunt
-bimur
-bimini
-buntur
FORMATION OF TENSES - PRESENT ACTIVE IMPERATIVE
(Regular verbs have only ACTIVE imperatives.)
CONJUGATION:
Present Stem
Pr. act. imper. 2nd sg.
Pr. act. imper. 2nd pl.
First
laudalauda
laudate
Second
monemone
monete
Third
ageage
agite
Third-i6
capecape
capite
Fourth
audiaudi
audite
FORMATION OF TENSES - PRESENT PASSIVE IMPERATIVE
(Deponent verbs have only PASSIVE imperatives.)
CONJUGATION:
Present Stem
Pr. pass. imp. 2nd sg.
Pr. pass. imp. 2nd pl.
First
hortahortare
hortamini
Second
fatefatere
fatemini
Third
sequesequere
sequimini
Third-io
patepatere
patimini
Fourth
experiexperire
experimini
6
Pr. Act. Imperative
2nd -person sg.
die
due
fac
fer
VERBS EXCEPTIONAL IN THE
IMPERATIVE MOOD:
dic6. -ere, dixi. dictum (say. tell)
duco, -ere, duxi. ductum (lead)
facio, -ere, feci, factum (do. make)
fero, ferre. tuli. latum (bear. carry)
Pr. Act. Imperative
2nd-person P 1.
dicite
ducite
fa cite
ferte
For a NEGATIVE COMMAND (prohibition). use noli(te) ["don't wish"]+ an infinitive, or ne
+perfect subjunctive. EXAMPLES: voca me= "call me"; noli me vocare (ne me vocaveris) =
"don't call me." Never combine non with an imperative.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD - PRESENT TENSE
Start with the present stem; replace the stem vowel with E (first conjugation),
EA (second conjugation). A (third conjugation). IA (third-i6 conjugation). or
IA (fourth conjugation). To remember those vowels, think of this sentence:
RULE:
Wg HEAR A LIAR. FRIAR!
I
2
3
3-io
ACTIVE:
Add the personal endings:
or
PASSIVE:
4
-m
-s
-t
-mus
-tis
-nt
-r
-ris
-tur
-mur
-mini
-ntur
ACTIVE:
lauda-
mone-
age-
cape-
audi-
laudem
laudes
laudet
laudemus
laudetis
laudent
moneam
moneas
moneat
moneamus
moneatis
moneant
agam
a gas
agat
agamus
agatis
agant
capiam
capias
capiat
capiamus
capiatis
capiant
audiam
audias
audiat
audiamus
audiatis
audiant
PASSIVE:
lauda-
mone-
age-
cape-
audi-
lauder
lauderis (-re)
laudetur
laudemur
laudemini
laudentur
monear
monearis (-re)
moneatur
moneamur
moneamini
moneantur
agar
agaris (-re)
agatur
agamur
agamini
agantur
capiar
capiaris (-re)
capiatur
capiamur
capiamini
capiantur
audiar
audiaris (-re)
audiatur
audiamur
audiamini
audiantur
Present Subjunctive of sum
sim
simus
sis
sitis
sit
sint
Present Subjunctive of ossum
possimus
possim
possitis
poss is
ossint
ossit
7
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD - PERFECT TENSE
RULE:
ACTIVE VOICE: Start with the perfect active stem; add the infix -eri- and then
the active personal endings.
laud.av-
mo nu-
eg-
cep-
audiv-
laudaverim
laudaveris
laudaverit
laudaverimus
laudaveritis
laudaverint
monuerim
monueris
monuerit
monuerimus
monueritis
monuerint
egerim
egeris
egerit
egerimus
egeritis
egerint
ceperim
ceperis
ceperit
ceperimus
ceperitis
ceperint
audiverim
audiveris
audiverit
audiverimus
audiveritis
audiverint
Perfect Subjunctive of possum
potuerimus
potuerim
potueritis
potueris
potuerint
potuerit
Perfect Subjunctive of sum
fuerim
fuerimus
fueris
fueritis
fuerit
fuerint
RULE:
PASSIVE VOICE: Combine the perfect passive participle with the present
subjunctive of sum.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD - IMPERFECT TENSE
RULE:
Start with the present stem: add the infix-re- and then the active or passive
personal endings. [Looks like present active infinitive +endings.]
ACTIVE:
lauda-
mone-
age-
cape-
audi-
laudarem
laudares
laudaret
laudaremus
laudaretis
laudarent
monerem
moneres
moneret
moneremus
moneretis
monerent
agerem
ageres
ageret
ageremus
ageretis
agerent
caperem
caperes
caperet
caperemus
caperetis
caperent
audirem
audires
audiret
audiremus
audiretis
audirent
PASSIVE:
lauda-
mone-
age-
cape-
audi-
laudarer
laudareris
laudaretur
laudaremur
laudaremini
laudarentur
monerer
monereris
moneretur
moneremur
moneremini
monerentur
agerer
agereris
ageretur
ageremur
ageremini
agerentur
caperer
capereris
caperetur
caperemur
caperemini
caperentur
audirer
audireris
audiretur
audiremur
audiremini
audirentur
Imperfect Subjunctive of sum
essem
essemus
essetis
esses
esset
essent
Imperfect Subjunctive of possum
possem
possemus
possetis
posses
possent
poss et
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SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD - PLUPERFECT TENSE
RULE:
ACTIVE VOICE: Start with the perfect active stem; add the infix-isseand then the active personal endings. [Looks like perf. act. infin. +endings.]
laudav-
monu-
eg-
cep-
audiv-
laudavissem
laudavisses
laudavisset
laudavissemus
laudavissetis
laudavissent
monuissem
monuisses
monuisset
monuissemus
monuissetis
monuissent
egissem
egisses
egisset
egissemus
egissetis
egissent
cepissem
cepisses
cepisset
cepissemus
cepissetis
cepissent
audivissem
audivisses
audivisset
audivissemus
audivissetis
audivissent
Pluperfect Subjunctive of sum
fuissem
fuissemus
fuisses
fuissetis
fuisset
fuissent
RULE:
Plu erfect Sub·unctive of ossum
potuissem
potuissemus
potuisses
potuissetis
potuissent
potuisset
PASSIVE VOICE: Combine the perfect passive participle with the imperfect
subjunctive of sum.
SEQUENCE OF TENSES
p
R
I
M
A
R
y
s
Main Verb
PRESENT TENSE
FUTURE TENSE
FUTURE PERF. TENSE
Main Verb
Subordinate Verb
PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE--to show action
incomplete at the time of the main verb
PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE--to show action
completed at the time of the main verb
Subordinate Verb
E
c
0
N
D
IMPERFECT TENSE
PERFECT TENSE
PLUPERFECT TENSE
A
R
IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE--to show action
incomplete at the time of the main verb
PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE--to show action
completed at the time of the main verb
y
NOTE: The perfect (rather than imperfect) subjunctive is used in result clauses in secondary
sequence if the completed state of the action needs to be emphasized. It is also common for a
main verb in the present perfect tense ("has/have _'d") to be regarded as primary.
Hoc facis (fades) ut me iuves.
Hoc fecisti (faciebas) ut me iuvares.
Rogant quid scripserimus.
Rogaverunt quid scripsissemus.
Tam severus est magister ut vitetur.
Tam severus erat magister ut vitaretur.
You do (will do) this to help me.
You did (were doing) this to help me.
They are asking what we wrote.
They asked what we had written.
The teacher is so strict that he is avoided.
The teacher was so strict that he was avoided.
9
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
CLAUSES:
I.
PROTASIS =condition ("if... ")
APODOSIS =conclusion ("then ... ")
SIMPLE FACT
A.
PRESENT
Present Indicative*
Si hoc fa cit,
If she does/is doing this,
Present Indicative
priidens est.
she is wise.
*Present subjunctive may be used in the protasis if the subject is an indefinite "you"
(second-person singular) and the action is generalized, not occurring at a particular
time: Si hoc facias. priidens es. "If [ever] you do this, you are wise."
·
B.
PAST
Imperfect or Perfect Indicative*
. Si hoc faciebat/fecit,
If she was doing this,
If she did (has done) this.
Imperfect or Perfect Indicative
priidens erat/fuit.
she was wise.
(imperfect)
she was (has been) wise. (perfect)
*Imperfect subjunctive (faceret) may be used in the protasis if the action is repeated
or customary: "if she did this [habitually]. she was wise." Cicero rarely used the
subjunctive in this way. but the practice became much more common in later Latin.
II.
FUTURE
A.
MORE VIVID
Future Indicative*
Si hoc f aciet.
If she does/will do this.
Future Indicative
priidens erit.
she will be wise.
*Future perfect (fecerit) may be used in the protasis to show a future action that will be
completed before the action in the apodosis.
B.
LESS VIVID ("should-would")
Present Subjunctive*
Si hoc faciat.
If she did/were to do/should do this.
Present Subjunctive
priidens sit.
she would be wise.
*Perfect subjunctive (fecerit) may be used in the protasis to show a future action that
would be completed before the action in the apodosis.
III.
CONTRARY-TO-FACT
A.
PRESENT
Imperfect Subjunctive
Si hoc faceret.
If she were doing this.
B.
Imperfect Subjunctive
priidens esset.
she would be wise.
PAST
Pluperfect Subjunctive
Si hoc fecisset.
If she had done this.
Pluperfect Subjunctive
priidens fuisset.
she would have been wise.
10
INDEPENDENT USES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
I.
JUSSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
The jussive subjunctive is also called the hortatory subjunctive. In the present tense
(rarely the perfect) it expresses a command or an exhortation (e.g.. hos Jatrones interficiamus
"let us kill these robbers" - Caes .. BG 7.38). In the imperfect or pluperfect tense it denotes an
unfulfilled obligation in past time (e.g.. morerentur "they should have died"; if pluperfect
tense had been used, it would simply have given more emphasis to the fact that the obligation
was in the past). The negative is introduced by ne.
The jussive subjunctive may also show concession (present or perfect tense). The
negative is introduced by ne. Example: ne sit summum malum dolor. malum certe est
("granted that [conceding that] pain is not the greatest evil. it certainly is an evil" - Cicero.
Tusc. 2.14).
2.
OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
The optative subjunctive expresses a wish. Present tense shows that the wish is possible
(e.g .. sint incolumes "may they be safe"); imperfect tense shows that the wish is
unaccomplished in present time; pluperfect tense shows that the wish is unaccomplished in
past time; perfect tense is archaic and solemn-sounding (e.g.. di faxint "may the gods bring
about"). The optative subjunctive is often (and always if the tense used is imperfect or
pluperfect) introduced by utinam (e.g .. utinam viverent "would that they were alive [but they
aren't]"). In poetry the optative subjunctive may be introduced by ut or uti (e.g .. ut pereat
positum robigine telum "may the weapon. unused, perish with rust" - Hor. Sat. 2.r.43) or by si
(e.g .. si nunc se nobis ille aureus arbore ramus I ostendat "if only that golden branch would
show itself to us now!" - Verg .. Aen. 6.187-188). The negative has ne.
3.
DELIBERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
The deliberative subjunctive is used in questions implying doubt or indignation (any
tense. most often present) or the impossibility of a thing's being done (imperfect or pluperfect
tense). The negative has non. Examples: quid agam? ("What am I to do?"); ego non venirem?
("Should I not have come?"); quid diceres ("What were you to say [could you have said]?").
4.
POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE
The potential subjunctive suggests that an action is possible or conceivable. It often
expresses a cautious or modest assertion in the 1st-person singular of verbs of saying.
thinking. or wishing. or in the indefinite 2nd-person singular of such verbs. The present and
perfect tenses refer to the future. imperfect tense to the past. The negative has non. Examples:
non dixerim ("I would/ could not venture to say"); freto assimilare possis ("you might
compare it to a sea" - Ovid, Met. 5.6); videres susurros ("you might have seen the whispers
[i.e .. them whispering]" - Hor .. Sat. 2.8.77).
5.
EXCLAMATORY SUBJUNCTIVE
The exclamatory subjunctive (present or imperfect tense) is used in exclamatory
questions. It may be introduced by ut. by the enclitic -ne, or by no word at all. Examples:
egone ut te interpellem ("the very idea that I might interrupt you!" - Cic.. Tusc. 242): ego tibi
irascerer ("the thought that I might have been angry at you!" - Oc .. Q. fr. I .3).
11
While the exclamatory subjunctive usually refers to something only contemplated as
occurring. the EXCLAMATORY INFINITIVE refers to something that actually is occurring
(present tense) or has occurred (perfect tense). Examples: mene incepto desistere victam ("the
shame that I. beaten. am giving up on my attempt!" - Verg .. Aen. r.37); te in tantas aerumnas
propter me incidisse ("alas. that you have fallen into such grief for me!" - Cic.. Fam. 14.r).
DEPENDENT USES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
I.
2.
3.
PURPOSE CLAUSE
A.
Purpose clause (adverbial): utor ne+subjunctive
Vivit ut cenet.
He lives to eat (so that he might eat. in order to eat, etc.).
Hoc facit ne erret.
He does this lest he make (in order that he not make) a mistake.
B.
Relative purpose clause: if it is descriptive. a purpose clause may be
introduced by a relative pronoun instead of ut.
Magister misit puerum qui fratrem iuvaret.
The teacher sent the boy to help his brother (literally. who
might/should help his brother).
C.
Comparative purpose clause: if it contains a comparative. a purpose
clause may be introduced by quo instead of ut.
Dux eos Jaudavit quo audacius pugnarent.
The general praised them so that they would fight more boldly
(literally. by which they would fight more boldly).
RESULT CLAUSE
A.
Result clause (adverbial): utor ut non+ subjunctive; may be signaled by
ita. sic. talis. tam. tantus. etc. in the main clause.
Laborat tam diligenter ut sit defessus.
He works so hard that he is tired out.
B.
Relative result clause: if it is descriptive, a result clause may be
introduced by a relative pronoun instead of ut.
Nemo est tam stultus qui hoc non faciat.
No one is so foolish as not to (literally. who would not) do this.
C.
Noun result clause (a clause indicating result and acting as direct object
after a main verb of making. effecting. or bringing about or as subject of
an impersonal main verb): utor ut non +subjunctive; utis often omitted
with facio and with the impersonal verbs Jicet. oportet. and necesse est.
Fae [ut] pugnent.
Make them fight (literally. bring it about that they fight).
RELATIVE CLAUSE OF CHARACTERISTIC (a relative clause with a general.
indefinite, interrogative, or negative antecedent; indicates a characteristic of the
antecedent): relative pronoun + subjunctive
Relative clauses of characteristic are common after these expressions:
nemo est qui there is no one who...
sunt qui
there are some who ...
nihil est quad there is nothing that...
quis est qui who is there who ... ?
Nemo erat qui hoc crederet.
There was no one who believed this.
12
4.
INDIRECT QUESTION (a noun clause acting as direct object after a main verb of
saying. asking. knowing. etc.): interrogative word+ subjunctive
Scio quid putes.
I know what you think.
5.
INDIRECT COMMAND (a jussive noun clause acting as direct object after a main
verb of asking. commanding. persuading. urging. warning. wishing. etc.): ut or ne
(utis sometimes omitted)+ subjunctive
Impero ut laboretis.
I order you to work.
6.
FEAR CLAUSE (a noun clause acting as direct object after a main verb of fearing):
ne (affirmative, "lest," "that") or ut(negative, "lest...not," "that...not") +subjunctive
Timeo ne properes.
I fear that you are hurrying.
Timeo ut labores.
I fear that you are not working.
7.
PROVISO CLAUSE (an adverbial clause stating a provisional circumstance):
dummodo or modo + subjunctive (+ ne if negative)
Brunt felices dummodo ne discedas.
They will be happy. provided that (so long as) you do not leave.
8.
CAUSAL CLAUSE
A.
quad or quia: introduces a reason; takes the indicative mood when the reason
is given on the authority of the author, the subjunctive mood when the reason
is given on the authority of another.
Cur igitur pacem nolo? quia turpis est.
Why then do I not wish for peace? Because (as I myself say) it is
disgraceful. (Cic., Phil. 7.9)
Mea mater irata est quia non redierim.
My mother is angry because (as she says) I did not return.
(Plaut., Cist. IOI)
B.
g.
quoniam or quando: introduces a reason given on the authority of the author;
takes the indicative.
Quoniam !idem magistri cognostis. cognoscite nunc discipuli aequitatem.
Since you have learned the teacher's integrity. now learn his pupil's
fairness. (Cic., Pro Rose. rrg)
QUIN CLAUSE
A.
quin literally means "how not?" or "why not?" and may be used at the start of
an independent clause with indicative or subjunctive.
Quin ego hoc rogem?
Why shouldn't I ask this?
B.
quin may also introduce a dependent subjunctive clause after verbs of
hindering. resisting. refusing. doubting. delaying. etc .. when they are
negatived (expressly or by implication). ne or quominus may take the place of
quin if the main verb is positive.
Facere non possum quin cotidie ad te mittam.
I cannot help but (there's nothing I can do except) send to you every day.
(Cic .. Att. 12.27.2)
Non erat dubium quin Helvetii plii.rimum possent.
There was no doubt that the Helvetians were most powerful.
(Ca es .. BG r.3)
13
C.
IO.
quin (= qui. quae. quad+ non) may introduce a relative clause of characteristic
or a relative clause of result.
Ecquis fuit quin lacrimaret?
Was there anyone who did not shed tears? (Cic., Verr. 5.r2r)
CUM CLAUSE: an adverbial clause, either causal. concessive (adversative). or temporal.
describing the circumstances under which the action of the main verb takes place. The choice
of subjunctive or indicative mood in the cum clause depends upon its type.
TYPE OF CUM CLAUSE
ENGLISH
LATIN
CUM CAUSAL
Cum veniat, discedimus.
Subjunctive mood is used;
tense is determined by
sequence of tenses.
Cum veniret. discessimus.
Cum venerit, discedimus.
Cum venisset, discessimus.
CUM CONCESSIVE
Cum veniat. discedimus.
Subjunctive mood is used;
tense is determined by
sequence of tenses.
Cum veniret, discessimus.
Cum venerit, discedimus.
Cum venisset. discessimus.
CUM TEMPORAL
Indicative mood is used if
cum clause refers to the
present or the future.
Cum venit. discedimus.
Cum veniet, discedemus.
Cum venerit. discedemus.
CUM TEMPORAL
Cum veniret, discessimus.
Subjunctive mood is used Cum venisset. discessimus.
if cum clause refers to the
past; follows sequence of
tenses. Indicative may be Cum venit, discessimus.
used if the past actions in
the sentence took place at
exactly the same time.
Because he is coming. we are
leaving.
Because he was coming. we left.
Because he has come, we are
leaving.
Because he had come, we left.
Although he is coming. we are
leaving.
Although he was coming. we left.
Although he has come, we are
leaving.
Although he had come, we left.
When he is coming. we are leaving.
When he comes (literally. "shall
come"), we shall leave.
When he has come (literally. "shall
have come"), we shall leave.
When he was coming. we left.
When he had come, we left.
When he came [i.e .. at that precise
moment]. we left.
USES OF THE ABLATIVE CASE
In Classical Latin the ablative case performs the duties of three originally distinct cases:
the ablative. the locative, and the instrumental. Thus the ablative has many different uses.
I.
AGENT(+ a or ab):
COMPARISON:
DEGREE OF DIFFERENCE:
MANNER (+ cum; cum is optional
if noun is modified by an adjective):
MEANS (INSTRUMENT):
RESPECT (SPECIFICATION):
A patre monebatur.
Sori5re sapientior es.
Sori5re multi5 sapientior es.
Cum ciJ.ra lodlti sunt.
Magna (cum) ciJ.ra Jodi.ti sunt.
Gladii5 interfectus est.
Sapientia excellit.
14
SEPARATION:
TIME WHEN:
TIME WITHIN WHICH:
MetiJ. liberabimur.
Tertio anno discessit.
Tribus annis regressus est.
II. An ablative may be used with each of the following ADJECTNES: contentus. -a. -um.
dignus. -a. -um. fretus. -a. -um. indignus. -a. -um. praeditus. -a. -um
III. An ablative of means may be used with each of the following DEPONENT VERBS:
fruor. frui. friJ.ctus sum; fungor. fungi. fiJ.nctus sum: potior. potiri, potitus sum; iJ.tor.
iJ.ti, iJ.sus sum: vescor, vesci. --. These five verbs take no direct object in the accusative.
IV. A phrase that can be detached from the main framework of a sentence without leaving
the structure incomplete is called an absolute phrase. Example: School having
started(or with school having started). I have begun to think about Latin again.
An ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE is an absolute phrase that combines a noun or pronoun
with a participle. an adjective, or another noun or pronoun. both in the ablative case.
Absolute absolutes are much more common in Latin than in English because Latin has
no perfect active participle. It is impossible. for example. to say "having broken her
leg" in Latin; instead one must say "her leg having been broken" (criJ.re fractO).
An ablative absolute usually indicates time. cause. or attendant circumstance. It may be
translated with a participial phrase. an adverbial clause. or a prepositional phrase.
EXAMPLES:
Noun+ participle:
PeciJ.nia accepta. Sibylla libros tradidit.
Having received the money. the Sibyl handed over the books.
Noun+ adjective:
Caelo sereno. obsciJ.rata Jax est.
Although the sky was clear. the light was obscured [in an eclipse].
Noun+noun:
Nihil desperandum Teucro duce.
Under Teucer's leadership there should be no despairing.
TRANSLATING LATIN PARTICIPLES
As verbal adjectives. participles are capable of being modified by adverbs and
prepositional phrases; if active in voice. they may also take direct and/ or indirect objects.
Often the best way to translate a participle is with an ADVERBIAL CLAUSE introduced by a
conjunction such as "when," "while," "after," "since," "because," "if," or "although."
I.
PRESENT ACTNE PARTICIPLE
A.
Femina. !ilium videns. gaudet/gaudebat/gaudebit.
The woman. seeing her son. rejoices/rejoiced/will rejoice.
Here. no matter what the tense of the main verb is. the action of seeing takes place at the
SAME TIME as the rejoicing. so both Latin and English require a present participle. Instead of
the literal translation "seeing her son," you may prefer to use an adverbial clause:
B.
The woman. when she sees her son, rejoices; when she saw her son.
rejoiced; when she sees/will see her son, will rejoice.
15
II.
PERFECT P ASSNE PARTICIPLE
A.
Femina, filii5 visa. gaudet/gaudebat/gaudebit.
The woman, having seen her son. rejoices/rejoiced/will rejoice.
Here, no matter what the tense of the main verb is. the action of seeing takes place BEFORE the
rejoicing. so both Latin and English require a perfect participle.
Instead of the literal
translation "having seeing her son," you may prefer to use an adverbial clause:
B.
The woman. after she has seen her son. rejoices; after she had seen her
son. rejoiced; after she sees/will see her son, will rejoice.
Notice that the Latin literally says "the son having been seen"; this perfect passive construction
(ablative absolute) is necessary because Latin has no perfect active participle ("having seen").
To avoid sounding stilted, you may choose to translate the participle as if it were active.
III.
FUTURE ACTNE PARTICIPLE
A.
Femina. !ilium visura. gaudet/gaudebat/gaudebit.
The woman. about to see her son. rejoices/rejoiced/will rejoice.
Here. no matter what the tense of the main verb is. the action of seeing takes place AFTER the
rejoicing. so both Latin and English require a future participle. Instead of the literal
translation "about to see her son," you may prefer to translate with an adverbial clause:
B.
The woman. because she will see her son. rejoices; because she would see
her son. rejoiced; because she will see her son. will rejoice.
USES OF THE FUTURE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE (GERUNDIVE)
In Latin the future passive participle, also called the GERUNDIVE. shows NECESSITY
("needing to be _'d"), implying that something had, has, or will have to be done. It often
appears as a predicate adjective (agreeing with the subject in gender, number, case) combined
with a form of sum and modified. not by the ablative of agent as one might expect, but by the
DATIVE OF AGENT. showing the person on whom the necessity or obligation falls.
This construction is called the PASSIVE PERIPHRASTIC because it is a roundabout (=
periphrastic) way of expressing what could be said straightforwardly with debe6 +an active
infinitive. The examples below illustrate how to transform statements of necessity from active
to passive voice, using the gerundive.
Active voice:
Passive voice:
Omnes duces quaerere pacem debent/debebant/debebunt.
Omnibus ducibus pax quaerenda est/erat/erit.
All leaders have to/must seek peace.
All leaders had to seek peace.
All leaders will have to seek peace.
= Peace has to/must be sought by all leaders.
= Peace had to be sought by all leaders.
= Peace will have to be sought by all leaders.
Notice that it is the form of sum. and not the gerundive. that indicates whether the
expression is past, present, or future in tense. Despite its name. the future passive participle
does not imply anything about the time of the action; this distinguishes it from the other three
Latin participles. which all show time relative to the main verb.
16
The gerundive has a second use connected with the GERUND. A gerund is a verbal
noun meaning "the action of _-ing" or simply "to_." In Latin a gerund can appear in any
of five cases and be used in any way a regular noun can be. In the nominative case it is
identical with the infinitive; in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative cases, it is identical
with the neuter singular gerundive (e.g.. iuvandi, iuvand6, iuvandum, iuvand6). It never
occurs in the vocative or in the plural. Like participles. gerunds are capable of being modified
by adverbs and prepositional phrases, and of taking direct and/ or indirect objects.
The gerund is frequently combined with the prepositions ad, causfi, or gratifi to show
PURPOSE. as an alternative to a purpose clause (ut +subjunctive) or a supine.
EXAMPLES:
adiuvandum
iuvandi causa/grfitifi
ad amic6s tm5s iuvandum
amicos tu6s iuvandi causfi/grfitia
="for the purpose of helping" or "to help"
="for the sake of helping" or "to help"
="for the purpose of helping your friends" or
"to help your friends"
="for the sake of helping your friends" or
"to help your friends"
You will rarely see the last two examples because the Romans found the combination gerund+
direct object ugly. They preferred to transform it, putting what would have been the direct
object into whatever case the gerund would have been in. then modifying that ex-direct object
with a gerundive in the appropriate gender, number, and case. This is the other common use
of the gerundive: as a SUBSTITUTE (less logical but more elegant) for the gerund.
EXAMPLES:
ad amic6s tu6s iuvandum
amicos tuos iuvandi causa/grfitifi
> ad amic6s tu6s iuvand6s
> amic6rum tu6rum iuvandorum causfi/gratifi
When it takes the place of a gerund, the future passive participle no longer shows necessity
and thus should not be translated "needing to be_'d." Translate the gerundive construction
exactly as you would have translated the original gerund+ direct object.
INFINITIVES
ACTIVE VOICE
PASSIVE VOICE
Present
-are, -ere, -ere (3rd-i6 =-ere), -ire
-ari, -eri. -i (3rd-i6 = -i). -iri
Perfect
perfect active stem+ -isse
Future
perfect passive stem +-urus, -ura,
-urum+esse
perfect passive stem +-us, -a, -um +
esse
perfect passive stem +-um+ iri
EXAMPLES:
Present
laudare, monere, agere (capere),
audire
Perfect
laudavisse, monuisse, egisse (cepisse).
audivisse
Future
laudaturus,moniturus,acturus
(capturus), auditurus, -a. -um esse
..-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
laudari, moneri, agi (capi), audiri
laudatus, monitus, actus (captus),
auditus, -a, -um esse
laudatum, monitum, actum (captum),
auditumiri
NOTE: Infinitives may be used either as verbal nouns (gerunds) or as verbs (complementary
infinitives, object infinitives, substitutes for finite verbs in indirect discourse).
17
INDIRECT DISCOURSE (= INDIRECT STATEMENT)
VERBS that commonly introduce indirect discourse:
SAYING:
ait. dico, doceo, narro, nego. ni1nti6. ostendo, scribo
KNOWING:
intellego. memoria teneo. nescio, scio
THINKING:
credo. puto. spero
PERCEIVING:
audio, sentio. video
TENSES of the infinitive in indirect discourse:
r. PRESENT infinitive indicates same time as that of the main verb.
2. PERFECT infinitive indicates time before that of the main verb.
3. FUTURE infinitive indicates time after that of the main verb.
Dicunt
eum iuvare earn.
eum iilvisse earn.
eum ii1ti1rum [esse] earn.
They say
that he is helping her.
that he helped her.
that he will help her.
Dixerunt
eum iuvare earn.
eum iilvisse earn.
eum ii1ti1rum [esse] earn.
They said
that he was helping her.
that he had helped her.
that he would help her.
Dicent
eum iuvare earn.
eum iilvisse earn.
eum ii1ti1rum [esse] earn.
They will say
that he is helping her.
that he helped her.
that he will help her.
jLATIN WORDS THAT LOOK ALIKE!
ab (prep.) = away from. by
ad (prep.)= to, toward. near
ac (conj.) = and
at (conj.)= but
atque (conj.) = and also
alienus, -a, -um= belonging to another person, someone else's, not one's own
aliquis, aliquid =someone, something
alius, alia, aliud =other. another
audeo, audere, ausus sum = dare
audio, audire, audivi, auditum = hear, listen to
aut (conj.) =or
autem (conj.)= however, moreover
civis. civis (m. or f.) = citizen
civitas, civitatis (f.) =citizenship. city-state, state
cogito. cogitare. cogitavi. cogitatum = think. ponder
cogo. cogere. coegi. coactum =drive together, force, compel
dico, dicere. dixi, dictum= say
diico, diicere. diixi, ductum =lead
18
discedo, discedere, discessi. discessum =go away. depart
disco, discere, didici =learn
gens, gentis (f .) = clan. race, nation, people
genus. generis (n.) =kind. sort. class
ibi (adv.) = there
ubi (adv.) =where
idem, eadem, idem = the same
quidem (adv.) = indeed, certainly
mora, morae (f.) =delay
mors, mortis (f.) =death
mos. moris (m.) =habit, custom. manner (mores. morum =habits, character)
noster, nostra, nostrum= our
vester, vestra, vestrum =your
peto. petere, petivi, petitum =seek, aim at, beg. beseech
puto, putare. putavi, putatum =reckon, suppose. judge, think, imagine
quidam, quaedam, quiddam = a certain person. a certain thing
quis, quid (after si, num nisi. or ne) = anyone, anything. someone, something
quisquam. quidquam/ quicquam =anyone, anything
quisque, quaeque, quidque/ quicque =each person. each thing
quisquis, quidquid/quicquid =anyone who. whoever, anything that, whatever
senectG.s, senecti1tis (f .) =old age
senex, senis (adj. and noun) = old. aged; old man
servio, servire, servivi, servitum= serve. be a servant to(+ dat.)
servo, servare. servavi, servatum =save, preserve
tamen (adv.)= nevertheless. still
tandem (adv.) = at last, finally
terreo. terrere, terrui, territum =frighten, terrify
timeo, timere. timui =fear, be afraid. be afraid of
vinco, vincere. vici, victum =conquer
vito, vitare, vitavi, vita tum= avoid, shun
vivo, vivere. vixi, victum =live
vir. viri (m.) = man
vis. vis (f.) =force. power. violence (pl. vires. virium =strength); vis also= 2nd pers. sg. of volo
vita, vitae (f .) =life
vitium, vitii (n.) = fault, crime, vice
To help remember quidam, quisquam, quisque, and idem, here is a useful ditty:
"Be dam certain not to have any quam's about each quebecause dem's the same!"
19
THE ROMAN NAME
Praenomen corresponds to our first name, but not in its use as a sign of familiarity or
intimacy. The number of praenomina was very limited, and the eighteen most common ones
were regularly abbreviated:
A.
App. (Ap.)
*C.
*Cn.
D.
K.
Aul us
Appius
Gaius
Gnaeus
Decimus
Kaeso
L.
M.
M'.
Mam.
N. (Num.)
P.
Lucius
Marcus
Mani us
Mamercus
Numerius
Publius
Q.
Ser.
Sex. (S.)
Sp.
T.
Ti. (Tib.)
Quintus
Servius
Sextus
Spurius
Titus
Tiberius
*C was the original symbol for a G sound; in the abbreviations for Gaius and Gnaeus, the
old value of C is preserved.
The eldest son often took his father's praenomen; a woman usually had no praenomen.
Nomen is the name of the gens or family; it is actually an adjective identifying the person
as "belonging to the _ _ family." Every child in the family had the same nomen, in the
masculine form for sons, in the feminine form for daughters. Thus the sons of a man named C.
Julius might be called C. Julius (the older son) and L. Julius (the younger son). The daughters of
C. Julius would all be called Julia, distinguished by the addition of adjectives like maior, minor,
altera, secunda, tertia, etc.
Cognomen is a semi-descriptive name that was usually handed down in a family; many
cognomina were originally nicknames, often describing a physical feature of an ancestor (e.g.,
Caesar = "hairy"; Naso = "nose"; Cicero = "chickpea" or perhaps "wart"). Possession of three
names (or just two since the cognomen was optional) was a sign of citizenship.
Additional cognomina might be added to a name to commemorate a notable event or
accomplishment or to indicate adoption from another gens. The Romans of the classical period
had no special name for these extra cognomina, but later grammarians invented the word
agnomina for them. Example: P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus Aemilianus (Africanus refers to
his military exploits in Africa, Aemilianus identifies his original nomen as Aemilius; he had been
adopted by P. Cornelius Scipio and taken on his adoptive father's three names).
The full formal name of a Roman citizen also included filiation, i.e., the identification of
his father's praenomen; grandfather's and great-grandfather's praenomina might be mentioned as
well. Filiation showed that one's father (and grandfather and great-father in some cases) had been
a citizen. Example: M. Tullius M. f. (=Marci filius "son of Marcus") M. n. (=Marci nepos
"grandson of Marcus") M. pr. (= Marci pronepos "great-grandson of Marcus") Cicero.
Membership in a tribe or voting group, another sign of citizenship, might also be noted.
Example: C. Julius C. f. Sergia tribu ("from the Sergian tribe") Caesar.
Slaves were customarily given single names in the Greek fashion, whether or not they
were Greeks or Greek-speaking (which most of them were). Example: Chryseros Gaii servus
("Goldy-love, slave of Gaius"). A freed slave would adopt the praenomen and nomen of his
former master and use his own old name as cognomen. Example: C. Julius C. lib. (= Gaii
libertus, "freedman of Gaius") Chryseros. A slave freed by an emperor would be called Aug.
lib. (= Augusti libertus "freedman of Augustus"). Thus a freedman, even in his name, could not
escape his servile past.
20
THE ROMAN CALENDAR AND DATING
Traditionally, the Romans referred to a particular year by giving the names of the consuls of that
year. Another method was to reckon the date relative to the founding of Rome in 753 B.C.
A.U.C. 1, for example, meant the first year ab urbe condita ("after the foundation of Rome"),
i.e., 753 B.C.; A.U.C. 2 = 752 B.C.; A.U.C. 753 = 1 B.C.; A.U.C. 754=1 AD., etc.
The Roman year had 12 months: Ianuarius (Ian.), Februarius (Feb.), Martius (Mart.), Aprilis
(Apr.), Maius (Mai.), Iunius (Iun.), Iulius (Iul.--originally Quinctilis, changed to honor Julius
Caesar), Augustus (Aug.--originally Sextilis, changed to honor Augustus Caesar), September
(Sept.), October (Oct.), November (Nov.), December (Dec.). The names are adjectives
modifying mensis "month." During the Republic the year began on Mar. 1, the day military
operations started, or on Mar. 15, the day the consuls took office. In 153 B.C. the first day of the
consulship was changed to Jan. 1, and that became the first day of the civil year.
Until Julius Caesar reformed the calendar in 46-45 B.C., a normal year consisted of 355 days.
Each month had 29 days except for March, May, July, and October with 31 and February with
28. Every other year an extra month of 22 or 23 days would have to be added ("intercalated")
between February 23 and February 24. Caesar instituted a regular cycle of four years, of which
three had 365 days, the fourth 366 days (with a leap or bissextile day added after February 23).
To indicate which day of the month it was, the Romans used one of three reference points: the
Kalends (always the 1st of the month), the Nones (either the 5th or the 7th day of the month),
and the Ides (either the 13th or the 15th of the month). "In March, July, October, May, the Ides
are on the 15th day, the Nones the 7th; all else besides have two days less for Nones and Ides."
As soon as one of the reference days had passed, a Roman would start counting how many days
were left until the next reference point. March 2, for example, would not be the day after the
Kalends of March; instead, it would be 6 days before the Nones of March. The Romans counted
inclusively, i.e., they included the present day in their calculations. March 5, for example, would
not be 2 days, but 3 days, before the Nones of March (March 7).
ROMAN NUMERALS: I= 1, V = 5, X = 10, L = 50, C = 100, D = 500, M = 1000. Usually no
more than three of the same symbol can stand in a row. Right shows addition; left shows
subtraction. One symbol cannot be subtracted from two; e.g. 19 should be XIX, not IXX; 1900
should be MCM, not CMM.
March 1 =Kai. Mart. (abbreviation of Kalendis Martiis - "on the Kalends of March")
March 2 =a. d. VI Non. Mart. (abbreviation of ante diem VI Nanas Martias "on the 6th day before the Nones of March")
March 3 = a. d. V Non. Mart.
March 4 =a. d. IV Non. Mart.
March 5 =a. d. III Non. Mart.
March 6 = prid. Non. Mart. (abbreviation of pridie Nanas Martias "on the day before the Nones of March")
March 7 =Non. Mart. (abbreviation of Nanis Martiis - "on the Nones of March")
March 8 =a. d. VIII Id. Mart. (abbreviation of ante diem VIII Idus Martias "on the 8th day before the Ides of March")
March 14 = prid. Id. Mart.
March 15 =Id. Mart. (abbreviation of Idibus Martiis - "on the Ides of March")
March 16 =a. d. XVII Kai. Apr. (abbreviation of ante diem XVII Kalendas Apriles "on the 17th day before the Kalends of April")
March 31 = prid. Kai. Apr.
April 1 =Kai. Apr. (abbreviation of Kalendis Aprilibus - "on the Kalends of April")
The CURSUS HONOR UM during the late Roman Republic
CONSUL (2 per yr.) - minimum age 42 - chief civil and mili.tary magistrate of Rome,
held imperium (supreme authority), was escorted by 12 lictors
PRAETOR (6 or 8 per yr.) - minimum age 39 - judicial magistrate in Rome, held
imperium (supreme authority), was escorted by 6 lictors
TRIBUNUS PLEBIS (10 per yr.) - plebeian tribune, had immunity from harm, could
veto any decree of the senate or any act of a magistrate
AEDILIS (2 plebeian, 2 curule per yr.) - aedile, city manager of Rome, in charge of
markets, roads, sewers, baths, temples, theaters, public games
QUAESTOR (20 per yr.)- minimum age 30 - financial manager who served in Rome or
as assistant to a proconsul or propraetor in a province
VIGINTI(SEX) VIRI (26, later 20 per yr.) - minor magistrates responsible for running
the mint and the prisons, holding executions, judging minor law suits, cleaning streets,
keeping the peace at night in Rome
TRIBUNUS MILITUM (6 per legion; some were elected, some appointed) - tribune of
the soldiers, senior military officer of a Roman legion
To become a consul in Rome, a man (women could not hold political office) had to move up through a
"course of offices" (cursus honorum) whose order was fairly fixed. The quaestorship and praetorship
were required; the other magistracies were optional. All the offices above the military tribunate were
elective and had one-year terms.
'
Only men from plebeian families (i.e., those that did not belong to the traditional social elite of Rome)
were eligible to be plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles; the other magistrates could be either patrician
or plebeian. Consuls, praetors, and curule aediles were called CURDLE magistrates because they were
entitled to use a special chair (sella curulis).
Consuls and praetors were escorted by LICTORS, men who walked in front of them, carrying fasces
(bundled rods), and cleared the way for the magistrates.
Once he had served as quaestor, a man was automatically admitted to the Roman SENATE. A person
who succeeded in becoming a senator (or better yet, even a consul) despite having no senators among his
ancestors was called a novus homo. Attaining a curule office (especially the consulship) gave nobilitas
to the man and his descendants; a noble had the right to decorate the atrium of his home with wax masks
(imagines) of all his ancestors who had been curule magistrates.
After holding the consulship, a man could not be consul again for ten years. Praetors and consuls were
sent to govern provinces the year after they held office; they were then called PROPRAETORS or
PROCONSULS. Every five years two ex-consuls were elected to be CENSORS, whose job was to
update the list of citizens. They also had the power to add members to the senate or expel senators guilty
of illegal or immoral behavior. No office was more respected than the censorship.
In emergencies a dictator might be appointed to serve (with the imperium of a consul) until the crisis
ended; he chose his own assistant, the magister equitum.
The pontifex maximus, elected for life, was the chief priest in the state religion. AUGURS were elected
officials who took the auspices (i.e., interpreted the signs) before every major public undertaking to see
whether the gods approved of it.
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22
SIGNIFICANT EVENTS DURING THE AGE OF CICERO
(all dates= B.C.)
Birth (approximate year) of L. Sergius Catilina (Catiline)
C. Marius serves 1st term as consul, reforms Roman army.
Birth of M. Tullius Cicero & Cn. Pompei us Magnus (Pompey)
Marius serves 6th term as consul; birth of C. Julius Caesar
Social War; Rome's Italian allies are granted Roman citizenship.
L. Cornelius Sulla seizes Rome; Marius flees, joins L. Cornelius Cinna.
Marius & Cinna seize Rome while Sulla is fighting in Greece; proscriptions
Marius serves 7th term as consul, with Cinna; Marius dies in office.
Cinna is killed in a mutiny; birth (approximate year) of C. Valerius Catullus
Sulla returns to Italy, supported by Pompey & M. Licinius Crassus.
Civil war; Sulla wins, serves as dictator for 3 years; proscriptions
Sulla resigns dictatorship & retires from public life (dies in 78).
Cicero serves as quaestor in Sicily.
Spartacus leads slave rebellion but is defeated by Crassus & Pompey.
Consulship of Pompey & Crassus; birth of Publius Vergilius Maro (Vergil); Cicero
successfully prosecutes proconsul C. Verres for governing Sicily corruptly.
69
Cicero serves as plebeian aedile.
Pompey clears pirates from Mediterranean Sea in 3 months.
67
Cicero serves as praetor; Catiline's 1st conspiracy; Pompey defeats Mithridates VI.
66
63
Cicero serves as consul; Catiline's 2nd conspiracy; Pompey captures Jerusalem;
Caesar elected pontifex maximus; birth of Octavian(= future emperor Augustus)
62
Defeat & death of Catiline; Pompey returns to Italy, disbands his army.
61
Caesar serves as propraetor of Further Spain; Pompey triumphs in Rome;
P. Clodius Pulcher is put on trial for violating Bona Dea festival (acquitted).
1st triumvirate (Pompey, Crassus, & Caesar) is formed.
60
Caesar serves as consul; Pompey marries Caesar's daughter Julia; death of Clodia's
59
(= Lesbia's?) husband Q. Caecilius Metellus Celer
58-50 Caesar serves as proconsul of Gaul & Illyricum, fights Gallic Wars.
58
Clodius serves as tribune, instigates exile of Cicero; Cicero flees to
Macedonia; Clodius' gangsters destroy Cicero's house on the Palatine.
57
Pompey & T. Annius Milo promote Cicero's recall; Cicero returns to Rome.
57-56 Catullus visits Bithynia, accompanying the propraetor C. Memmius.
56
Pompey, Crassus, & Caesar reaffirm triumvirate at a meeting at Luca in Italy;
Cicero and Crassus successfully defend M. Caelius Rufus.
55
Consulship of Pompey & Crassus; Pompey builds 1st stone theater in Rome.
54
Death of Julia; death (approximate year) of Catullus
53
Crassus is defeated and killed by Parthians at Carrhae; Cicero is elected augur.
52
Clodius is killed by Milo's gang; Clodius' gang burns the Senate House; Milo is exiled.
51-50 Cicero serves in Cilicia as proconsul, corresponds with Caelius.
49
Caesar crosses Rubicon (iacta alea est), beginning civil war against Pompey; Caesar
defeats Pompey's men at Ilerda, Spain, returns to Rome, serves as dictator.
48
Caesar serves as consul, defeats Pompey at Pharsalus in Greece; Pompey is killed
in Egypt; Caelius and Milo are executed for stirring up rebellion in Italy.
47
Caesar serves as dictator, defeats Ptolemy XIII, reinstates Cleopatra as queen of
Egypt, defeats Pharnaces II at Zela in Pontus (veni, vidi, vici).
46
Caesar serves as dictator & consul, reforms calendar, defeats Pompey's men at
Thapsus in Africa, causing M. Porcius Cato Uticensis to commit suicide.
45
Caesar serves as dictator & consul, defeats Pompey's men at Munda, Spain.
44
Caesar serves as dictator for life & consul; Cleopatra visits Rome with her son Caesarian;
Caesar is murdered on the Ides of March; Cleopatra and Caesarian return to Egypt.
44-43 Cicero writes the Philippics against M. Antonius (Antony).
43
2nd triumvirate (Antony, Octavian, M. Aemilius Lepidus) formed; proscriptions;
murder of Cicero on December 7
42
Caesar is deified; M. Iunius Brutus & C. Cassius Longinus (murderers of Caesar) commit
suicide after being defeated by Antony & Octavian at Philippi in Greece.
108
107
106
100
91-87
88
87
86
84
83
82-80
79
75
73-71
70
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STYLISTIC DEVICES
Alliteration: repetition of the same letter(s) at the beginning of successive words for an
impressive sound effect.
Anaphora ("carrying back"): repetition of the same word at the beginning of successive phrases
or clauses for emphasis.
Apostrophe ("turning away"): a dramatic address to a (usually absent) person or thing.
Asyndeton ("not bound together"):
allows rapid accumulation of ideas.
omission of conjunctions; creates a staccato effect and
Chiasmus: inverted (ABBA) word order, e.g., noun-adjective-adjective-noun; named after the
x-shaped Greek letter "chi."
Climax ("ladder"): arrangement of ideas (often three) in ascending order (i.e., in phrases or
clauses of increasing length or significance) for greater impact.
Hendiadys ("one through two"): joining two nouns in the same case with a conjunction instead
of (more logically) putting one of them in the genitive case or making one of them an adjective.
Puts equal weight on the two nouns instead of subordinating one to the other.
Irony: stating the opposite of what is meant; frequently associated with sarcasm and ridicule.
Litotes ("plainness"): affirming a thing by denying its opposite.
Metaphor: an implied comparison (i.e., not using "like" or "as").
Oxymoron ("sharp-dull"): a seeming contradiction. Its use startles the audience and gives
emphasis to the idea.
Paronomasia: a pun, a play on words that sharpens the meaning.
Personification: attributing personal qualities to an inanimate object for greater vividness.
Polysyndeton ("much bound together"): the use of more conjunctions than necessary; produces
a smooth, dignified rhythm.
Preterition (praeteritio, "passing over"): a pretended omission. It actually calls attention to the
"passed over" topics.
Prosopopoeia ("impersonation"): speaking in the character (literally, "wearing the mask") of
another person, dramatizing what someone else would say or would have said.
Rhetorical Question: a type of question that does not expect a reply; the speaker is not in doubt
about the answer. It is a forceful way of making a statement.
Simile: an expressed comparison (i.e., using "like" or "as").
Synecdoche ("understanding with"): naming just a part of something when the whole is meant,
or vice versa, for variety. This is a subcategory of metonymy ("change of name"): using a word
as a substitute or a symbol for another word that is related to it in meaning.