Download Grammar: Course compendium

Estetisk-filosofiska fakulteten
Engelska
VT 2011
ENGELSK GRAMMATIK
Campuskursen
Kompendium:
Engelsk grammatik
Kurs:
ENGAG1, ENGAL1
Engelska grundkurs (Campus)
Ämne:
Engelska
Ansvarig lärare:
Marie Tåqvist
Karlstads universitet, 651 88 Karlstad
2
CONTENTS
3
Grammar Terms and Concepts – Simple Clauses
6
Finite and Non-finite Clauses
7
Grammar Terms and Concepts – Complex Clauses
10
Worksheets 1-8
26
Additional exercises
30
Keys (excluding worksheet keys)
39
Basic Grammar Terms: A Glossary
44
Lecture Notes
3
GRAMMAR TERMS AND CONCEPTS: SIMPLE CLAUSES
In this section, you will practise basic grammar terms and concepts. Learning the
terminology is not a goal in itself. It’s an aid to helping you understand and discuss
grammar rules and difficulties. For this reason, it’s not so much a question of
learning certain terminology by heart, but rather a question of understanding how
the system works, how words are divided into word classes depending on their
structure and use, and how sentences are made up of sentence constituents with
various functions in the clause.
As the time we have at our disposal in this course is limited, there will not be
enough time to cover all the details, but please read the texts mentioned below
carefully. In order for you to understand the rest of the course, you need to
understand at least the most basic grammar terminology. The exercises focus on
areas that students often find problematic, and it will give you the opportunity to
practise the rules given.
You will need a reference book when you are working with this section. In the
following, I will refer to Hugo Olsson’s book Språket: så fungerar det (abbreviated
as ‘HO’ below) but other books may also be used. Chapter 3 in Estling Vannestål’s
A University Grammar of English (abbreviated as ‘MEV’ below) gives a good
general overview. You may also find ‘Basic Grammar Terms in English: A
Glossary’ (in this compendium) a useful guide. There is a key on p. 30 in this
compendium, so you can check your progress while working.
Comment: Students often find this section particularly challenging. Do not be
afraid to ask about anything that you feel is unclear. If YOU don’t understand it,
then others probably don’t understand it, either! It takes time and hard work to
learn to understand how the system works, so my suggestion to you is that you go
back and review parts of this section every week. I would also encourage you to
come and ask me about anything you want me to explain further.
4
Simple clauses: Word classes and sentence constituents (See HO pp. 20-21)
1. Word classes (Sw: ordklasser) and sentence constituents /clause elements (Sw: satsdelar) are two
basic concepts in grammar. Why are both needed (i.e. what do they tell us about words and clauses)?
2. Many English words belong to more than one word class. Indicate to what word class each of the
underlined words belong:
a) I must perfect the operation to make the perfect robot.
b) A will will be invalid if the person was mentally incapable when they made it.
c) If there’s no light on the ceiling, light a lamp to make the room light.
d) Turn right at the corner, then make another right turn at the police station.
e) A kindly person is one who behaves kindly.
f) He did not feel so fine after getting a fine for speeding.
g) An uncle of mine told me that “Dickens’s London” is a mine of information about the city.
3. Noun phrases
i) What is the head word and what modifiers (=attribut) can you find in the following noun phrases?
a) Dan’s incredible gullibility
b) a delicious breakfast on the porch
c) the poor girl with the unusually long nose
d) a very cheap tape recorder without any possibility of a mains connection
ii) Some sentence constituents can consist of a noun phrase – which ones? Give examples. (HO ch. 7).
4. Adjectives and adverbs – modifiers and adverbials (HO pp. 35-45; 123-130)
i) Mark all the adjectives and adverbs in the following sentences and indicate what their function is (i.e.
what sentence constituents they are):
a) Det var ett ovanligt trevligt förslag.
b) Det var ett ovanligt men trevligt förslag.
c) Anders handskades väldigt nonchalant med kvinnor.
d) Kermit joddlar mycket långsammare än Anton.
e) Det var fullkomligt förödande.
ii) What types of modifiers and adverbials can you find in the following sentences?
a) The beautiful house over there is rather dilapidated these days.
b) He has probably never met her many interesting relatives from Leeds.
c) Walter related very loudly and clearly (in a very loud and clear voice) the story of the abominable
snowman in the Himalayas.
iii) What word classes can be modified by a modifier (Sw: attribut) and what word classes can be
modified by an adverbial?
5. Predicative complements (Sw: predikatsfyllnad/predikativ) (HO p. 119-122)
What two types of predicatíve can you find in the following two sentences?
a) Many people have called Giovanni the world’s greatest lover.
b) Giovanni has been called the world’s greatest lover.
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6. Indicate what sentence constituents the underlined phrases represent:
a) They remained housewives - They hired housewives.
b) The pianist played all night - The pianist played all the songs.
c) The FBI handed over the mafia boss to the city’s chief of police –
The FBI appointed the mafia boss the city’s chief of police.
d) Robinson works Fridays - Robinson trusts Friday.
e) An incredible girl lives in Katmandu - The girl in Katmandu is amazing.
f) The nurse weighed 55 kilos - The nurse weighed 55 hippos.
g) The professors worked late - The professors were late.
h) Did you put the book on the table - Did you read the book on the table?
i) The way there is difficult to describe - There is no way there.
j) Morgan was in Spain - Morgan was in good health.
k) Justin looked after his little sister - Justin arrived after his little sister.
7. Analyse these sentences in terms of sentence constituents and word classes:
a) Lawrence explained the problem to us.
b) The indefatigable teacher wrote long handouts for his grateful students.
c) They spent weeks looking for a book on Chomsky, the founder of transformational-generative grammar.
d) There is probably a ten-pound note in my wallet.
e) Egbert from Louisville seemed enormously talented.
f) They felt rather lonely.
g) Due to acute lack of space, Fido’s master was not invited.
h) Count Olivares died an extremely painful death.
i) The following week the poor horse was promoted to consul.
j) Funnily enough, it was incredibly hot during the main part of my vacation.
k) The new alarm system of the company was considered completely foolproof.
6
FINITE & NON-FINITE CLAUSES
In the next section (‘Complex clauses’), we are going to do a bit more work on sentence analysis.
This time, we are going to practise identifying the function of a subordinate clause in a main
clause. It is important, therefore, that you learn to identify various types of clauses. Remember:
the most central thing in a clause is the predicate (= a verb). In a finite clause, there is almost
always a subject (the exception is imperative clauses) and the verb agrees with the subject. In a
non-finite clause, the verb consists of the infinitive (/to/ go), the ing-form (going), or the past
participle (gone)—but there is usually no subject. Do the following exercise (key on p. 33):
a) Are the underlined clauses finite or non-finite?
1. If you don’t like the weather in northern California, wait a few minutes and it will change.
2. It is pretty safe to say that the last thing on anyone’s mind was the electricity bill.
3. Rice likes to be in control.
4. But when the meeting is over, Rice is the one who gets up and goes to a smaller meeting.
5. Shopping with her mother in segregated Birmingham, she was told to change in a storeroom
by the white saleswoman.
6. A friend credits Rice with coining one of Bush’s favourite expressions.
7. She says she still can’t read for pleasure.
8. When she was about 9 years old, the civil-rights movement arrived in Birmingham, which
became known as “Bombingham”.
9. Rice was a friend of one of the four little girls killed in the Birmingham church bombing of
September 1963.
b) Divide the following sentences into clauses. Which clauses are finite and which are non-finite?
Which is the main clause in each case?
1. Coren Calborn plans to spend the cash on a CD player for her car.
2. Karen Dean, who lives near Cincinnati, can’t decide between a paint job for the kitchen and a
new dining-room set.
3. She is certain, though, that the money won’t be going into savings.
4. Whether the checks will be sufficient medicine to cure the ailing economy is an open question.
5. Financial experts are closely monitoring how taxpayers spend their windfalls.
6. People will spend the money if they are feeling good about the future.
7. These days, Americans seem to be better shoppers than savers.
8. Many economists therefore expect that even people who say they plan on saving are likely to
pump it back into the economy.
9. Economies all across Asia are limping badly, hobbled by the slowdown in demand from the
United States.
10. Beijing is in the process of cutting the government in half from 8 million employees to 4
million.
7
GRAMMAR TERMS AND CONCEPTS: COMPLEX CLAUSES
In simple clauses, the sentence constituents consist of single words and phrases. In complex
clauses (i.e. sentences containing at least one main clause and one subordinate clause), sentence
constituents consist of entire clauses: a subordinate clause always functions as a sentence
constituent in the larger main clause. A complex sentence has a hierarchical structure with
clauses on many different levels which can be broken down into smaller parts: clause A is a
sentence constituent in clause B, which in turn is a sentence constituent in clause C, and so on.
This may sound complicated, but remember to take it one step at a time and to think BIG:
sentence constituents often consist of entire clauses, rather than isolated words or phrases.
Also remember: Clauses can be either finite (finite clauses normally have a subject, and the verb
always has to agree with the subject) or non-finite (non-finite clauses have a non-finite verb, i.e.
an infinitive, a verb in the ing-form, or a past participle—see MEV §5.1).
There are four main types of subordinate clauses: relative clauses, that-clauses (Sw: att-satser),
interrogative clauses, and adverbial clauses. Questions 1-3 deal with all of these except adverbial
clauses. Key on p. 34.
See HO pp. 14-19, 106, 112 (7.3.1.1:4), 119-132
1. Underline the relative clauses in the following sentences and answer the following questions:
What is the function of these relative clauses in the main clause (i.e. what sentence constituent
are they in the main clause)? What is the antecedent (Sw: korrelat)? What is the function (i.e.
sentence constituent) of the antecedent in the main clause? What is the function of the relative
pronoun/adverb in the relative clause? (See HO pp 17-18, 56-59)
a) Have you seen the money that I left here yesterday?
b) The skateboard which belonged to Gloria was stolen yesterday.
c) This is the girl whose biggest interest is hanggliding.
d) They still remember the day that she left for Mallorca.
e) The palace where they lived has been turned into a hotel.
f) They had decided to meet in Rome, where they went by plane.
2. What is the function (i.e. sentence constituent) of the that-clauses in the following sentences?
(HO p. 15)
a) I assume that you are right.
b) That she was elected was hardly a surprise to anyone.
c) It is wonderful that you can come to our party.
d) He doesn’t doubt that you tried to help him.
e) The best news was that the family was safe and sound.
f) The thought that we had spent too much money suddenly occurred to me.
g) He is convinced that eagles can swim.
3. What is the function (i.e. sentence constituent) of the interrogative clause in the following
sentences? What is the function of the interrogative pronoun/adverb in the clause (if there is
one)? (See HO pp. 16-17, 65-67)
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a) I wonder if this is true.
b) It is doubtful whether this is true.
c) The question is whether this is true.
d) The question whether this is true has still not been answered.
e) Who did this no one knows.
f) Whom this was said about is not known.
g) It is uncertain what he meant.
h) The problem is where to start.
i) The question where he got the drugs remained a mystery.
j) They didn’t know where he was hiding.
k) When she will arrive is still uncertain.
l) It is a mystery how she does it.
m) No one was aware of how clever Chad was.
4. What is the function (i.e. sentence constituent) of the subordinate clauses in the following
sentences? (HO p. 16-19, 102-133)
a) It worried Thomas that Carol had said that he was good-looking.
b) We were bothered by the knowledge that no one believed in the fairy-tale, which was really
true.
c) John said that it surprised Jim that Bill made so much noise during the concert that Alice had a
nervous breakdown.
d) The difficult thing was that nobody wanted to do the job, since it was so badly paid.
e) It appealed to Antonio that Cleopatra acted the way she did.
All of the clauses in the exercises above are finite (i.e. the verb has tense and number – see MEV
5.1) However, clauses can also be non-finite (i.e. the verb is an infinitive, a present participle or
a past participle), and some clauses are entirely verbless (HO p. 73-76). In reduced clauses, a
finite verb in a subordinate clause has been changed into a non-finite verb form. This affects the
subject of the subordinate clause but it does not affect the function that the subordinate clause has
in the main clause. In other words, the subordinate clause has the same function in the main
clause regardless of whether it is finite, non-finite, or even verbless.
5. i) In the following sentences, the subordinate clause has been reduced, as explained above.
What is the function (i.e. sentence constituent) of the underlined non-finite clause?
a) We heard him play a piano concerto.
b) It surprised her to see him there.
c) After having said goodbye they returned.
d) They came to get the countess.
e) The idea was to get there early.
f) The decision to refuse to take the test was taken unanimously by all the students.
g) We consider her to be extremely talented.
h) The views presented by Irene made a deep impression on all of us.
i) Almost blinded by tears the accused rose from the bench.
ii) In a) and g) above, the subordinate clause is a special type of reduced clause called an objectwith-infinitive construction. In such constructions, the object of the main clause functions as the
9
subject of the subordinate clause. What is the subject in the subordinate clauses in a) and g),
respectively, and what is the function of a piano concerto and talented in these clauses?
iii) In b), c), d), e), and f) above, the subject has been left out. Can you work out when this is
possible? That is, when is it possible to leave out the subject of a reduced clause?
6. Below are 10 sentences containing a that-clause and 10 sentences containing a to-infinitive
(adapted from The Guardian 2003). Analyse these sentences and try to work out their function in
the main clause (subject, predicative, object, etc). Start by underlining the whole clause, as in the
first sentence. (No key—we will go over this exercise in class.)
Note:
- A that-clause can be a subject, predicative, object, modifying clause, and adjectival complement.
- An infinitive clause can be a subject, predicative, object, modifying clause, adjectival complement
and adverbial (of reason).
1. Gleefully aware that I had no money, the cops released me without charge at six.
2. Lincolnshire police added that they also looked forward to “resolving the apparent conflict”.
3. It is unlikely that the repairs would have affected the outcome of the match.
4. The truth is that this is another example of the government running scared of the tabloid press.
5. The couple adopted him in the mistaken belief that this would entitle him to US citizenship.
6. They expect me to believe that armed sky marshals will act as a deterrent to terrorists.
7. We are confident that current security arrangements are adequate.
8. However, he decides that it’s time for a radical change of direction.
9. I think it’s absolutely crucial that children have someone to talk to within a focused setting.
10. I loved clootie dumpling. That it tasted as good when I got to try it is as much testimony to
Oor Wullie as the recipe.
11. They seem to lack the ability to adapt to circumstances.
12. They feel supported by him, inspired by him, want to be like him.
13. I tend to shake my head a bit. To be a cricketer, you have to know things like that.
14. We are not prepared to invest in new plant until we know what the rules and standards are.
15. He told me to keep my head down and work hard.
16. After defeat by Pakistan at Headingley, Australia could not afford to lose again – and did not.
17. It started with the fridge mountain and continued with the failure to meet recycling targets.
18. To get cash from your account, you will present proper ID.
19. The Bush administration talked about US willingness to open a dialogue.
20. To write fiction, he says, is to give yourself totally to another human being.
10
WORKSHEET #1: THE NOUN PHRASE
A. Explain grammatically:
1. Why is the definite article used with some but not all the names of hotels (a,b), and pubs (c,d)
in the examples below? § ______
a. They were staying at Claridge’s.
b. They were staying at the Savoy.
c. We had a drink at Joe’s.
d. We had a drink at the Grenadier.
2. Explain what is wrong in the following sentences. Why do Swedish speakers often make this
type of mistake? §______
a. You can’t imagine what a fascinating music they were playing.
b. She spoke such a good English.
3. What determines the use of the definite article with Sweden in the following sentences?
a. Sweden was a poor country in the Middle Ages. § ______
b. Sweden in the Middle Ages was a poor country. § ______
c. The Sweden of the Middle Ages was a poor country. § ______
d. Medieval Sweden was a poor country. § ______
e. The Sweden that he had read so much about didn’t seem to exist. § ______
f. Sweden, which he had read so much about, proved less exotic than he had expected. §
B. The genitive
Although the following examples are given in pairs, this does not mean that one is correct and the
other is wrong, although for many pairs, that is in fact the case. However, sometimes both
alternatives are acceptable, although one alternative may be unusual.
Mark the phrases as follows:
C (correct usage), P (possible, but rather unusual), U (unacceptable)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
a. John’s house ____
a. my uncles’ firm ____
a. the boy’s toys ____
a. at ten miles’ distance ____
a. a day’s walk ____
a. the dog’s legs ____
a. summer’s happy memories ____
a. the word’s meaning ____
a. England’s queen ____
a. the lark’s song ____
a. the boat’s colour ____
a. Charles’s book ____
a. this week’s news ____
a. Sweden’s Prime Minister ____
a. in a month or two’s time ____
b. the house of John ____
b. the firm of my uncles ____
b. the toys of the boy ____
b. at a distance of ten miles ____
b. the walk of a day ____
b. the legs of the dog ____
b. the happy memories of summer ____
b. the meaning of the word ____
b. the queen of England ____
b. the song of the lark ____
b. the colour of the boat ____
b. Charles’ book ____
b. the news of this week ____
b. the Prime Minister of Sweden ____
b. in a month’s or two time ____
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C. Concord: singular or plural?
1. There was/were plenty of fish in the river. § ______
2. Physics is/are my favourite subject. § ______
3. The headquarters of the company is/are in London. § ______
4. I have found a pair of scissors. Is it/Are they yours? § ______
5. The police has/have not caught the girl yet. § ______
6. Is/Are the United States poor? § ______
7. Every man and woman has/have got the right to be in love.
8. Measles is/are infectious and so is/are mumps. § ______
9. The moral/morals of the story was/were that his moral/morals was/were non-existent.
10. Neither the man nor the girl was/were pleased with the flat.
11. The family has/have always been known for the intelligence of its members. § ______
12. His family is/are early risers.
13. Not only England but also the European countries was/were against it.
14. Not only the European countries but also England was/were against it.
15. Part of London was laid in ash/ashes in 1666 and it was/they were removed later.
16. His wages was/were quite low. § ______
17. Linguistics deal/deals with the description of language. § ______
18. Only one or two students was/were present at the lecture.
19. The acoustics here is/are dreadful.
20. Have the girls made up their mind/minds yet?
21. About half the class was/were absent.
22. The great majority of people never think/thinks about it.
23. The majority against him was/were as small as it could be.
24. A considerable number of the students was/were involved in the project.
25. The number of students involved in the project was/were considerable.
D. Most of the following sentences contain errors that are often made. Correct the sentences
that are wrong.
1. My father’s country house, which you visited about two year ago, has recently been sold.
2. Many people are dissatisfied with their lot in the life. § ______
3. What a dreadful weather!
4. I am staying at Sheraton this week. § ______
5. She has very limited knowledges in German. § ______
6. Here are the money I owe you. § ______
7. My brother-in-law has more than 200 sheeps.
8. It is a hard work to write a book.
9. My sister is a chairman of the local bridge club. § ______
10. Bill wants to be a police when he grows up.
11. This is my brother’s-in-law cap.
12. This is a too great honour for me. § _____
13. Have you ever seen the river of Ganges? § ______
14. We have just come back from the island Crete. § ______
12
WORKSHEET #2: VERBS AND VERB COMPLEMENTS
A. Explain grammatically the difference in meaning between:
1.
a. What is he doing?
b. What does he do? § ______
2.
a. He had learnt English before he came to England.
b. He had been learning English before he came to England. § ______
3.
a. You are very stupid.
b. You are being very stupid. § ______
4.
a. Last year she wrote a book.
b. Last year she was writing a book. § ______
5.
a. My car always breaks down.
b. My car is always breaking down. § ______
B. Progressive or simple form? Choose the correct form:
1. The inhabitants of this area live/are living by hunting fish and growing a few crops.
2. I bring greetings from Paris, where I stay/am staying in the very hotel in which Oscar Wilde died.
3. This is the hotel I always stay/am always staying at when I am in Paris.
4. I grew up in a traditional family - Daddy went/was going to work and Mummy stayed/was
staying at home.
5. It was confirmed yesterday that Israel had/was having talks with Germany and Iran for the
release of an air force navigator, Ron Arad.
6. Most children build/are building a snowman in the winter.
7. They intend/are intending to go there next week.
8. According to the timetable this train arrives/is arriving in Omsk at 8 p m.
9. It says in the paper that the French build/are building a new opera house.
10. I should like this letter to wait/be waiting for him when he arrives.
C. What is the correct translation?
1. Jag var van vid att bli kramad. § ______
a. I was used to being hugged.
b. I used to be hugged.
c. I was used to be hugged.
2. Tre gånger tolv är trettiosex.
3. Må Gud hjälpa dig! § ______
a. God helps you.
b. God is helping you.
c. God help you.
a. Three times twelve make thirty-six.
b. Three times twelve is thirty-six.
c. Three times twelve are thirty-six.
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D. (Revision) Mass and count nouns: Many nouns are able to act as both count nouns and
mass nouns, each with a different meaning. For each of the following nouns, devise a pair of
sentences which illustrate the difference between the count and mass meanings:
Example:
Gold: Gold is a precious metal. (Mass) – She has won yet another gold. (Count)
a) hair
b) glass
c) tea
d) paper
e) love
E. Most of the following sentences contain errors that are often made. Correct the sentences
that are wrong.
1. It was only after the guests had left that we discovered that the money were missing.
2. As soon as he saw the policeman, he flew.
3. A new dance-hall is opened there soon. § ______
4. I would like visiting that house very much.
5. Does he dare say that? § ______
6. She is meaning this book, not that one.
7. I am born in 1965.
8. Neither Linda nor Michael are able to go to the concert tonight. Would you like to go instead?
§ ______
9. I always tried to make my best at school.
10. I didn’t saw them today.
11. I shouted to him to look up for the car when I saw that it was going to hit him.
12. Take up your books, please.
13. My aunt have worked for this company for many years.
14. If you are living here since 1965 I think you should look for a nicer place to live.
15. Things have went too far.
16. The firm is established in 1972. § ______
17. Came they to the party yesterday?
18. Jenny found not the way back.
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WORKSHEET #3: VERBS AND VERB COMPLEMENTS
A. Explain the difference in meaning between the following sentences:
1.
a. There is nothing to do.
b. There is nothing to be done.
2.
a. Tom’s certain of winning the race.
b. Tom’s certain to win the race. § _______
3.
a. He stopped talking about the matter.
b. He stopped to talk about the matter. § _______
4.
a. I remembered posting the letter.
b. I remembered to post the letter. § _______
5.
a. If they can’t get enough to drink when the pubs are open, God help
them.
b. If they can’t get enough to drink when the pubs are open, God helps
them.
B. Conditional sentences. Supply the correct form of the verb:
1. knit
2. stop
3. give
4. eat
5. be
6. not buy
7. have
8. be
9. take
10. be
I _________________ another sock if I had more wool.
We are going to play tennis this afternoon if it _________________ raining.
If you had been in, I ___________________ it to you.
If Charles _________________ another cake, I am sure he will burst.
If Stephen __________________ more reasonable, I think I would like him.
Julie _______________________ the plate if it had not been in good condition.
If you ________________________ a map, you would have found the way.
It ______________________ easy for you to paint pictures if you knew how.
You _____________________ a great risk if you were to invest money in it.
If the sentence that had ‘had’ had had ‘had had’ it ________________ correct.
C. a) What is the form of the verbs in italics, and b) why is this form used?
Example: She writes novels. a) The present tense, simple form; b) Habit, sth permanent
1. Ron lives with his parents and always has.
2. It usually rains when we go on holiday.
3. When Jerry got home he was singing a happy song, but he stopped the moment Justine opened
the door.
4. I am going to London on a study visit next week.
5. Philip is always combing his hair.
6. Philip always combs his hair before going to see Angela.
7. The train gets to Madrid at 13.42.
8. I had to leave the party early, but when I left, everyone seemed to be having a good time.
9. Charlie read/was reading Oliver Twist last night.
10. Without looking up, he said that he wanted a divorce.
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D. What is the correct form of the verb - the -ing form or the infinitive?
1. She devoted herself to study/studying Arabic for many years.
2. Smith did not feel up to go/going.
3. They all used to go/going away for the winter.
4. They were all used to go/going away for the winter.
5. They bribed Vivienne to betray/betraying her friends.
6. The prisoner pleaded guilty to have/having smuggled the gold into France.
7. Peter agreed to be/being party to the contract.
8. He did it with a view to secure/securing a job with the firm.
9. I was authorized to sell/selling the house.
10. I wasn’t accustomed to drive/driving on icy roads.
E. Most of the following sentences contain errors that are often made. Correct the sentences that are
wrong:
1. You needn’t to go there if you don’t want. § ______
2. Who learnt you Spanish?
3. I am used to get up early in the morning.
4. Can you French?
5. I look forward to hear from you.
6. He needs not come.
7. Do you mind my opening the window?
8. We couldn’t make them to reveal the secret.
9. You do good coffee!
10. He uses to get up very early in the morning.
11. Naturally I like that people tell me I am beautiful.
12. It would be easier to decide if my wife would be here.
13. I wish my father were here. § ______
14. Have you got used to live in a flat yet?
15. If I had the money, I would have moved many years ago.
16. She wants that I accompany her to that party.
17. I couldn’t help to laugh when I saw his funny expression.
18. I wish you would stop to chatter in class.
16
WORKSHEET #4: PRONOUNS
A. Explain the use of it and there in the following sentences:
1. It was rumoured that the archbishop had had an accident. § ______
2. There was a rumour that the archbishop had had an accident. § ______
3. Nice weather today, isn’t it? § ______
4. There were two old ladies crossing the street in front of the bus. § ______
5. It was two old ladies that crossed the street, not two old men. § ______
6. It pleased them to see her happy again. § ______
B. Why is the definite article used with leg in sentences (1) and (2), but the possessive
pronoun used with finger in sentence (3)?
1. The soldier was wounded in the leg by a bullet. § ______
2. The bullet wounded the soldier in the leg. § ______
3. He cut his finger. § ______
C. Possessive pronoun or definite article?
1. She hurt her/the leg.
2. She was hurt in her/the leg.
3. They took off their/the shoes.
4. She brushed her/the hair.
5. The three little kittens lost their/the mittens.
6. The patient was examined in his/the chest.
7. My/The head hurts.
8. He kissed his granddaughter on her/the head.
9. I was stung on my/the neck.
10. The clowns painted their/the faces.
D. The use or omission of commas round relative clauses can sometimes affect the meaning:
My wife, who’s in Paris, will be returning tomorrow.
Without commas, this could suggest that I have another wife (or other wives) who are
somewhere else! Say what these sentences mean a) without commas b) with commas:
1. The test paper which everyone failed was far too difficult.
2. My brother who is in Canada is an architect.
E. Join each pair of sentences in three different ways, according to the example:
He’s the man. I sent money to him.
He’s the man to whom I sent money.
He’s the man who(m) I sent money to.
He’s the man I sent money to.
1. She’s the nurse. I gave flowers to her.
2. That’s the chair. I sat on it.
3. He’s the boy. I bought this toy for him.
17
F. What is the antecedent (‘korrelat’) of the relative clauses in each of the following
sentences?
1. Some people like walking in the rain, which I can’t understand.
2. Some people like walking in the rain, which I don’t.
3. Some people dislike walking in the rain, which I enjoy. § _______
G. Explain why there is a choice between these four ways of expressing the same thing:
a. She has something in common with the women about whom Norma Clarke writes in her study.
b. She has something in common with the women whom Norma Clarke writes about in her study.
c. She has something in common with the women that Norma Clarke writes about in her study.
d. She has something in common with the women Norma Clarke writes about in her study.
H. Explain grammatically the difference in meaning between
1.
a. How is she?
b. How does she look?
c. What is she like?
d. What does she look like? § _______
2.
a. The people who were in the street were excited.
b. The people, who were in the street, were excited.
I. Most of the following sentences contain errors that are often made. Correct the sentences
that are wrong.
1. It was very difficult for me to hear all what was being said.
2. I don’t know what improvements that are being planned.
3. It was little else to do.
4. She was standing alone, beside her with rage.
5. Shut the door behind you!
6. There’s a long time since I saw her.
7. She had her radio beside herself.
8. She learnt herself English.
9. It is no use to talk to them.
18
WORKSHEET #5: PRONOUNS
A. Explain grammatically:
1. Why is it possible to say a great deal of advice but not a great deal of cattle? § ______
2. Why does the indefinite article occur with liar in sentence a but not in sentence b?
a. She didn’t know what a liar he had been.
b. She didn’t know what liar had told him that. § ______
B. Explain the difference in meaning between
1.
a. He has a few friends.
b. He has few friends. § ______
2.
a. I had to take some medicine that was unpleasant.
b. I had to take some medicine, which was unpleasant. § ______
3.
a. We didn’t understand some of his arguments.
b. We didn’t understand any of his arguments. §§ ______
C. It or there? Choose the correct pronoun.
1. It/There was a hurricane last night. § ______
2. What caused all this damage? It/There was a hurricane. § ______
3. It/There is time for a cup of tea before we start.
4. It/There is time for a cup of tea. I haven’t had any all day.
5. It/There is at least a mile to the nearest shop.
6. It/There is still a mile left to go.
7. It/There is very windy at present, don’t you think?
8. It/There has been a lot of chilly weather recently.
9. It/There would appear to have been a mistake from start to finish.
10. It/There would appear to have been a mistake somewhere.
11. It/There must be something wrong with him.
12. It/There is a fact that he is guilty.
13. It/There is the fact that he is guilty to be considered.
14. It/There remains to be seen whether the clouds will break.
15. It/There remains a lot of unfinished business between us, Angela said to him.
16. It/There is difficult to understand why she loves him.
D. Revision: concord
Select the appropriate present tense form of the verb. Give reasons for your choices.
1. be
The news _____________ good.
2. be
His clothes ______________ expensive.
3. be
Knowledge of the matters ______________ needed.
4. be
His family ______________ old.
5. disagree
Members of the committee ________________ on the matter.
19
6. have
The homeless _____________ nowhere to go.
7. be
The police _____________ coming.
8. believe
People ______________ everything.
9. be
Two hundred dollars ________________ needed to cover the expenses.
10. be
What you see here _______________ the crown jewels.
11. have
The Times _______________ changed.
12. have
Times _______________ changed.
13. be
The Dead _______________ a story by James Joyce.
14. be
There _______________ a boy and a girl in the picture.
15. be
There _______________ a lot of things to do.
E. Revision: the -ing form. Explain why the -ing form is used in the following sentences:
1. The drug user thinks no one is noticing.
2. I know what I am talking about, having had the disease all my life.
3. The corporate press denies having heard of it.
4. He was rarely there and didn’t seem to have an opinion about her having a lover.
5. Mike Figgis has been having some peculiar dreams recently.
6. I like having time to read my paper.
7. It’s a problem having just one connection per institution.
8. A Cup run can make the difference between having to sell a player at the end of the season to
survive or not.
F. Most of the following sentences contain errors that are often made. Correct the sentences
that are wrong.
1. I don’t know much people in this town. § ______
2. None of my two brothers knew about my plans. § ______
3. I haven’t heard something from him for a long time.
4. We have a great deal of problems. § ______
5. The most people would agree with you. § ______
6. I didn’t buy nothing at the supermarket.
7. There is one ticket too much. § ______
8. His both children were there. § ______
20
WORKSHEET #6: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
A. Explain the difference in meaning between the following sentences:
1.
a. This one is rather expensive, too.
b. This one is rather too expensive.
2.
a. It was all most interesting.
b. It was almost interesting.
3.
a. He didn’t die happily.
b. He didn’t die, happily.
4.
a. He hardly worked all day.
b. He worked hard all day.
B. Choose the correct form in the sentences below. Mark the word that is modified by the
adjective/adverb, and include the word classes for the two words as in sentence 1:
N
Adj
1. He had a voice that sounded so funny/funnily.
2. The boy turned helpless/helplessly to Robert.
3. He looked her stern/sternly in the face.
4. The flowers are really fantastic/fantastically decorative.
5. The sight made Jack feel uneasy/uneasily.
6. Some of them might possible/possibly be dead, he thought.
7. We should have gone into this more thorough/thoroughly.
8. The lady talked gay/gaily of art and literature.
9. They were approached by an unusual/unusually tall man.
10. Quite a few of the passengers were bad/badly bruised. (mörbultad)
11. Our houses stand close/closely together.
12. They walked deep/deeply into the woods.
13. Don’t shout so loud/loudly!
14. He didn’t think he was treated fair/fairly.
15. Somehow it all feels wrong/wrongly.
16. We all find him very careful/carefully.
17. He behaved friendly/in a friendly manner towards me.
18. The word is spelt wrong/wrongly.
19. Why are you so terrible/terribly impatient?
20. Did you screw it on tight/tightly?
21
C. Determine whether the underlined expression is a direct object or a subject predicative:
1.
a. She felt a sharp pain.
b. She felt a complete idiot.
2.
a. John grew a beard.
b. John grew angry.
3.
a. We are keeping calm.
b. We are keeping the jewellery.
D. Explain why an adjective is used in the (a) sentences and an adverb in the
(b) sentences:
1.
a. She told him she didn’t feel well.
b. I want to start playing well again, he said. § §_______
2.
a. Irving’s case has received an unusual amount of publicity.
b. Britain has been unusually fortunate in that as an island nation, we have for
centuries rarely had to think about how to define ourselves.
3.
a. I thought Kevin, who was visiting me for two weeks, might find it interesting.
b. Interestingly, Jodie Foster did survive being a child star.
E. Most of the following sentences contain error that are often made. Correct the
sentences that are wrong.
1. The absurd was that nobody believed him. § _______
2. We asked the sick if he felt any better. § _______
3. I prefer white sugar to brown one. § _______
4. These taxes are not the only we have to pay. § _______
5. Mary borrowed John’s dictionary because she had forgotten to bring her own one. § ______
6. He speaks French quite good.
7. I took the blind by the arm and led him across the street.
8. The accused was led into the courtroom. § _______
9. My aunt won a larger sum of money on the pools. § _______
10. I asked him to speak slower.
11. Today they played better than usual.
12. He has a blue bike and I have a red.
13. He has an own company.
14. Is it worth to install such expensive equipment?
15. It is no use to make excuses now.
16. They made me to do it.
22
WORKSHEET #7: WORD ORDER
A. Explain grammatically the difference in meaning between
1.
a. He went forward to welcome her.
b. He looked forward to welcoming her.
2.
a. I promise to make you happy.
b. I promise, to make you happy. § ______
B. Word order in sentences accompanying direct speech (sägesatser):
Why is inversion (omvänd ordföljd) possible in sentence (1) but not in the others? Hint: 1)
Is the subject a noun or a pronoun? 2) Is there an object? 3) Is the predicate simple or
complex? § ______
1. “Let’s get on with it,” said Chris.
2. “I don’t want to,” Kim had exclaimed.
3. “You must,” her boy friend used to say.
4. “I refuse!” he shouted.
5. “What do you want to do then?” Chris asked Kim.
C. Place the adverbials in the following sentences in the basic, unstressed position. (There
are other, more emphatic positions, which should not be indicated in this task.)
1. often
2. never
3. always
4. usually
5. sometimes
6. always
7. never
8. often
9. sometimes
10. seldom
11. always
12. never
13. often
14. seldom
15. just
16. always
17. ever
18. never
19. at a snail’s pace
20. scarcely
21. completely
22. very much
23. entirely
24. generally, nearly
I go to the pictures.
Carruthers has seen pink elephants.
Henrietta is a good student.
Josh does his homework.
Jessica forgets his name.
Smithers used to call me by my first name.
In my opinion, he ought to have spoken at all.
I have been there.
Willie comes to see us on Sundays.
We heard from him.
(Dan said that) he would remember this.
(Ann claimed that) Dan had confessed.
(Dan replied that) he had done stupid things.
(Ann knew that) she had felt so embarrassed.
(I thought that) I had been unlucky.
(He hoped that) they would be friends.
(She wondered if) he had driven a car before.
(They were certain that) Dan would have done that.
They seemed to be climbing the mountain.
You will have heard of Verity, I suppose.
She has been restored to health.
George enjoys dancing.
It cannot be explained by his lack of courage.
He is not late. But last night he was.
23
D. Explain what is wrong in the following sentences, and why Swedish students often make
this type of mistake:
1. * She told him things that he never had heard before. § ______
2. * They asked if he still was working for Smithson-Greene.
3. * When he late one evening found her gone, he was very happy. § ______
E. Start the sentences with the words in italics (kursiverad stil), and change the rest of the
sentence accordingly:
1. I will never make that mistake again.
2. Crime rarely pays so well as Mr Jones seems to think.
3. The nation has scarcely ever suffered such a recession.
4. He not only protested: he also refused to pay his taxes.
5. He spoke so monotonously that everyone left.
6. They followed him wherever he went.
F. Most of the following sentences contain errors that are often made. Correct the ones that
are wrong.
1. Became he a dentist?
2. He told me to not worry. § ______
3. When I five years ago visited London, I didn’t realize how big it was. § ______
4. Only after I had threatened to sue him he sent back the money he owed me. § _____
5. Roger said that he would never forget that day. § ______
6. On no account you should believe such a ridiculous story. § ______
7. You always have been the most important person in my life! § ______
8. Never have I seen such a ridiculous person! § ______
9. This museum have I not very often visited.
10. In the Pyrenees did he often go hiking for weeks at a time.
11. ‘Is that really true?’ asked she.
24
WORKSHEET #8: PREPOSITIONS
1. Explain the difference in meaning between:
1.
a. We arrived in time.
b. We arrived on time.
2.
a. He’s engaged with his cousin.
b. He’s engaged to his cousin.
3.
a. I don’t think much of Shakespeare.
b. I don’t think much about Shakespeare.
4.
a. She is clever at doing that.
b. She is too clever to do that.
5.
a. He is sure to pass the examination.
b. He is sure of passing the examination.
6.
a. He doesn’t care to spend money on it.
b. He doesn’t care about spending money on it.
7.
a. What are you dreaming of?
b. What are you dreaming about?
8.
a. He likes her more than I.
b. He likes her more than me.
B. What is the correct translation?
1. Har du hört vad som hänt min bror?
a. Have you heard of my brother?
b. Have you heard from my brother?
c. Have you heard about my brother?
2. Jag kommer och hämtar dig klockan sex.
a. I’ll call for you at six o’clock.
b. I’ll call you at six o’clock.
c. I’ll call on you at six o’clock.
3. Han tog sjövägen.
a. He went by sea.
b. He went by the sea.
c. He went to sea.
25
C. Most of the following sentences contain errors that are often made. Correct the
ones that are wrong.
1. Have you any English books beside this one?
2. I was here for two years ago.
3. I met him in the stairs.
4. This room smells food, doesn’t it?
5. Yesterday’s accident depended on bad weather.
6. Smell on these flowers!
7. If you prefer to mess about rather than to work, I cannot prevent you to waste your
time.
8. Please excuse that I am so late.
9. Please forgive me being so rude to you last time we met.
10. The man was accused of armed robbery.
11. I tried to translate the text to German.
12. I am sure of that he will come.
13. They were badly shaken by the news.
14. She prefers walking to cycling.
15. This happened in the spring 1999.
16. This happened in the year of 1992.
17. We visited the beautiful province Värmland.
26
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
I. Swedish ‘det’: Choose the correct alternative. (MEV §8.1.2)
1. Amid the gloom _____________ is a glimmer of good news.
2. From here ______________ is 25 miles to the office, still a possible bicycle commuting run.
3. As usual, ______________ has been difficult to talk to him.
4. We always knew ________________ was something wrong.
5. ______________ was no snow to be seen for miles.
6. ______________ is now March 21 and I still have no card.
7. ______________ has never been any doubt that the group’s heart is north of the border.
8. ______________ does not surprise you in the least that The Sound of Music is Michael
Jackson’s favourite film.
9. ______________ doesn’t matter how many safety features a car has if a speeding driver hits a
pedestrian.
10. ______________ is a good chance that he will work with the squad again.
11. When ______________ is sunny, the tiles on the roof get so hot you can’t walk on them.
12. _____________ is no secret that Murdoch is seeking to do satellite TV deals in China.
13. I love dandelions. As far as I am concerned, _______________ not weeds, _______________
flowers.
14. I like your father. ____________ is a nice man.
15. Det gör ont i armen. [Translate]
16. Det är förbjudet att gå på gräset. [Translate]
Key with comments: p. 36
II. Adjectives or adverbs? Choose the correct alternative.
1. The question, he said, was ________________ put. (wrong/wrongly)
2. We would like to turn this into a regular thing if _____________________.
(possible/possibly).
3. We took ourselves terribly ______________________. (serious/seriously)
4. It has been a year of living ______________________ for tourists. (dangerous/dangerously)
5. You can be booked for ______________________ driving. (dangerous/dangerously)
6. If it catches sight of something ______________________, it attacks.
(dangerous/dangerously)
27
7. After a long period without eating, your blood sugar levels will be ______________________
low. (dangerous/dangerously)
8. Since Thursday morning I haven’t been eating ________________. (good/well)
9. He did not worry about whether secondary school work would be _________________
enough. (interesting/interestingly)
10. If you answer the first question _____________________, the next question will be easier.
(incorrect/incorrectly)
11. I feel so _______________ about this. (awful/awfully)
12. If _____________________ , talk to one of the planning officers. (possible/possibly)
13. This was considered ______________ unusual. (high/highly)
14. Researchers note that most of them considered it ______________ to use racist language.
(wrong/wrongly)
15. In a good Berkley cafe, after your third cappuccino, it's hard to think terribly
______________________. (clear/clearly)
16. Even errors can produce _________________ side effects. (interesting/interestingly)
17. This year the storms and the high sea level have caused __________________ severe
flooding. (unusual/unusually)
18. The champagne will flow as __________________ at tonight's Oscars, but strikes by actors
and writers could soon cripple the US film industry. (usual/usually)
19. I find it ______________________ that all those gangster films are obsessed with cooking
and murdering people. (interesting/interestingly)
20. Robertson nodded his head _________________ in agreement. (quiet/quietly)
21. Holiday Cottages Group, which represents 7,000 cottages, also said bookings were slower
than ___________________. (normal/normally)
Key with comments: p. 36
28
III. Numerals
A. Write in words:
1. 0 ________________________
11. 60th ___________________________________
2. 8 ________________________
12. 155 ____________________________________
3. 8th _______________________
13. 1,199 __________________________________
4. 4 _________________________
14. 1.199 __________________________________
5. 14 ________________________
15. the 1930s _______________________________
6. 40 ________________________
16. 1/4 ____________________________________
7. 104 _______________________
17. 5 8/9 ___________________________________
8. 0.265 ______________________
18. 3/21 ____________________________________
9. 22 _________________________
19. 12/100 __________________________________
10. 22nd ______________________
20. 1,000,000,000 ___________________________
B. Fill in the right words:
1. ___________________________ prisoners of war were sent to Germany from the occupied
countries. (Hundratusentals)
2. This town has a housing queue of __________________________________ people.
(tiotusentals)
3. Fifty ____________________________ is needed for the extermination of rats in the slum
districts of the United States. (miljoner dollar)
4. _______________________, Caesar launched an operation against Britannia, but it was not
until ________________________ that the Romans sent considerable forces there. (År 55 f.Kr.;
år 43 e. Kr.)
5. She was born ______________________________. (23/4 1965)
6. I had to wait ____________________________________. (tre kvart)
7. Shakespeare died _________________________________. (på 1600-talet)
8. There were ____________________________ people in the street. (tusentals)
9. It weighs ________________________ . (1,1 kg)
10. There is a train to London _________________________________. (varannan timme)
29
C. Translate:
1. fyra och en halv mil _______________________________________
2. Stod slaget vid Hastings på 1000-talet? _______________________________________
3. Du måste vara tillbaka halv elva. ____________________________________________
4. många miljoner människor _________________________________________
5. ett dygn _________________________________
D. Read these numbers:
Dates:
4.9.77 (UK)
9/4/77 (US)
Years:
1066
23.3.83 (UK) 7.7.61 (UK)
3/23/83 (US)
7/7/61 (US)
1776
1801
Telephone numbers:
0202
area code
0473
27414
tel.no.
23 82 77
fractions:
7
2
3
4
2
3
1.421
732
25%
25 sq km
1918
2000
7
8
IV. Swedish ‘man’
Translate into English:
1. Först tar man av till höger och sedan till vänster.
2. Man kan inte öppna den här dörren från insidan.
3. Man trodde förr att jorden var platt.
4. Har du gått kursen i fonetik? – Ja, det måste man.
5. Man kan inte lita på honom.
6. Hur vet du det? – Man har sagt mig det.
7. Man skall inte tala för mycket om sig själv.
8. Man kan aldrig så noga veta vad han tänker göra.
9. Han tycker illa om att man skrattar åt honom.
10. Man kan inte förneka att han har gjort stora framteg på sista tiden.
Key: pp. 37-8
55 B.C.
30
KEYS
KEY GRAMMAR TERMS AND CONCEPTS: SIMPLE CLAUSES
1. Even if we know that a certain word is a noun or a verb, this does not help us to understand the
word’s function in the clause—its relationship with the other words in the clause. Words are
categorised into word classes on the basis of certain characteristics (for example, a noun can be
either definite or indefinite, either plural or singular, and so on). This means that in the following
two sentences, the girl and the dog are nouns, regardless of their function: The girl chased the
dog – The dog chased the girl. We need another set of concepts—that of sentence constituents—
to describe the function of these nouns. Thus, the girl is the subject in the first sentence and the
direct object in the second sentence, while the dog is the direct object in the first sentence and the
subject in the second sentence.
2. Word classes
a) Verb, adjective
b) Noun, (auxiliary) verb
c) Noun, verb, adjective
d) Verb, adverb, adjective, noun
e) Adjective, adverb
f) Adjective, noun
g) (Possessive) pronoun, noun
3. Noun phrases
i) a) gullibility = head; Dan’s = mod.gen or determiner; incredible = mod.adj
b) breakfast = head; delicious = mod.adj; on the porch = mod.prep.
c) girl = head; poor = mod.adj; with the unusually long nose = mod.prep
(In this prepositional phrase, there is another noun phrase with the following constituents: nose =
head; unusually long = mod.adj. If we want to break this phrase down even further, we can note
that unusually long is an adjective phrase with long as head and unsually as advl/degree.)
d) tape recorder = head; very cheap = mod.adj (in which cheap is head and very is an
advl/degree); without any possibility of a mains connection = mod.prep (This mod.prep contains
a noun phrase with the following constituents: possibility = head; any = determiner; of a mains
connection mod.prep)
ii) A noun phrase can function as:
Subject
Lena’s new hat was expensive
Direct object
Lena bought a new hat.
Indirect object
Joan gave Lena a new hat.
Subject predicative
Lena was a good skier.
Object predicative
They considered Lena a good skier.
Adverbial
Lena is coming next week.
4. Adjectives/adverbs – modifiers/adverbials
i) a) ovanligt - Word Class (WC) = adverb. Sentence Constituent (SC): advl/degree which
modifies the adjective trevligt (SC: mod.adj)
b) ovanlig & trevligt - WC: adjective. SC: mod.adj with the head noun förslag
c) väldigt - WC: adv. SC: advl/degree which modifies the adv nonchalant (SC: advl/manner)
d) mycket - WC: adv. SC: advl/degree which modifies the adv långsammare (SC: advl/manner)
e) fullkomligt - WC: adv. SC: advl/degree which modifies the adj förödande (SC: pr/s)
31
ii) a) beautiful = mod.adj; over there = mod.adv (i.e. adverb modifier); rather = advl/degree;
these days = advl/time.
b) probably = modal advl; never = advl/time; her = mod.gen or determiner; many = determiner;
interesting = mod.adj; from Leeds = mod.prep with the head noun relatives.
c) very = advl/degree which modifies loudly & clearly which are advls/manner (in the phrase in
brackets, it modifies loud & clear which are mods.adj).
of the abominable snowman in the Himalayas = mod.prep with the head noun story. In this
mod.prep, there is another noun phrase with snowman as head, abominable as a mod.adj and in
the Himalayas as a mod.prep.
iii) Modifiers affect the meaning of nouns and pronouns, and adverbials affect the meaning of
verbs, adjectives, adverbs and entire clauses.
5. Predicative complements
a) the world’s greatest lover = object predicative (pr/o), which defines the object Giovanni
b) the world’s greatest lover = subject predicative (pr/s), which defines the subject Giovanni
6.
a) housewives: pr/s after remained and Od after hired
b) all night: advl/time (answers the question How long?); all the songs: Od
c) (to) the city’s chief of police: Oprep (HO p. 115f) after handed over and pr/o after appointed
d) Fridays: advl/time; Friday: Od
e) in Katmandu: advl/place after lives and mod.prep after the girl
(Note the difference between modifiers and adverbials!)
f) 55 kilos: advl/measurement; 55 hippos: Od
g) late: advl/time in the first clause; pr/s in the second clause
h) on the table: advl/place after put and mod/prep after the book in the second clause
i) there: mod.adv in the first clause and advl/place in the second clause
j) in Spain: advl/place; in good health: pr/s
k) after his little sister: Oprep after looked and advl/time after arrived
7.
a) Sentence Constituents (SC): Lawrence subj, explained pred, the problem Od, to us Oprep
Word Classes (WC): Lawrence noun, explained verb, the problem noun, to preposition, us
personal pronoun
b) SC: The indefatigable teacher subj (the teacher head, indefatigable mod.adj), wrote pred,
long handouts Od (handouts head, long mod.adj), for his grateful students Oprep (students
head, his mod.gen or determiner, grateful mod.adj)
WC: The definite article, indefatigible adj, teacher noun, wrote verb, long adj, handouts noun,
for prep, his possessive pron, grateful adj, students noun
c) SC: They subj, spent pred, weeks advl/time, looking for a book on Chomsky etc. advl/manner
(looking predicate in a non-finite clause, for a book on Chomsky, the founder of
transformational-generative grammar Oprep containing a noun phrase (book head, on
Chomsky mod.prep, the founder of transformational-generative grammar apposition. In that
apposition, founder is the head, of transformational-generative grammar mod.prep,
transformational-generative mod.adj with grammar as its head) )
32
WC: They pers pron, spent verb, weeks noun, looking verb, for prep, a indef art, book noun,
on prep, Chomsky noun, the def art, founder noun, of prep, transformational-generative adj,
grammar noun
d) SC; There formal or preparatory subject (=fs), is pred, probably modal advl, a ten-pound
note extraposed subject (=es), in my wallet advl/place with a noun phrase: (wallet head, my
mod.gen or determiner).
WC: There pron, is verb, probably adv, a indef art, ten-pound note noun, ten numeral, in prep,
my poss pron, wallet noun
e) SC: Egbert from Louisville subj (Egbert head, from Louisville mod/prep), seemed pred,
enormously talented pr/s (talented head, enormously advl/degree)
WC: Egbert noun, from prep, Louisville noun, seemed verb, enormously adv, talented adj
f) SC: They subj, felt pred, rather lonely pr/s (lonely head, rather advl/degree)
WC: They pers pron, felt verb, rather adv, lonely adj
g) SC: Due to acute lack of space advl/reason (with a noun phrase: lack head, acute mod.adj,
of space mod.prep), Fido’s master subj (master head, Fido’s mod.gen or determiner), was ...
invited pred, not modal advl or negation
WC: Due to compound preposition (due adj, to prep), acute adj, lack noun, of prep, space noun,
Fido’s noun, master noun, was verb, not negation or modal adv, invited verb
h) SC: Count Olivares subj (Olivares head, Count apposition or epithet), died pred, an extremely
painful death Od (death head, painful mod.adj, extremely advl/degree which modifies painful)
WC: Count noun, Oliv. noun, died verb, an indef art, extremely adv, painful adj, death noun
i) SC: The following week advl/time (week head, following mod.adj), the poor horse subj (horse
head, poor mod.adj), was promoted pred, to consul pr/s
WC: The def art, following adj, week noun, the def art, poor adj, horse noun, was promoted
verb, to prep, consul noun
j) SC: Funnily enough modal advl, it subj, was pred, incredibly hot pr/s, incredibly
advl/degree, during the main part of my vacation advl/time (with a noun phrase: part head,
main mod.adj, of my vacation mod.prep (with a noun phrase: vacation head, my mod.gen or
determiner).
WC: Funnily adv, enough adv, it pers pron, was verb, incredibly adv, hot adj, during prep,
the def art, main adj, part noun, of prep, my poss pron, vacation noun
k) SC: The new alarm system of the company subj (alarm system head, new mod.adj, of the
company mod.prep), was considered pred, completely foolproof pr/s (foolproof head,
completely advl/degree)
WC: The def art, new adj, alarm system noun, of prep, the def art, company noun, was verb,
considered verb, completely adv, foolproof adj.
33
KEY FINITE AND NON-FINITE CLAUSES
a)
1. finite clause
2. finite clause
3. non-finite clause
4. both clauses are finite
5. both clauses are non-finite
6. non-finite clause
7. finite clause
8. both clauses are finite
9. non-finite clause
b) (The verb phrases have been underlined)
1. Coren Calborn plans/finite; main clause/ to spend the cash on a CD player for her car /nonfinite/.
2. Karen Dean /the clause that begins here continues after the comma/, who lives near
Cincinnati /finite/, can’t decide between a paint job for the kitchen and a new dining-room
set /finite; main clause/.
3. She is certain, though /finite, main clause/, that the money won’t be going into savings
/finite/.
4. Whether the checks will be sufficient medicine /finite/ to cure the ailing economy /nonfinite/ is an open question /finite; together the first two clauses constitute the subject
here; is an open question is the predicate in the main clause/.
5. Financial experts are closely monitoring /finite, main clause/ how taxpayers spend their
windfalls /finite/.
6. People will spend the money /finite; main clause/ if they are feeling good about the future
/finite/.
7. These days, Americans seem /finite; main clause/ to be better shoppers than savers /nonfinite/.
8. Many economists therefore expect /finite; main clause/ that even people /the clause that
begins here continues after are likely…/ who say /finite/ they plan on /finite/ saving /nonfinite/ are likely /finite/ to pump it back into the economy /non-finite/.
9. Economies all across Asia are limping badly /finite; main clause/, hobbled by the slowdown
in demand from the United States /non-finite/.
10. Beijing is in the process of /finite; main clause/ cutting the government in half from 8
million employees to 4 million /non-finite/.
34
KEY GRAMMAR TERMS AND CONCEPTS: COMPLEX CLAUSES
1. A relative clause nearly always functions as a modifier (a modifying clause = satsattribut) –
henceforth abbreviated as mod.clause. However, the antecedent (= korrelat) of a relative clause
can be the head word of any other sentence constituent except the predicate. This rule also applies
to the relative pronoun/adverb of the relative clause. Therefore, it is very important to distinguish
between the relative clause, its antecedent, and its relative pron/adv.
a) that I left here yesterday: the money antecedent and Od; that rel pron and Od
b) which belonged to Gloria: the skateboard antecedent and subj; which rel pron and subj
c) whose biggest interest is hanggliding: the girl antecedent and pr/s; whose rel pron and mod.gen
or determiner
d) that she left for Mallorca: the day antecedent and Od; that rel pron and advl/time
e) where they lived: the palace antecedent and subj; where rel adv and advl/place
f) where they went by plane: Rome antecedent and (together with in) advl/place; where rel adv
and advl/place
2.
a) that you are right
b) that she was elected
c) that you can come to our party
d) that you tried to help him
e) that the whole family was safe and sound
f) that we had spent too much money
g) that eagles can swim
direct object
subject
extraposed subject
direct object
subject predicative
modifying clause (head: thought)
adjectival complement (head: convinced)
So, that-clauses can be subjects, objects, subject predicatives, modifiers and adjectival
complements.
3. (a) - (d) are indirect yes/no-questions, with the interrogative conjunction if or whether in
clause-initial position (i.e. at the beginning of the indirect question) ; (e) - (m) are indirect WHquestions with interrogative pronouns or adverbs in clause-initial position (i.e. at the beginning
of the indirect question).
a) if this is true = direct object (predicate: wonder)
b) whether this is true = extraposed subject
c) whether this is true = subject predicative
d) whether this is true = modifying clause (head: question)
e) who did it = Od (pred: knows). Who = subject in the subordinate clause. Note: in Swedish, this
who is translated as vem som.
f) whom this was said about = subject; whom is a prepositional complement to (was said) about
in the subordinate clause.
g) what he meant = es; what = direct object in the subordinate clause.
h) where to start = pr/s; where = advl/place in the subordinate clause.
i) where he got the drugs = modifying clause (head: question). In the subord.clause, where =
advl/place.
j) where he was hiding = direct object (predicate: know). In the subord.clause, where = advl/place
35
k) When she will arrrive = subject; in the subordinate clause, when = advl/time.
l) how she does it = extrasposed subject; in the subordinate clause, how = advl/manner.
m) how clever Chad was = prepositional complement to aware /of/; in the subordinate clause,
how = advl/degree.
4. a) that Carol had said that he was good-looking = extraposed subject (predicate: worried);
that he was good-looking = direct object (predicate: said).
b) that no one believed in the fairy-tale, which was really true = modifying clause (head:
knowledge); which was really true = modifying clause (head: fairy-tale).
c) that it surprised Jim that Bill made so much noise during the concert that Alice had a nervous
breakdown = direct object (pred: said); that Bill made so much noise during the concert that
Alice had a nervous breakdown = extraposed subj (pred: surprised);
that Alice had a nervous breakdown = advl/result which modifies made (so much) noise.
d) that nobody wanted to do the job, since it was so badly paid = subject predicative (subj: the
difficult thing); since it was so badly paid = advl/reason.
e) that Cleopatra acted the way she did = extraposed subj (pred: appealed); the way she did =
advl/manner
5.
a) him play a piano concerto = direct object (pred: heard) (Compare this with the finite clause
that he played a piano concerto)
b) to see him there = extraposed subj (pred: surprised)
c) after having said goodbye = advl/time
d) to get the countess = advl/reason
e) to get there early = subject predicative
f) to refuse to take the test = mod.clause (head: decision)
g) her = direct object (pred: consider); to be extremely talented = object predicative
h) presented by Irene = modifying clause (head: views)
i) almost blinded by tears = either modifying clause (Cf: the accused who was almost blinded by
tears) or adverbial (Cf: When he was almost blinded by tears)
ii) In (a) and (g) above, the subordinate clause is a special type of reduced clause called an
object-with-infinitive construction. In such constructions, the object of the main clause
functions as the subject of the subordinate clause. Therefore, him is the subject of the subordinate
clause in (a) and her is the subject of the subordinate clause in (g). (Although him and her are
object forms, they function just like he and she would function in the finite clauses that he played
a piano concerto and that she is extremely talented.) In (a), a piano concerto is the direct object.
In (g), talented is the object predicative (Remember: We know we have an object predicative
when we can put an equal sign between it and the object: him = talented).
iii) The ellipted subjects (=the subjects that have been left out) in the clauses are: (b) she, (c) they,
(d) they, (e) they, (f) the students. The general rule is this: the subject in a reduced clause can be
left out when it is clear from the context who/what the subject is. There are various possibilities:
• The subject in the subordinate clause is identical to the subject in the main clause (as in c & d);
• The subject in the subordinate clause is identical to the object in the main clause (as in b);
• The subject in the subordinate clause is unspecified and indefinite (as in e; a Swedish
translation would use the indefinite pronoun man).
• The subject in the subordinate clause is the agent in the main clause (as in f).
36
KEY ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
I. SWEDISH ‘DET’
1. there (the logical subject is a noun phrase with the head glimmer)
2. it (it is used when talking about distance (VATT: Väder, Avstånd, Tid, Temperatur))
3. it (the logical subject is a /non-finite/ clause: to talk to him)
4. there (the logical subject is a noun phrase: the independent pronoun something)
5. There (the logical subject is a noun phrase with the head snow)
6. It (it is used when talking about a point in time (VATT))
7. There (the logical subject is a noun phrase with the head doubt. This is the so-called
‘existential there’ = Sw. ‘det finns/fanns/har funnits’ etc.)
8. It (the logical subject is a /finite/ clause: that The Sound of Music is… etc.)
9. It (the logical subject is a /finite/ clause: how many features a car has)
10. There (the logical subject is a noun phrase with the head chance)
11. it (it is used when talking about the weather (VATT))
12. It (the logical subject is a /finite/ clause: that Murdoch is seeking to do satellite TV deals in
China)
13. they are … they are (they is used when the referent is a plural noun)
14. He (it is not used when describing a person)
15. My arm hurts. (a number of Swedish expressions using ‘det’ must be phrased without a
word for ‘it’ in English)
16. Walking on the grass is prohibited. (same as above)
II. ADJECTIVES OR ADVERBS?
1. wrongly (adverb; advl/manner modifying the verb put)
2. possible (adjective; used in abbreviated clauses after if; see SS §319A)
3. seriously (adverb; advl/manner modifying the verb take)
4. dangerously (adverb; advl/manner modifying the verb live)
5. dangerous (adjective; mod/adj with the noun driving as head)
6. dangerous (adjective; used in abbreviated clauses after the pronoun something; see SS §319C)
7. dangerously (adverb; advl modifying the adjective low)
8. well (adverb; advl/manner modifying the verb eat)
9. interesting (adjective; subject predicative which describes the subject school work)
10. incorrectly (adverb; advl/manner modifying the verb answer)
11. awful (adjective; subject predicative, used after the verbs of perception and describing the
subject)
12. possible (adjective; used in abbreviated clauses after if)
13. highly (adverb; advl/degree modifying the adjective unusual)
14. wrong (adjective; object predicative which describes the object it/to use racist language)
15. clearly (adverb; advl/degree modifying the verb think)
16. interesting (adjective; mod/adj with the compound noun side effects as head)
17. unusually (adverb; advl/degree modifying the adjective severe)
18. usual (adjective; used in abbreviated clauses after as; see SS §319A)
37
19. interesting (adjective; object predicative which describes the object it/that all those
gangster films are obsessed with cooking and murdering people)
20. quietly (adverb; advl/manner modifying the verb nod)
21. normal (adjective; used in abbreviated clauses after than; see SS §319A)
III. NUMERALS
A.
1. nought/zero
2. eight
3. the eighth
4. four
5. fourteen
6. forty
7. one hundred and four
8. nought/zero point two six five
9. twenty-two
10. the twenty-second
11. the sixtieth
12. one hundred and fifty-five
13. one thousand one hundred and ninety-nine
14. one point one nine nine
15. the nineteen-thirties
16. one fourth
17. five and eight ninths
18. three over twenty-one
19. twelve over one hundred
20. one billion (one thousand million)
B.
1. Hundreds of thousands of
2. tens of thousands of
3. million dollars
4. In /the year/ 55 B.C.; in 43 AD
5. on the twenty-third of April, 1965 (on April the twenty-third, 1965)
6. for three quarters of an hour (for forty-five minutes)
7. in the 17th century
8. thousands of
9. 1.1 kilos (one point one)
10. every other hour (every two hours)
C.
1. About 30 miles (om mil = 10 km); about four and a half miles (om mil = engelsk mil)
2. Did the Battle of Hastings take place in the 11th century?
3. You must be back by half past ten (ten thirty).
4. many million people
5. a day and a night (twenty-four hours)
D.
the fourth of September nineteen seventy-seven (September the fourth...)
the twenty-third of March, nineteen eighty-three (March the twenty-third...)
the seventh of July, nineteen sixty-one (July the seventh,...)
ten sixty-six
seventeen seventy-six
eighteen-oh-one
nineteen eighteen
two thousand
fifty-five B.C.
38
oh-two-oh-two two-seven-four-one-four
oh-four-seven-three two-three-eight-two-double-seven
seven halves
three fourths
two thirds
seven eighths
one point four two one
seventy-three squared
twenty-five per cent
twenty-five square kilometers
IV. SWEDISH ‘MAN’
1. First you turn right and then left.
2. This door can’t be opened from the inside.
3. People use to believe that the earth was flat. (People formerly believed…)
4. Have you taken the course in phonetics? – Yes, we have to.
5. He can’t be trusted.
6. How do you know? – I have been told so.
7. One shouldn’t talk too much about oneself.
8. You can never know exactly what he is going to do.
9. He dislikes being laughed at.
10. There’s no denying /that/ he has made great progress lately.
39
BASIC GRAMMAR TERMS: A GLOSSARY
The following may look like a daunting list, but you are probably already familiar with some of
the concepts. Grammar terms can mainly be divided into two categories: those describing the
forms of the words (ordklasser—word classes), and those describing their function in a specific
sentence (satsdelar—sentence constituents or clause elements). The list below gives an overview
of some basic terms pertaining to these two categories, starting with ‘form’.
FORM
The form of the word decides the functions it can have in a sentence (please remember the difference between these
two). The form is the one you will find in a dictionary, and the function is the use you make of a word in a specific
context. Every word belongs to a word class or more than one word class that does not generally change, but these
words can function as several different sentence constituents (discussed below). The word class (also called lexical
category) is in bold writing in the list. The other entries are subcategories or elements that come with the word class
in question. These elements are not word classes; they are only used to describe properties that the words have.
English term
Swedish term
Descriptions and examples
NOUN
SUBSTANTIV
Noun phrase (NP)
Nominalfras
Indefinite article
Definite article
In the singular
In the plural
Countable
Obestämd artikel
Bestämd artikel
I singularis
I pluralis
Räknebart
Uncountable
Oräknebart
Proper nouns
The genitive
Egennamn
Gentitiv
ADJECTIVE
ADJEKTIV
Compare
Komparera
Positive degree
Comparative
degree
Superlative degree
Positiv
Komparativ
Things, basically. A more simple way of describing this category is by
describing the properties of the words. They normally take an article
and they can normally take the plural or the singular. E.g. ball, cloud,
thought, Englishman
A noun phrase consists of a head noun or pronoun, plus optional
determiners and modifiers which describe the head. Noun phrases often
function as subject or object. E.g. ‘A big dog walked by’ (subject is a
NP), or ‘We saw her there’ (subject is a NP; object is a NP).
A or an
The
One of something. E.g. bird
Two or more of something. E.g. birds
Countable nouns exist in the plural and in the singular and they can be
used with the indefinite article. Some words are countable in one sense,
and uncountable in another. E.g. ‘There were many deaths in the fire.’
These nouns cannot be counted and they do not take the indefinite
article; instead, you sometimes use the quantifier some. Uncountable
nouns only exist in the singular. E.g. ‘This music is wonderful.’
Names of persons and places. E.g. Chris, York
This is the form used to indicate possession. There are two forms in
English:’s (Kim’s house) and the of-construction (The roof of the
house).
Adjectives are words that describe or determine a noun. Most adjectives
can be compared. E.g. big, bigger, the biggest. (Note that some
adjectives can be used as nouns in the generic sense: ‘The rich are
envied by some.’)
To compare adjectives and adverbs is to say that a certain person, thing,
or action has more of a certain property than another person, thing, or
action. Adjectives and adverbs have three degrees of comparison (see
below, the following three entries) E.g. big big, bigger, the biggest.
The form you’ll find in the dictionary. E.g. big or important.
The next degree in the comparison. E.g. bigger or more important.
Superlativ
VERB
VERB
Regular verb
Regelbundet verb
The last degree in the comparison. E.g. the biggest or the most
important.
Verbs designate actions, events, or states of being. The verb is the centre
of the clause. They normally exist in various tenses. E.g. walk, be, think
A verb that follows a regular pattern when used in different tenses. E.g.
borrow, borrowed, has borrowed
40
Irregular verb
Oregelbundet verb
The principal parts
of the verb
(Verb)tema
Plain/base form
Grundform
The past participle
(p ptc)
Perfekt particip /
supinum
The present
participle (pres ptc)
Presens particip
Auxiliary verb &
Main/lexical verb
Hjälpverb &
Huvudverb
Concord, or
Subject-verb
agreement
The progressive
aspect (or form)
Kongruens
The active voice
Aktiv form
The passive voice
Passivum
Tense
Tempus
The present tense
Presens
The past tense
Imperfekt,
preteritum, dåtid
Perfekt
The present perfect
Pågående,
progressive form
The past perfect,
pluperfect
The future
Pluskvamperfekt
Futurum
The conditional
Konditionalis
Mood
Modus
A verb that has irregular forms which have to be learned separately. E.g.
drink, drank, drunk.
A verb has three principal parts: the plain/base form, the past tense
form, and the past participle. These three forms are what you you learn
when you learn irregular verbs. E.g. drink, drank, drunk or be, was,
been.
The base form of the verb is the first principal part. This is the form
you’ll find in the dictionary. It is also known as ‘the bare infinitive’.
E.g. be. If we add the infinitive marker (to), we get the infinitive (to be).
The past participle is the third principal part of the verb. E.g. been,
drunk, gone, jumped, worn. It is used in two tenses: the present perfect
(has been) and the past perfect (had been). The past participle is a verb
form, but it can also be used as an adjective: ‘a worn blanket’.
The present participle is also known as the ing-form. E.g. going, being,
laughing, seeing. Together with the verb be, it forms the progressive
aspect: is being. It is a verb form, but it can also be used as an adjective:
‘a laughing girl’. Sometimes you’ll also come across the word gerund.
The gerund is ing-form used as a noun: ‘Smoking is prohibited here’.
Auxiliary verbs, also known as helping verbs, are verbs that help modify
the tense or modality of a main verb. Some auxiliary verbs can also be
used as main verbs. Compare: ‘I had it’, where had is a main verb, with
‘I had seen him before’, where had is an auxiliary verb which creates
the past perfect tense together with its main verb see.
The verb needs to agree with the subject of the clause: a subject needs
an -s if it is in the third person singular present tense.
The progressive consists of a form of the verb be + a main verb ending
in -ing. The progressive is primarily used to signal that an action is
ongoing or temporary, but it may also be used in many other cases. E.g.
‘He is doing his homework right now.’
The active voice is the unmarked voice for clauses in which the verb is
transitive (i.e., clauses with a direct object). In an active clause, the
subject is the person or thing that performs the action. E.g. ‘They saw
it.’ (They = subject & performer of the action.)
The passive voice is the marked voice for clauses in which the verb is
transitive). In a passive clause, the subject is not the ‘doer’ but the
‘receiver’ of the action. The person or thing performing the action is
called ‘agent’. E.g. ‘It was seen by them.’ (It = subject. By them = agent
& performer of the action.) The passive is normally formed with an
auxiliary be + the past participle of the main verb (was seen).
The different time frames that a verb can be put into, such as the present
tense, the past tense.
The form of the verb when it describes something in the present (but it
can also be used in other cases – check your grammar book!)
The form of the verb when it describes something in the past.
Have or has is placed before the past participle of the main verb. E.g. ‘I
have seen him.’
Had is placed before the past participle of the main verb. E.g. ‘I had
seen him.’
Often will + the infinitive. (E.g. ‘I will do this’). Other forms exist:
consult your grammar book.
Often expresses a condition for something. E.g. ‘I would have written to
her if I had had her address.’
The mood determines how we see what happens: is it a fact, a wish, an
order? This determines the forms of the verb. Three types of mode exist:
imperative, subjunctive, and indicative. (The last one includes all cases
except for the first two. The vast majority of phrases you use are in the
indicative.) Do not confuse this with tense!
41
The imperative
mood
The subjunctive
mood
Imperativ
The mood for orders and requests. E.g. ‘Help me!’
Konjunktiv
ADVERB
ADVERB
PRONOUN
PRONOMEN
Personal pronouns
(PerPrn)
Possessive
pronouns
(PosPrn)
Relative pronouns
(RelPrn)
Personliga
pronomen
Possessiva
pronomen
This mood indicates that what is being said expresses something that is
not certain: wishes, hypotheses, etc. E.g. ‘I wish it were true’ (Note that
the indicative mood might also be possible, especially in informal
language: ‘I wish it was true’).
Adverbs are words that describe or determine a verb. They answer
questions such as when, where and how. Like adjectives, adverbs can be
compared. E.g. carefully, more carefully, etc.
A vast collection of words of different forms and with several subcategories. E.g. I, it, my, this, that. The prototypical pronoun stands in
place of a noun.
Designate persons. There are subject forms (I, you, she, they) and object
forms (me, you, her, them).
Designate ownership. There are dependent forms (my, your, their) and
independent forms (mine, your, theirs).
Interrogative
pronouns
(IntPrn)
Interrogativt
pronomen
Demonstrative
pronouns
(DemPrn)
Reflexive pronouns
(ReflPrn)
Reciprocal
pronouns
(RecPrn)
Indefinite pronouns
(IndefPrn)
PREPOSITION
Demonstrativa
pronomen
NUMERAL
RÄKNEORD
CONJUNCTION
KONJUNKTION
Co-ordinators
Samordnande
konjunktioner
Subordinators
Main clause
Underordnande
konjunktioner
Huvudsats
Subordinate clause
Bisats
Relativa
pronomen
A relative pronoun introduces a relative clause (normally, a clause
which modifies a preceding phrase or clause). E.g. who, whose, which,
that. The person or thing that the relative pronoun refers back to is
called the antecedent (Swe: korrelat). E.g. ‘The girl who used to come
here has moved to China.’ (The girl = antecedent; who = rel.prn).
Used in direct and indirect questions. E.g. who, which, what. (Note that
some of these are identical to relative pronouns, but that they mean
different things. Compare: ‘Who (= interrogative) is that man?’ and
‘That is the man who (= relative) called.’
Pronouns that point out or point to something. E.g. this, that.
Reflexiva
pronomen
Reciproka
pronomen
Reflects the subject of the phrase. E.g. ‘You can see yourself in the
mirror.’ and ‘He washes himself.’
Describes reciprocal relationships (ömsesidiga förhållanden –
varandra). E.g. ‘They respect each other’.
Indefinita
pronomen
PREPOSITION
Pronouns with no specific reference. E.g. some, any.
Usually small words placed before a noun phrase in order to express
different concrete relations, for example direction and place, but also
more abstract ‘positions’. Simple prpositions consist of one word. E.g.
on, beside, in, without. Complex prepositions consist of two or more
words. E.g. in spite of.
Words designating numbers. There are cardinal numbers (one, two,
three) and ordinal numbers (first, second, third).
Words that connect words, phrases, or whole clauses (similar function
to relative pronouns). E.g. and, but, that. There are two main types (see
below). A conjunction is never a sentence constituent (satsdel) – it
merely connects them.
Connect words or clauses of the same kind: nouns with nouns, main
clauses with main clauses, subordinate clauses with subordinate clauses.
E.g. and, but, or, for.
Connect a subordinate clause with a main clause. E.g. that, if, then,
because.
A clause that can either stand on its own or includes one or more
subordinate clauses. E.g. ‘I see a cat’, ‘I know that they were late.’
A clause that cannot stand on its own, e.g. ‘When I see a cat’, ‘that they
were late’. (Note: If you add a main clause, the subordinate clause
makes sense: ‘When I see a cat, I run’). A subordinate clause is always a
sentence constituent in a main clause.
42
FUNCTION
Now we enter the realm of sentence constituents (satsdelar). You need to remember a few basic points. Firstly, a
sentence constituent may consist of several words. In the phrase ‘He sees the beautiful old house’, the four italicised
words together form the direct object (more on that later). A whole phrase is often a sentence constituent: ‘He saw
that the dog was tired’. When this phrase in italics has been properly identified as a direct object, it is possible to
find the sentence constituents that make up this phrase too: you just start over again with the questions you used to
find this sentence constituent in the first place: the verb was is the predicate, the dog is the subject, and tired is not
the direct object but the subject predicative (more on that later).
The second important point to remember is to make sure that you really do make a distinction between form
and function. Nouns, verbs, and adjectives are grammatical forms that can have various functions in a clause. For
instance, girl is always a noun, but it can perform various functions, depending on the sentence. In ‘The girl was
tired’, it is the subject. In ‘I saw the girl’, it is the direct object. And so on.
English term
Head (H)
Swedish term
Huvudord (H)
Determiner
Determinant
Modifiers
Bestämningar,
attribut
Sats
Clause
Sentence
constituent
Sentence analysis,
Parsing a sentence
Predicate (verb) (p)
Satsdel
Subject (s)
Subjekt
The extraposed
subject (es)
Egentligt subjekt
Formal or
preparatory subject
(fs)
Formellt subjekt
Direct object
(Od)
Direkt objekt
Indirect object
(Oi)
Indirekt objekt
Prepositional
object
(Oprep)
Prepositionsobjekt
Adverbial
(advl)
Adverbial
Advl of time
Tidsadverbial
Satsdelsanalys,
Ta ut satsdelarna
Predikat
Description
The head word is the main element in a phrase, the one around which
the modifiers and determiners are centred. The head in a noun phrase is
a noun or a pronoun, the head in an adjective phrase is an adjective, etc.
In ‘the big, blue house’, house is the head.
Determiners (usually articles or pronouns) are used in front noun phrase
heads, and limit the reference of that head. E.g. ‘Some red wine’ or ‘The
red wine’.
These are the words that describe or add meaning to nouns or pronouns.
In the noun phrase ‘the big, blue house’, big and blue are modifiers.
Normally (but not always), a group of words that contain at least a
predicate and a subject. The verb is the central element in a clause.
The function of a word in a clause. Also known as clause element.
To pick a clause apart, identifying its smallest parts and functions.
Answers the question: ‘What is happening?’ and consists of at least a
finite verb but may be bigger than that.
Answers the question ‘Who/what + p?’ Consists of a noun, a non-finite
clause, a subordinate clause, or a pronoun (and their modifiers/determiminers if any).
Also known as the logical subject. Found in an impersonal construction
where it is the “actual” subject. Its original place has been taken by a
formal/ preparatory subject.
Also known as the introductory subject. Takes the original place of the
extraposed subject in impersonal constructions and introduces it. In the
sentence ‘It surprised us that they came’, ‘It’ is the preparatory subject
whereas ‘that they came’ is the extraposed subject. Ask the question
‘What + p?’ and you will find that there are two answers to it. → ‘What
surprised us?’ Answer (a): It. Answer (b): That they came. Don’t get
confused and think that one of them is an object, because it’s not!
In some languages, this is referred to as the accusative object. This also
used to be the term used in Sweden. The Od answers the question
‘Who/What + p + s?’
In some languages, this is referred to as the dative object. This also used
to be the term used in Sweden. The Oi answers the question ‘Who/What
+ p + s + Od?’
(Sometimes these are seen as Oi.) If the answer to one of the questions
for Od or Oi begins with a preposition, they are very likely an Oprep.
E.g., in ‘The teacher wrote handouts for his students’, the italicised bit is
an Oprep.
The adverbial answers the questions Where? How? When?, etc. Note:
there are several subcategories of adverbials. Adverbials modify
adjectives, verbs, other adverbs, and sometimes an entire clause.
When?
43
Advl of place
Advl of manner
Advl of degree
Modal adverbial
Advl of reason
Modifier
(mod)
Adjectival modifier
(mod.adj)
Genitive modifier
(mod.gen)
Rumsadverbial
Sättsadverbial
Gradadverbial
Satsadverbial
(Attitydadvl)
Orsaksadverbial
Attribut
Adjektivattribut
Genitivattribut
Prepositional
modifier
(mod.prep)
Modifying clause
(mod.clause)
Adjectival
complement
(adj.compl)
Predicative
(pr)
Prepositionsattribut
Subject predicative
(pr/s)
Subjektspredikativ
Object predicative
(pr/o)
Objektspredikativ
Agent (ag)
Agent
Satsattribut
Adjektivkomplement
Predikativ
Where?
How?
How much?
Modifies the whole clause. E.g. ‘He will probably arrive tomorrow.’
‘He is not here.’
Why?
Modifies heads of noun phrases. Pre-modifiers precede the head. Postmodifiers come after the head.
Modifier consisting of an adjective, a participle, or a numeral. It is
normally a pre-modifier. E.g. ‘red book’.
A pre-modifier consisting of a genitive or a possessive pronoun. E.g.
‘my book’. But note: these are often analysed as determiners, as they
limit the reference of the head, rather than describe the head. See e.g.
MEV ch3.
A post-modifer introduced by a preposition. E.g. ‘book of fairy tales’.
A post-modifier consisting of a clause – either finite or non-finite. E.g.
‘the book that I bought’.
An adjectival complement determines/describes the head in an adjective
phrase – i.e., it describes an adjective. Eg. ‘white as a sheet’. It comes
after the adjective.
(Previously predikatsfyllnad.) Predicatives are used after linking verbs
(be, become, sound, feel, look, smell, taste, seem, etc.). Do not get these
confused with objects! Whereas an object introduces something new, a
predicative merely provides more information about the subject or
object of the clause. There are two types of predicative, see below.
Compare: ‘She was an astronaut’ (pr/s) with ‘She saw an astronaut’
(Od). The direct object introduces something new, whereas the subject
predicative merely gives us more information about the subject. We
normally have a subject predicative when we can replace the verb with
an equal sign and still retain the same basic meaning. E.g. ‘She was an
astronaut’ she=astronaut.
The object predicative provides more information about the direct
object. We normally have an object predicative when we can insert an
equal sign between the object and what comes next. E.g. ‘She
considered the doctor an expert’ doctor=expert.
The agent is the person or thing that is carrying out the action in a
passive clause. In ‘He was abandoned by his girlfriend, ‘his girlfriend’
is the agent – that is, the one who acts. Do not confuse this with the Od!
44
LECTURE NOTES
DETERMINERS
The definite / indef. article:
Pronouns:
a house
an eye
the car
these people
some news
all hope
***********
ADJECTIVAL MODIFIERS – MORE THAN JUST ADJECTIVES!
Participles:
Numerals:
An exasperated sigh
An exasperating experience
five hours
the fifth time
***********
COUNTABLE VS. UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
§ 4.3: “uncountable nouns with a generic meaning” do not take an article:
Specific reference
Generic reference
Countable nouns in the singular the
the
Countable nouns in the plural
the
—
Uncountable nouns
the
—
45
THE DEFINITE ARTICLE
Rule:
Uncountable nouns do not take the definite
article in the generic sense (‘allmän betydelse)
§ 4.6.3.1
Proper nouns in the singular do
not take the definite article
§ 4.6.3.2
Society
England
Premodifiers (‘förbestämningar’) do not normally make nouns specific.
Modern society (§ 4.6.3.1)
Beautiful England
Postmodifiers (‘efterbestämningar’) normally make nouns specific.
Cf:
Generic sense
youth (‘ungdomen’)
life (‘livet’)
hope (‘hoppet’)
society (‘samhället’)
Specific sense
the youth of today
the life that awaits you
the hope to win
the society that suits me
Type of postmodifier
of-phrase
that-clause
infinitive clause
that-clause
(restrictive relative clause)
Proper nouns
Scotland
John
Specific sense
Type of postmodifier
the Scotland of my youth of-phrase
the John that married Liz that- clause
(restrictive relative clause)
NOTE:
Non-restrictive relative clause:
Violence, which we hear about
in the news every day, is a
threat to modern society
Scotland, which I have visited
many times, is a place that I love.
***********
46
THE SIMPLE FORM
The simple form consists of the main verb (in any tense) without the auxiliary BE:
The past perfect
I had smiled
You had smiled
She had smiled
The present perfect
I have smiled
You have smiled
She has smiled
The past
I smiled
You smiled
She smiled
The present
I smile
You smile
She smiles
The future
I will smile
You will smile
She will smile
The simple form is used in the following cases:
1. Single events of short duration
-The phone rang.
-Some weirdo suddenly came up to me.
2. General truths, permanent conditions and character traits
-I live in Bannockburn.
-Water boils at 100°C.
-You’re just stupid.
3. Repeated, habitual action
-I (usually/never) get up before 5 am.
-My sister goes to salsa class every other Wednesday.
THE PROGRESSIVE FORM
The progressive form consists of the ing-form of the main verb with the auxiliary BE:
The past perfect
I had been smiling
You had been smiling
She had been smiling
The present perfect
The past
I have been smiling
I was smiling
You have been smiling You were smiling
She has been smiling
She was smiling
The present
I am smiling
You are smiling
She is smiling
The future
I will be smiling
You will be smiling
She will be smiling
The progressive form is used in the following cases:
1. Incomplete, on-going action
-I’m having my dinner, so can I call you back?
-She’s studying at the moment.
2. Temporary conditions
-I’m living with my aunt (but I hope…)
-It’s raining, so you’d better take your umbrella.
3. Irritation, dislike, subjectivity on the part of the speaker
-He’s always making these weird noises when I want to study.
-I hate this car! It’s always breaking down.
4. Conscious behaviour (not a permanent character trait)
-You’re just being stupid. (doing it on purpose, right now)
Cf. –You’re just stupid. (simple form: always true, character trait)
Note – It is not possible to say: *You’re being very young/old (not possible to control)
47
5. Uncertainty, doubt
-We’re planning to go there next week.
Cf. – We plan to go there next week. (the simple form: more certain)
6. Politeness
-I was wondering if you could help me.
Cf. – I wonder if you could help me. (the simple form: less polite because more certain)
7. Emphasis, intensifier
-I was loving every moment of it.
-I’m loving it. (McDonald’s)
Cf. – I love it. (the simple form: less emphatic)
8. Future action
-He’s coming next week.
This form for expressing future action is usually used together with an adverbial of time: a
phrase which indicates the future.
9. Something that is going on when something else suddenly happens (the progressive +
simple)
-I was taking a shower when the phone rang.
-When we got there, they were leaving. (They were still there; they were in the process of
leaving!)
Cf. – When we got there, they had already left. (First they left, and then we got there.)
THE ING-FORM
The ing-form should not be confused with the progressive form! The progressive consists of BE + a main
verb in the ing-form, but this is only one of the uses of the ing-form. The ing-form of the verb is used in
the following cases:
1. After a preposition
-Before leaving, please turn off the light.
-We are used to studying hard.
Cf. – We used to study hard. (NB – “to” is not a preposition here. It’s the infinitive marker!!)
2. After certain verbs (See list, MEV 5.7.3)
-Do you mind waiting?
-I avoided mentioning it.
3. After the adjectives “busy” and “worth”
-They were busy cooking dinner.
-If it’s worth doing at all, it’s worth doing well.
48
4. In reduced clauses
-The man waiting for you said his name was Rajneesh.
(in place of a relative clause: The man who is waiting…)
-Opening the door, she saw that the room was empty.
(in place of a temporal clause: When he opened…)
-The Highway department closed U.S. 79, forcing all motorists to make a long detour.
(in place of a coordinated clause: …and forced…)
-Being tired I went to bed.
(in place of an adverbial of reason: As I was tired…)
5. As the subject of the clause (the equivalent to the Swedish att+inf.)
-Reading is my hobby.
s
p
6. As the progressive form
-I am talking.
-I’m staying at the Sheraton this week.
-You’re always interrupting me!
-You’re being an idiot.
-I was wondering if you could help me.
-I was loving every moment of it.
-I’m hoping to go there next year.
-Susan’s going there the day after tomorrow.
-Emma was writing a letter to Mr Knightley
when Miss Bates dropped by.
(ongoing, unfinished action)
(temporary conditions)
(irritation, subjectivity)
(conscious behaviour)
(politeness)
(emphasis, intensifier)
(uncertainty, doubt)
(future action, with an advl of time)
(sth that is going on when sth else
suddenly happens)
NOTE I – The ing-form after prepositions:
‘Preposition + att är som hund och katt’
‘Preposition + -ing är två goda ting’
MEV § 10.4.4
Ex 1. Han gick utan att säga någonting. He left without saying anything.
Ex 2. De klarade sig utan att vi hjälpte dem. They managed without our/us helping them.
NOTE II – The ing-form after certain verbs:
remember + V-ing
forget + V-ing
regret + V-ing
remember + infinitive
forget + infinitive
regret + infinitive
can’t help + V-ing
go on + V-ing
stop + V-ing
(can’t help sb + infinitive)
go on + infinitive
stop + infinitive
MEV §5.7.4
MEV §5.7.4
NB! After certain verbs, there is a clear difference in meaning – you need to learn these!
49
NOTE III – The ing-form as the subject of the clause:
The ing-form
- sth that is true in general: it is true now,
it was true before now, and it will be true later
- sth that has already begun
- sth that is going on for a certain
period of time
The infinitive
- sth that refers to the future
(from the perspective of the present)
- sth that has not yet begun
- sth that happens with certain regularity
Ex 1. Going to university is not just about getting a degree. (always true)
Ex 2. ‘To go back to Anfield would of course be a big thing for me,’ he says. (future event)
***********
THE CONDITIONAL
The Conditional is a construction consisting of a conditional clause (the condition for sth else),
and a main clause (what would happen if the condition was met). There are three conditional
constructions:
•The Conditional Type I = a neutral conditional construction
If
If
it
X
stops raining,
(the present),
(then)
(then)
we
Y
will play.
(the future)
•The Conditional Type II = a hypothetical conditional construction
If
If
it
X
stopped raining,
(the past),
(then)
(then)
we
Y
would
would
play.
+ (the infinitive)
•The Conditional Type III = an unreal conditional construction
If
If
it
X
had stopped raining,
(the past perfect),
(then)
(then)
we
Y
would have
played.
would have + (the past participle)
Note I: If can be a conditional conjunction or an interrogative conjunction.
•In a conditional construction, the position of the if clause relative to the main clause varies:
If you asked him, (then) he would go.
-He would go if you asked him.
•In an interrogative construction, the if clause is always placed after the main clause:
-He didn’t know if he would live or die.
*If he would live or die, he didn’t know.
50
Note II: In Swedish, it is possible to leave out skulle in the main clause, but it is not possible to
leave out will or would in the main clause in English conditional constructions:
-Jag hade aldrig sagt något om hon inte hade frågat.
-I would never have said anything if she hadn’t asked.
Note III: In Swedish, it is possible to leave out ha, but it is not possible to leave out have in
English:
-Jag skulle aldrig /ha/ sagt något om hon inte /hade/ frågat.
-I would never have said anything if she hadn’t asked.
Note IV: In conditional constructions, would is normally only used in the main clause. If used in
the conditional clause, it means ville rather than skulle:
-I would go if it would only stop raining. (=…om det bara ville sluta regna)
******
TENSE DIFFERENCES
English:
Swedish:
The present
It is a pity that you must leave.
The past_____________________________________
Det var synd att du...
The present
I forget his name.
I see you have a new car.
The present perfect______________________________
Jag har glömt.... (men jag har det på tungan)
Jag har sett att du ....
The past
I was born in Leeds.
The book was written by...
It is (high) time we did that.
The present____________________________________
Jag är född i Leeds.
Boken är skriven av ...
Det är på tiden att vi gör det.
The past
Did you sleep well?
Where did you find that money?
The present perfect____________________________
Har du sovit gott?
Var har du hittat de där pengarna?
The future
When do you think you will arrive?
Jill will be 19 on Thursday.
The present____________________________________
När tror du att du kommer?
Jill fyller 19 på torsdag.
******
Cf:
-
It is (high) time we went (past tense!) → subjective statement/opinion
It is time to go (infinitive!) → objective statement of fact
******
51
THE FUTURE
SHALL is used:
1) In questions, 1st person sing + plur (I, we):
1. ‘Shall we get Emma on stage?’
2. And how shall I start out on my new life as a journalist?
3. Without war, what shall we do with our aggression?
4. Brian Epstein asked, ‘What shall I call my autobiography?’
2) (Sometimes) in statements, 1st person sing + plur (I, we):
5. ‘In that case I shall have to bring my plan forward.’
6. ‘I shall never forget that day,’ said Dagne yesterday.
7. We shall never know.
3) Sometimes with other persons (very formal, legal, and/or archaic language; often = must
or sth determined by someone else)
8. Montgomerie finally believes that the last shall be first.
9. Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour’s house.
10. The bottom edge of the horizontal crossbar shall be located 8'-0'' (2.43m) above the playing
field, with the sideframes positioned with a 24'-0'' (7.31m) distance between the side frames.
******
THE SUBJUNCTIVE
The subjunctive is used:
1. In fixed expressions:
Long live the Queen!
Be that as it may!
As it were = så att säga
2. In hypothetical clauses:
If I were you and you were me (NB: there is some variation here; was is also used)
If I were a rich man...
3. In that-clauses when the main clause expresses someone’s wish/will/desire
- after verbs:
I demand that he leave immediately. (Alt: modal auxiliary /often should/ + main verb)
- after nouns:
The demand that he leave was expressed by all the members.
- after adjectives:
It is essential that he not find out.
Note: The do-construction is not used together with the subjunctive!
******
52
COMPLEX CLAUSES
SUBJECT:
Science is interesting.
s
p
pr/s
That some villagers might not want the soldiers to leave is incredible.
s
p
pr/s
It is incredible that some villagers might not want the soldiers to leave.
fs p
pr/s
es
/For them/ to do it is impossible.
s
p
pr/s
It is impossible /for them/ to do it.
fs p
pr/s
es
OBJECT:
I knew the answer.
s
p
Od
I knew that this was a lie.
s
p
Od
I wanted it.
s
p
Od
I wanted to leave.
s
p
Od
PREDICATIVE:
The idea is interesting.
s
p
pr/s
The idea is to try and help them.
s
p
pr/s
The idea is that we should co-operate.
s
p
pr/s
ADVERBIAL:
I need the book next month.
s
p
Od
advl/time
I need the book when you’re done with it.
s
p
Od
advl/time
53
MODIFIER IN A NP:
It was an interesting idea.
mod.adj
It was my other aunt’s idea.
mod.gen
It was an idea that worked brilliantly on the page.
mod.clause
Modifiers are used in noun phrases when the head word is a noun or a pronoun—in these cases,
the noun idea.
In adjective phrases, the head word is not a noun but an adjective. These heads do not take
modifiers but COMPLEMENTS. Adjectival complements can consist of many things – for
example clauses.
They were worried about the situation
adj.compl
They were worried that something had happened
adj.compl
They were ready for the test
adj.compl
They were ready to take the test
adj.compl
(Note: the prep. is left out before infinitives and that-clauses!!)
*****
54
PRONOUNS – ‘IT’ or ‘THERE’
1. Referential ‘IT’
2. Expressions for weather, distance, time, temperature: ‘IT’
3. Cleft sentences: ‘IT’
4. Preparatory subject/object: ‘IT’ (when the extraposed subject/object is a clause)
5. Preparatory subject: ‘THERE’ (when the extraposed subject is a noun phrase)
6. Re-phrasing the sentence completely
→ We’ve run out of bread.
-Det är slut på mjölken.
→ The doorbell rang just now.
-Det ringde på dörren nyss.
-Hur var det i Los Angeles?
→ How was Los Angeles?
-Vad står det?
→ What’s the score?
-Det skulle vara gott med en kopp te. → A cup of tea would be nice.
-Det är gott med jordgubbar.
→ I like strawberries.
(from Svartvik & Sager)
Translate the following sentences:
Det är svårt med engelsk stavning.
Det skulle vara gott med kaffe.
Det är varmt i vattnet.
Det har framkommit ett förslag.
Det är inte tillåtet att röka här.
55
Relative Pronouns
Interrogative Pronouns
who
whom
whose
who
whom
whose
which
which
what
Relative Pronouns: who/whom/that/—_______________________________________________
The person
who
antecedent
rel.prn
told me this....
The person whom I rang...
-”-”-”-
who I rang...
that I rang...
— I rang...
The person with whom I spoke...
-”-”-”-”-
whom I spoke with
who I spoke with
that I spoke with
— I spoke with
56
Defining/Restrictive (= nödvändig) relative clause:
- specifies which one/s – there are several!
- no comma!!
- these relative pronouns can be used:
•
•
•
•
which
that
who
whom
- stress/pause:
• no pause between the antecedent and the relative pronoun
Function: mod/clause (=satsattribut)
Non-Defining/Non-Restrictive relative clause:
- parenthetical information (information that can be left out: “by the way, ...”)
- commas can be used
- the relative pronoun that cannot be used
- stress/pause:
• there can be a short pause between the antecedent and the relative pronoun
Function: mod/clause (=satsattribut)
*****
57
Interrogative clauses
Direct question: Who did it?
Which of the boys did it?
Indirect question
Cf
Sw
Jag undrar vem som gjorde det.
En
I wonder who did it.
Jag undrar vilken idiot som
gjorde det.
I wonder what fool did it.
Jag undrar vad som hände.
I wonder what happened.
Jag undrar vilka platser som är lediga. I wonder which seats are free.
(See § 8.5.4)
What and Which – what’s the difference?
I wonder what colour she likes best.
I wonder which colour she likes best.
(See § 8.5.2)
Who and What – what’s the difference?
Who is that?
What is that?
Who are they?
What are those?
the singular
the plural
Exclamatory pronouns see §260 in handout from Svartvik/Sager
What a fool I am! (countable)
What awful traffic! (uncountable; NB – no article!)
(Cf: also such)
Cf
Direct exclamation
What a fool I had been!
Indirect exclamation
I discovered what a fool I had been
Direct question
What fool had told him
that?
Indirect question
I wondered what fool had told him
that.
Indirect exclamation
Sw
Han berättaded för mig vilken bra
film /som/ han hade sett.
En
He told me what a good film he
had seen.
58
Indefinite pronouns (övriga/indefinita/obestämda pron)
1) Some + any and their compounds
§ 8.8.1: basic meaning
some: limited reference
any: unlimited reference
Rules:
some/-one, -body etc/
any/-one, -thing etc/
1) affirmative clauses
I heard something
1) clauses with a negative meaning
I didn’t hear anything
Few people know anything about it (Not many people…)
2) polite questions
Would you like some..
2) /direct and indirect/ questions
Did you hear anything?
He asked if I had heard anything.
(= något, lite grann)
(= något överhuvudtaget)
Exceptions:
Any in affirmative clauses
Anyone can do this.
=
..... som helst
Some in negative clauses
=
en del, vissa
I didn’t talk to some of them.
Also note:
Countable: Have you got a pen?
Uncount: Is there any evidence?
Plural: Has he got any friends?
Ingen, inget, inga
nobody
no one/no-one
nothing
Dependent
no money
Independent, refers to sth that has been mentioned
none
none of....
neither
Note:
either = en av två
neither = ingen av två
none = ingen av tre eller flera, eller med syftn på uncount.
59
ADJECTIVES and ADVERBS
Adjectives
Adverbs
1. quick
desperate
1. -ly
quickly
desperately etc.
2. -ly
hourly
daily
nightly
weekly
monthly
yearly
early
timely
untimely
2. -ly
hourly
daily
nightly
weekly
monthly
yearly
early
timely
untimely
3. -ly (Sv. ‘-lig’)
lovely
silly
friendly
lively
masterly
motherly
fatherly
kingly etc.
3. - (in a .... way)
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
Comparison using
inflectional endings:
-er, -est
Comparison using
more, most
Adjectives
- Most monosyllabic adj:s
except right, wrong, real, like.
- Many disyllabic adj:s ending
in -y, -ow, -le, -er, -ure.
Ex: happy
- All polysyllabic adj:s.
- Most disyllabic adj:s
- The past ptc in adjectival
function.
Ex: worn, more worn, the most
worn
Adverbs
- Monosyllabic adv:s
- The adv early (& sometimes
often)
- In informal lg, the -er forms of
some adj:s can be used as adv:s.
Ex: It’s easier said than done.
- Polysyllabic adverbs
- Disyllabic adverbs except
early (& sometimes often)
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WORD ORDER
S-V word order (= rak ordföljd):
subject + predicate
John left.
s
p
After an hour John left.
------ advl ------
s
p
TYPES OF INVERSION:
•Full inversion: (= the entire predicate comes before the subject)
I. In some sentences with a clause-initial advl
and a subject that is longer than the
(intransitive!) predicate (§ 7.6.1)
There goes the bus!
advl
p
--- s ---
II. In reporting clauses (sägesatser) after direct speech. Compare the following sentences:
1) X replied: “.....” S-V word order
s
p
2a) “.....”, X replied
s
p
S-V word order
2b) “......”, replied X. INVERTED word order (=OMVÄND ordföljd)
p
s
When is it not possible to invert the word order in reporting clauses following direct speech?
(§ 12.1.2)
1. when the subject is a pronoun:
*...., said he (* = the example is incorrect)
2. when the predicate is a compound verb:
* ...., had John replied
3. when there is an object in the reporting clause: * ...., told John his wife
•Partial inversion: (= question structure; auxiliary verb + s + main verb)
I. Questions
Where do you live?
p
s
p
Have you done it yet?
p
s
p
II. Clauses with an initial adverbial (or object) which negates or restricts the entire clause
(§ 7.6.1.1) or clauses which begin with So + Adj/Adv.
61
Never have I seen so many people!
p
s p
Only then did I understand what was happening.
p s
p
So poor was Farah’s English that he was unable to read the markers.
p
---------- s ----------
Note – this is an emphatic construction! When such an adverbial is fronted for emphasis,
partial inversion must be used.
Cf: ‘I have never seen so many people.’ (normal S-V word order, negating adverb not placed
clause-initially. This sentence is neutral, non-emphatic)
NB: As in questions, the do-construction is used unless there is an auxiliary verb already!
*****
SHORT ADVERBIALS
Many short adverbials are normally placed in a medial position:
-before simple verbs:
John always works hard
p
-after the (first) auxiliary:
John has always worked hard
p
p
John will always be working hard
p
p
p
-after the finite form of BE: John is always late
p
These rules apply to both main and subordinate clauses in neutral, non-emphatic sentences.
Cf Swedish:
Main clause:
John arbetar alltid hårt.
Subordinate clause:
Jag vet, att John alltid arbetar hårt.
p
p
De kunde inte komma.
p
p
Han sa, att de inte kunde komma.
p
p
In emphatic sentences, the adverb can be placed before the verb (so-called pre-medial position).
(especially modal adverbials = satsadverbial, e.g. certainly, actually, surely, obviously)
Non-emphatic
It was really an amazing time.
Emphatic_______________________________
It really was an amazing time
62
PHRASAL VERBS and PREPOSITIONAL VERBS (SS §§389–390 on p.80 in the Comp)
Prepositional verbs:
Type I:
(intrans.)
Verb + prep + NP
look
for
a book
Type II:
(transit.)
Verb + NP + prep + NP
ask someone for help
(‘Post-particle position’ = ‘obruten ordföljd’)
- the verb is more heavily stressed than the preposition
Phrasal verbs:
Type I:
Verb + adverb
Sit
down
Type II:
Verb + adverb + NP
Take
off
your shoes
(‘Post-particle position’ = ‘obruten ordföljd’)
Verb + NP + adverb
Take your shoes off
(‘Mid-position’ = ‘bruten ordföljd’)
- the verb is less heavily stressed than the adverb
Exercise:
What do the following sentences mean when the underlined word is:
a) a preposition
b) a (verb) particle (= adverb)
I drove by the signs.
The guests were drinking in the open air.
This is the plane the pilot flew in.
The doctor looked over my shoulder.
63
PREPOSITIONS
I. What are prepositions?
Words denoting position/direction:
I went to London.
They stopped at the church.
Function words:
Graber is used to taking risks.
Spielberg is very good at making money.
Words with a metaphorical sense:
This report is based on interviews with...
They looked/inquired into the matter.
II. Talking about beginnings and ends
In the beginning, ...
In the end, ...
At the beginning /of the century/...
At the end of the day...
(By the end of March)
III. Basic meanings of prepositions
ON
BETWEEN
IN
BESIDE
NEAR
AT/BY
AMONG
64
ABOVE
OVER
ON TOP OF
AGAINST
UNDERNEATH/BENEATH
UNDER
BELOW
INSIDE
IN FRONT OF / before
EXCEPT / BUT / BESIDES
–
–
+
OUTSIDE
BEHIND / after
I invited everyone but Roger.
I invited everyone except Roger.
Who did you invite besides Roger?
65
in a field,
in the yard,
in the garden,
in the market-place,
in the picture
Note:
In the street vs. on the street
In the grass vs. on the grass
on the stairs/steps
on the coast,
(a house) on the sea,
Stratford-on-Avon,
London is on the Thames
Note:
We have a house on the coast.
We ran aground off the coast of Mexico.
on an island
in Ireland
at the station
Note:
We arrived in New York.
We arrived at Dunblane.
fly/go to Cape Town
sail/leave/depart/set out/be bound for Cape Town
66
at seven o’clock
ten to six
ten past six, half past six
Note, in some American regions:
ten of six & ten after six
Note, in informal British English:
half six (no prep!)
on Tuesday
on 3 March (the third of March)
on March 3 (March /the/ third
in the morning, afternoon, evening
at night
Note:
on the morning of 3 March,
on Sunday morning
at Easter
at Whitsun
at Passover
at Eid
at Thanksgiving
at Diwali
by Thursday
on Thursday at the latest
no later than Thursday
March 3
March 10
for a week
Note:
We have done business with them for years.
We haven’t seen them for/in years.
in /the year/ 2000
in the summer of ’69
X
X
two weeks ago
in two weeks
67
a conference
an article
a discussion
a lecture
negotiations
my opinion
on
a story
a discussion
an article
a show
a chat
about
good at
bad at
awful at
terrible at
brilliant at
important to me
useful to us
known to them
unknown to her
open to the public
closed to us
be angry with/at someone
be angry at something
be honest with someone
They did it out of love.
They did it out of pity.
They did it out of compassion.
They were trembling with anger.
They were shaking with fear.
They were blushing with shame.
They were shivering with cold.
They were stiff with terror.
68
throw sth at
shout at
aim at
shoot at
shout at
yell at
point at
spit at
throw sth to
shout sth to
listen to
point to
married to
engaged to
But:
married with three children
69
REVISION EXERCISES
I. Parse the sentence:
The
police
but
perhaps
everything
seemed
that
they
they
secretive
had
told
about
the
the
papers
tragic
death,
knew.
II. Explain why the ing-form is used in the underlined words in the sentences below:
1. It was a good bet that anyone coming back after midnight was more likely to be a doctor than a
visiting patient.
2. Why would there be problems when a house full of insecure drunks and drug addicts get
woken in the middle of the night be security officers and policemen tramping about the gravel
and shining torches through their windows?
3. A light began flashing on the board at her elbow.
4. ‘Frankly, sir,’ confided DC Haden, pushing his ample bottom into the sculptured recesses of
the leather sofa, ‘I’m inclined to go along with the junkie theory.’
5. We’d have more success looking for a needle in a haystack than scouring the countryside for
this man you’ve described.
6. They had all followed The Times’s lead by mentioning Landy’s death and quoting Frank’s own
refusal to specify whether a sledgehammer had been used.
7. Her father’s hand descended on her arm in an iron grip. ‘You’re being disloyal,’ he said
angrily.
8. ‘I keep seeing Aaron on his knees, begging,’ she said, ‘and last night I remembered going to
his flat and feeling terrible anger because Leo was there. I have nightmares about drowning and
being buried alive, and I wake up because I can’t breathe.’