Download 1 - Webs

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1. Nominative, Vocative, and Accusative
a. Nominative Case
i. Subject Nominative (p. 11)
1. the subject is the topic of the sentence
2. a subject noun can be constructed in various ways using the nominative case:
a. with a noun
i. ex. oi` a;ggeloi dihko,noun auvtw|/ = the angels were
ministering to him
b. with an adjective (with or w/out an article)
i. ex. tuqloi. anablepousin = blind people receive their sight
c. with a participle (usually w/the article)
i. ex. o` tisteu,wn eijv to,n ui`oj e;kei zwh.n
aivwnion = the one believing in the Son has eternal life
d. with an article and de,
i. ex. oi` de. ei=pan = and they said
e. with an article and prepositional phrase
i. ex. oi` en th|/ vIoudai,a| feuge,twsan eivj ta.
o'rh = let the ones in Judea flee to the mountains
f. with a relative clause
i. ex. o]j ouv lamba,nei to.n staur.on auvtou/ kai.
avkolouqei/ ovpi,sw mou( ouvk e;stin mou a;xioj =
The one who does not take his cross and follow after me is not worthy of
me
ii. Predicate Nominative (p. 11)
1. the predicate nominative with either identify (John is the president) or quality (John is a
president)
2. should be distinguished from a predicate adjective (the ball is red) which employs and
adjective instead of a noun
3. ex. o` qeo.j avga,ph evstin = God is love
a. this example has 2 nominatives: the subject nominative and predicate
nominative
iii. Nominative of Apposition (p. 12)
1. apposition occurs when one nominal is followed by another that explains or identifies
the first one by giving more specific information
2. ex. of a nominative of apposition: du.natai avfie,nai a`marti,aj eiv
mh. ei-j o` qeoj = who is able to forgive sins except one, namely, God?
a. ei-j is in the nominative case and is followed by o` qeo,j , a nominative
apposition
iv. Nominative of Address (p. 12)
1. the nominative functions like a vocative
a. ex. H~ pai/j( e;geire = Child, arise
2. it is usually preceded by an article (unlike the vocative)
v. Nominative of Appellation (p. 13)
1. when a proper name/title is mentioned, it is sometimes placed in the nominative case
instead of the case expected by the construction
2. usually occurs after verbs of naming/calling (le,gw and kale,w)
a. ex. evklh,qh to. o;vnoma auvtou/ vIhsou/j = His name was
called Jesus
vi. Nominative Absolute (p. 14)
1. nominative constructions that show no grammatical relationship to other elements in the
sentence (also called independent nominative)
a. Exclamations: call attention to something or to express one’s emotions
i. ex. ;Ide h` mh,thr mou kai, oi` avdelfoi, mou =
Behold! My mother and brothers (“mother” and “brothers” are not in the
accusative case, and therefore cannot be the objects of the command to
look)
b. Titles of books: designate titles of books
i. ex. `H Kainh. Diaqh,kh = The New Testement
c. Salutations of letters:
i. ex. Pau/loj avpostoloj Cristou/ vIhsou/)))ca,rij
u`mi/n kai. eivph,nh avpo qeou/ patro.j h`mw/n =
Paul an apostle of Christ Jesus…grace and peace to you from God our
Father
1. Pau/loj and Cristou are in the nom. Case w/out predicates
(to make this more readable in English, is plausible to insert
“from” before Paul’s name)
2. ca,rij kai. eivrh,nh part of an invocation/divine
blessing (considered subjects of an implicit verb)
d. Cleft construction: a focusing device that highlights information at the beginning
of a sentence that is repeated late in the same sentence (called hanging/pendent
nominative)
i. ex. (Rev 3:21) “The one who conquers, I will give him the right to sit
with me”
e. Proverbial saying: verbs are sometimes omitted in the proverbial expressions,
leaving an unattached nominative
i. ex. “An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth”
vii. Adverbial Nominative (p. 15)
1. occasionally a nominative noun functions adverbially
a. ex. (Mark 6:39) Jesus commands the people to sit down “in groups”
(sumpo,sia sumpo,sia)
2. not all believe this exists
b. Vocative Case (p. 15)
i. Syntactically, the function of the vocative is direct address
1. The noun in the vocative case names the person/thing being addressed (by personal
name, title, or descriptive phrase)
a. ex. qee, mou qee, mou( i`nati, me evgkate,lipej = My
God, my God, why have you forsaken me?
ii. Semantically, the vocative conveys various nuances
1. shows the speaker’s attitude toward the person(s) spoken to
a. ex. respect: “I am not mad, most excellent Festus”
b. ex. displeasure: “God said to him, ‘Fool!...”
c. ex. affection: “My little children, these things I write to you…”
2. highlights qualities of the person/group being addressed (transformed from the deep
structure clause into the vocative
a. ex. “O you of little faith” expresses the deep structure clause, “You have little
faith”
iii. Interjection w= occurs often with the vocative
1. may be regarded as classic formality
a. ex. (Acts 18:14) “O Theophilus”
2. more often conveys emphasis or emotion
a. ex. (Mark 9:19) “O faithless generation”
c. Accusative Case
i. Accusative of Direct Object (p.16)
1. a direct object is a noun denoting the person of thing that received the action of an
active transitive verb (a verb that takes an object), participle or infinitive
2. for most verbs, the direct object is in the accusative case (though some verbs will take a
direct object in other cases)
a. ex. h;geiren auvth,n = He raised her
ii. Double Accusative (p.16)
1. certain verbs can take 2 accusative objects to complete the thought of the verb
2. verbs that fall into this category include verbs of:
a. speaking (evrwtaw( aivte,w( avnamimnh|,skw)
b. dressing (evndu,w( periba,llw( evkdu,w)
c. naming (ovnoma,zw( kale,w( le,gw)
d. giving (poti,zw( forti,zw)
e. thinking (h`ge,omai)
f. sending and presenting (avposte,llw( pari,sthmi)
g. making and appointing (poie,w( kaqi,sthmi( ti,qhmi( e;cw)
3. these fall into 2 subcategories:
a. Personal and impersonal objects
i. “accusative of person” or “accusative of thing”
ii. ex. h;rxato dida,skein auvtou/j polla, = He began to
teach them many things (both auvtou/j and polla, are accusative
case direct objects)
b. Direct and predicative objects
i. Predicate accusative or object complement after an understood
copulative verb
ii. u`mei/j de. auvto.n evpoih,sate sph,laion
lh|stw/n = But you have made it [to be] a den of thieves
iii. Cognate Accusative (p.17)
1. an accusative noun that has the same stem as the verb
a. ex. “I have fought the good fight”
b. ex. Mh. qhsaupi,zete u`min qhsaurou.j evpi. th/j gh/j =
Do not treasure up for yourselves earthly treasures
2. can also be constructed with synonymous expressions rather than with identical stems
iv. Accusative of Oaths (p.18)
1. names the person or thing that guarantees an oath or vow
2. the verb will convey the idea of swearing or taking an oath
3. the word “by” is often inserted in the English translation
4. ex. o`rki,zw se to.n qeo,n = I adjure you by God
v. Accusative Subject of Infinitive (p.18)
1. an accusative noun/pronoun that functions semantically as the subject of an infinitive
(called so because grammatically it is not the subject)
a. ex. Meta. de. to. paradoqh/nai to/n vIwa,nnhn = After John
was arrested (accusative noun phrase to/n vIwa,nnhn is the subject of the
infinitive paradoqh/nai)
2. problems arise when the infinitive also takes an accusative object
3. however, when an it takes both an accusative subject and object, the subject normally
precedes the object
vi. Adverbial Accusatives (p.19)
1. Manner: an adverbial accusative of a manner modifies a verb by telling how something
is done (translated with an adverbial prepositional phrase or an adjective)
a. ex. evkaumati,sqhsan oi` a;nqrwpoi kau/ma me,ga = Men
were burned with a great fire
2. Reference: an adverbial accusative of reference limits a verb or adjective to a particular
frame or reference
a. ex. Christ was made like his brother that he might become a merciful and
faithful high priest in reference to the things which pertain to God (ta,
pro.j to.n qeo,n)
3. Space: an adverbial accusative of space indicates the special extensions of the verbal
action
a. ex. h=lqon h`me,raj o`do,n = They went a day’s journey [about 20-25
miles]
4. Time: an adverbial accusative of time usually indicates the duration of the verbal action
but may also express other temporal relations:
a. The duration of the verbal idea
i. ex. h=n evn evrh,mw| tessera,konta h`me,raj
peirazo,menoj = He was tempted in the desert for forty days
b. The point of time in which the action takes place
i. ex. vEcqe.j w[ran e`bdo,mhn = Yesterday, at the seventh hour
c. The time from which the action takes place
i. ex. Th.n avrch.n o[ ti kai. lalw/ u`mi/n = That which
I have been telling you from the beginning
d. The distribution of the actions over various segments of time
i. ex. =Hn de. ta.j h`me,raj evn tw|/ i`erw|/
dida,skwn( ta.j de. nu,ktaj evxerco,menoj
huvli,zeto to. o;roj = Every day he was teaching in the
temple, but every evening he would go out and lodge on the mountains
vii. Accusative Apposition (p.21)
1. like nominative of apposition
2. ex. para,klhton e;comen pro.j to.n pate,ra vIhsou/n Cristo.n
di,kaion = we have an advocate with the Father, Jesus Christ the righteous (“Jesus
Christ” is in apposition to “advocate”, and “righteous” is in apposition to “Jesus
Christ”)
viii. Accusative Absolutes (p.21)
1. the accusative noun/pronoun function semantically as the subject of an accusative
participle to form an adverbial clause
2. similar to genitive absolute
3. a rare and debated category
2. The Genitive
a. Genitives Functioning as Adjectival Phrases
i. Genitive of Description
1. this is a catch-all category
2. All adjectival genitives define, limit, identify, or specify in some way
ii. Attributive Genitive
1. modifies the head noun by naming one of its attributes
2. functions as a simple adjective and can be so translated
iii. Genitive of Possession
1. modifies the head noun by identifying the person who owns it
iv. Genitive of Relationship
1. names a person with whom another person is associated
2. types of relationship
a. kinship
b. social
v. Genitive of Content
1. modifies the head noun by denoting its contents
2. types of contents
a. spatial content – denotes that which is contained in some type of vessel
b. communicative content – denotes that which is contained in some type of
discourse
vi. Genitive of Material
1. modifies the head noun by identifying the material from which it is made
vii. Partitive Genitive
1. modifies the head noun by indicating the whole of which it is a part
2. types of parts
a. the part is a personal being
b. the part is a bodily member
c. the part is geographical
d. the part is a quantity
e. the part is a quality
b. Genitives Functioning in Deep Structure Event Clauses
i. If the noun to which the genitive is joined is a verbal noun, then the genitive functions as a deep
structure subject, object, or adverbial modifier
ii. If the genitive is a verbal noun, then it functions as the verb in the deep structure
iii. Types of Genitives in Deep Structure Event Clauses
1. Subjective Genitive
a. When the genitive noun is the deep structure subject, and the verbal noun is the
deep structure verb
2. Objective Genitive
a. When the genitive noun is the deep structure object, and the verbal noun is the
deep structure verb
3. Verbal Genitive
a. When the genitive is a verbal noun
i. The adjoining noun is then either the subject or object
4. Compound Verbal Genitive
a. When a genitive verbal noun is joined to another verbal noun – this represents
two kernel clauses at the deep structure level
i. In translation, they may be rendered as two finite verbs linked by “and”
or “because”
c. Genitives Functioning as Adverbial Phrases
i. Genitive of Time
1. A genitive noun or noun phrase that modifies a verbal expression by answering the
question “when?”
2. can convey the following different notions of time
a. time during which something happens
b. time at which something happens
c. distributive time
ii. Genitive of Space
1. modifies a verbal expression by answering the questions
a. “Where?”
b. “From where?”
c. “To where?”
i. this category includes two subtypes
1. genitive of separation
2. genitive of source
iii. Genitive of Disassociation
1. similar to the genitive of separation (which is a type of genitive of space – see above),
but there is no spatial dimension or movement involved
iv. Genitive of Manner
1. modifies a verb by answering the question, “how?”
v. Genitive of Comparison
1. names that with which something else is compared.
2. it will follow a verb of comparison or a comparative adjective
3. is translated with the word “than”
vi. Genitive of Price
1. specifies the value or price of what is being bought or sold, and in so doing modifies the
verb (or adjective) by answering the question, “how much?”
2. Used with verbs of buying, acquiring, or selling
3. the genitives are translated into English using the words “for” or “worth”
vii. Genitive of Reason
1. when a genitive expresses the unintentional cause or reason why something happened
viii. Genitive of Purpose
1. modifies a verb or the verbal idea in a noun of action by denoting the intent or goal of
the action
ix. Genitive of Means
1. when a genitive modifies the verbal idea in a noun of action by denoting the means
x. Genitive of Reference
1. when a genitive noun or noun phrase
d. Genitives Functioning as Noun Phrases
i. Genitive Subject
ii. Genitive of Apposition
iii. Genitive Direct Object
3. The Dative
a. Datives Functioning as Noun Phrases
i. Dative of Indirect Object
1. passive construction I.O. receives subject rather than D.O.
2. Experiencer – w/verbs of speaking/giving – when advantage or disadvantage not
prominent.
3. Benefaction –“dative of advantage” - expressed with “for”
4. Opposition – expressed with “against”
ii. Dative of Direct Object - certain verbs take dative as D.O.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
worship
service
thanksgiving
obedience/disobedience
belief/unbelief
6.
7.
8.
9.
rebuke
helping
pleasing
following or meeting
iii. Dative Subject: - coreferential with another dative in the sentence. (Prt change to verb w/dative
subject)
iv. Dative of Apposition: - one dative that further defines another dative.
b. Datives Functioning as Adverbial Phrases
i. Dative of Reference
1. catch all for Datives: expressed with “concerning”, “about” or “with reference to”
2. limiting a verb – Rom 6:2 limits the scope of death “died in reference to sin”
3. limiting an adjective –
4. Problem Datives should be taken as datives of reference
ii. Dative of Space
1. literal - physical location
2. metaphorical – sphere (better understood as Datives of reference)
iii. Dative of Time – can be
1.
2.
3.
4.
at the time
during the time
an expanse of time
distributive time
(happens daily)
iv. Dative of Means – often refers to an implement – to specify the means used to achieve an end.
v. Dative of Agency – shows who performs the action of the verb.
vi. Dative of Manner – how the verb is performed – expressed with “in” or “with” or as simple
adverb.
vii. Dative of Degree – indicating the degree of difference, “Dative of measure” – modifies the
comparative adjective rather than the verb.
viii. Dative of Association – denotes the person with whom something is done. Often with sun prefix
ix. Dative of Reason – the cause for… expressed with “reason” better than “cause”
c. Datives Functioning as Adjectival Phrases
i. Dative of Possession – indicating who owns it. (out of “their” excess)
ii. Dative of Relationship – specifies a related person. (you are “my” disciples)
iii. Dative of Identification – with onoma not considered possession (his name “is” John)
4. The Article
a. Functions of the Article
i. The Article Used to Make a Noun Definite
1. Distinguishing persons/things
2. “ “ classes –
3. Particularizing an abstract quality (love, peace, law, faith or grace)
ii. The Article Used to Refer to a Previous Reference – anaphoric (call’s attention to a previously
mentioned noun “transforms by faith” into “by that faith” – where that = the referent back)
iii. The Article Used as a Pronoun
1. possessive pronoun – “our house”
2. alternative pronoun – article preceeds both men and de = “one…another”
3. personal pronoun – article + de + finite verb = switch of subject or speaker.
4. demonstrative – can also be a switch reference device. (those, these…)
5. Relative pronoun – some argue not a category because examples can be treated as a
noun phrase in apposition.
iv. The Article Used to Construct a Noun Phrase
1. an article (before; adverbs, genitives, prepositional phrases, clauses, adjectives,
participles, and infinitives turns them into noun phrases)
v. The Article Used with Monadic Nouns and Proper Names – sometime used though not needed
(monadic = one of a kind)
vi. The Article with Nouns Connected with 
1. Grandville Sharp rule = (p.62) article controls both (see book for conditions and
3 disqualifications)
vii. Articles Used in Copulative Sentences –
1. Colwell rule “predicate nominative indicated by the absence of the article in connecting
sentence (one with eimi or ginomai ) 3 rules and many exceptions (p.64)
b. Reasons for Anarthrous Constructions
i. Abstract Nouns – not required - so accounting for its presence is more difficult than its absence
ii. Monadic and Proper Nouns – “ “
iii. Nouns in Genitive Construction – both noun and genitive will have or not have article. Young
says this hold true more than 80% of the time 2 modifiers middle of page 67 end of paragraph
explain.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
Objects of Preposition – can be definite w/o the article (usually geographic or temporal words)
Technical Expressions – stereotype or frequent expressions to abbrev lose the article.
To Make a Noun Non-differentiated
To Focus on the Quality of the Noun - important use!! See Hebrews 1:2 – “Son speech”
5. Pronouns and Adjectives
a. Pronouns
i. Intro:
1. words that take the place of nouns while pointing to a place in the test where the nouns
occurs
2. called “pro-forms”
ii. Personal Pronouns
1. evgw (I), h`mei,j (we), su, (you sng.), u`mei,j (you pl.), and auvtoi, (they)
2. Emphasis: used to emphasize or give prominence to the subject
a. subject is already indicated by the pronominal suffix, the nominative caser
personal pronoun is redundant and conveys emphasis)
3. Identical Adjective: when third person pronoun auvtoi, follows an article, it means
“the same”
4. Intensive pronoun: the nominative form of the third person pronoun auvtoj, can be
used as an intensive pronoun with nouns, verbs, or other pronouns to emphasize identity
a. Ex: “the president himself came to our house”
5. The epistolary plural: a debatable category (where “we” means “I”)
6. Inclusive and exclusive: most languages have 2 different forms of the 1st pers. Plural
pronouns (we, us)
a. to indicate inclusively (speaker includes himself with the people spoken to
b. or to indicate exclusivity (simply refers to himself and his associates)
c. Greek & English do not have these forms to distinguish, and this ambiguity must
be resolved before translation into some languages are possible, and is important
for the exegesis of some passages
7. Switch-reference device: third persn nominative auvto,j is often used to signify a change
in subject to someone/thing that had been mentioned previously
a. Ex. “and he asked them” notes change in speaker from the disciples to Jesus
8. Personal pronoun used for reflexive: when personal pronouns are used as reflexive
pronouns
iii. Relative Pronouns: a word that introduces a dependant clause and at the same time refers to an
antecedent
1. o[j (who, which), o[stij (who, which, whoever, whichever)
2. ex. “the ball which I hit went into the sand trap”
3. sometimes they function adverbially (see chap 15)
4. Lack of antecedent:
5. Attraction:
6. Confusion of relative and indefinite relative:
iv. Correlative Pronouns: a word that expresses mutual relations
1. primary are the quantitative o[soj (as much as, as great as, as many as), the qualitative
oi-oj (such as, of what kind), and the qualitative o`poi/oj (of what sort, such as)
v. Demonstrative Pronouns
1. o-utoj (this), evkei/noj (that), and o[de (this)
2. demonstrative used as a pronoun:
3. demonstrative used as an adjective:
vi. Possessive Pronouns
1. evmo,j (my), h`me,teroj (our), so,j (your sg.), u`me,teroj (your pl.)
2. most common way of expressing possession, however is genitive of personal possession
vii. Reflexive Pronouns
1. evmautou/ (of myself), seautou/ (of yourself), e`autou/ (of himself), and
e`autw/n (of themselves)
viii. Reciprocal Pronouns
1. avllh,lwn (of one another)
ix. Interrogative Pronouns
1. ti,j (who?), ti, (what? why?), the qualitative poi/oj (of what kind? Which?
What?), and the quantitative po,soj (how great? How much? How many?)
x. Indefinite Pronouns
1. tij (someone, anyone, something, anything) can function as an indefinite pronoun
b. Adjectives
i. Intro: used to modify a noun of other substantive
1. will agree in case, # and gender
ii. Adjectives Used Attributively
1. ascribes a quality/quantity to the noun with which is agrees
2. happens when:
a. the adjective is articular and the noun is anarthrous
b. both the adjective and the noun are articular
c. both adjective and noun are anarthrous
iii. Adjectives Used Predicatively
1. makes an assertion about a noun
2. happens when:
a. it is the predicate of a linking verb
b. it is the predicate of an elliptical verb
3. another type occurs in the accusative case
iv. Adjectives Used as Nouns
1. often function as nouns (“the rich”)
2. will usually have an article when functioning as a noun
v. Adjectives Used as Adverbs
1. some can be used adverbially to modify the verb
2. i;dion, loipo,n, mikro,n, ovligon, etc.
vi. Irregularities in Comparative Adjectives
1. 3 decrees of adjectives: positive, comparative, and superlative (see book)
6. Prepositional Phrases
a. Intro (p. 85-86):
i. A preposition is a word used before substantives to form phrases which modify verbs, nouns, or
adjectives
1. ex. evn avga,ph (in love) modifies verb peripatei/te (walk) in Ephesians
5:2
b. Grammatical Functions
i. Prepositional Phrases Used Adverbially (p. 87)
1. Function as adverbial phrase and modify verbs, participles, infinitives, or adjectives
2. ex. meta. e;th tri,a avnh/lqon eivj `Ieroso,luma = after three
years I went up to Jerusalem (tell where and when Paul went)
ii. Prepositional Phrases Used Adjectivally (p. 88)
1. Modify nouns and pronouns
2. “The people in the church were singing” (adjective) as opposed to “The people were
singing in the church” (adverb)
3. prepositional usually in the attributive position (i.e. preceded by an article)
4. ex. tw/n kata. fu,sin kla,dwn = the natural branches (lit. the according to
nature branches)
iii. Prepositional Phrases Used as Nouns (p. 88)
1. when an article precedes the prepositional phrase and there is no head noun to modify
2. ex. oi` evk no,mou = those who follow the law
3. kata with the accusative can function as a periphrasis for a genitive noun, but other
functions are possible
a. ex. avkou,saj th.n kaq v u`ma/j pi,stewj = those who believe,
“believers” (subjunctive genitive)
4. prepositional phrases with eivs can function as a predicate nominative
a. e;sontai oi` du,o eivj sa,rka mi,an = the two shall be one
flesh
iv. Prepositional Phrases Used with Indirect Objects (p. 89)
1. Indirect objects may be preceded by prepositions (have the same role as dative direct
objects)
a. ei=pen pro.j auvton = he spoke to him
v. Prepositional Phrases Used as Independent Adverbs (p. 89)
1. Rare!
2. the lone preposition serves as an adverb
a. u`pe.r evgw = I more
3. sometimes prepositions are combined with temporal or local adverbs
c. [did not have to read 90-104]
7. Verb Tenses
(This includes chapters 7 & 8, but for more details on chap 8, see below the chart)
Usage
Imperfective
Present
Imperfect
Descriptive
(continuous tense)
Iterative
(repetition of the same
action or suggests the state
of affairs took place at
intervals)
is
was
Always,
usually,
customarily,
normally
Tendential
(an action which was begun,
but not carried out
Historical
(interpreted rhetorically,
bring a past event before the
reader)
Gnomic
(actions that are
omnitemporal/concepts that
are timeless)
Futuristic
(future reference)
Durative
(action began in the past and
continues/continued)
Existing Results
(focuses on enduring
consequence of a past act)
Trying,
attempting
Kept on,
repeatedly,
used to,
were
accustomed
to
Trying,
attempting
Future
Perfective
Aorist
Stative
Perfect
x
x
Always,
ever, never
X
(“going to”)
Has been
x
Ever
x
x
Without
interval,
interval
x
Pluperfect
x
Performative
(verb accomplished
something by merely
uttering it)
Inceptive
(focuses on the beginning of
an action)
Voluntative
(expresses a continuing
desire that is not being
realized)
Predictive
(future is used to predict a
future event)
Progressive
(the expected event is
progressive)
Imperatival
(expresses a command)
Deliberative
(used in questions where
there is uncertainty as to
one’s direction)
Constative (historical)
(expresses action as a
complete whole without
regard to the length of time
it took to accomplish it)
Ingressive
(focus on the beginning of
an action/entrance into a
state)
Culminative
(focus on completion of an
action which then issues
into another action/state)
Epistolary
(refers to writer placing
himself in the time frame of
future readers)
Dramatic
(in reference to action that
just happened or describes a
past state of affairs)
Consummative
(suggests that the state of
affairs had continued for a
while but now had come to
an end)
Intensive
(depicts a prior act which
issued in a new state of
affairs or a state of affairs is
I pronounce
man and
wife
Began, was
beginning,
started
x
x
Will
continue
You will be,
you must
How shall
we
x
Began,
became
x
x
Just
x
x
x
x
x
finished and some event
separates it from the main
event line/time of speaker)
Present State
(conveys a present state of
affairs with no antecedent
action)
Past State
(past state with no
antecedent action)
x
x
8. Aorist, Perfect, Pluperfect
I. Aorist
A. Into:
a. the action of the verb is viewed as a whole (i.e. viewing the whole parade at once)
b. not necessarily referring to the past but can refer to past, present, future, or even something that is
beyond time, or to something that happens in a moment or over a period of time
c. form and context help determine usage
B. Constative/Historical Aorist
1.reflects root idea; action as complete whole without regard to time
2. Example: Mark 1:41(having stretched out his hand , he touched him)
C. Ingressive/Inceptive Aorist
1.the contextual focus is on the beginning of an action or entrance into state
2.can be expressed in English as “began” or “became”
3. Ex.: 2 Corinthians 8:9 (although he was rich, for you he became poor)
D. Culminative Aorist
1. focus is on the completion of an action, normally rendered in English with a perfect tense
2.Ex.: Philp. 4:11 (for I have learned to be content in whatever the circumstance)
E. Gnomic Aorist
1.idea can be omnitemporal (happens or exists al the time) or timeless (lies beyond time)
2.normally rendered into English by present tense
3.Ex.: Luke 7:35 (wisdom is proved right by all her children, i.e., by all those who practice it)
F. Epistolatory Aorist
1.refers to a writers placing him/herself in the time frame of future readers
2.normally rendered into English with present or future tense
3.Philemon 12 (“whom I am going to send to you
G. Futuristic Aorist
1.used in reference to a future event
2. often occurs in the apodosis of future conditional
3. Ex.: (the Lord is coming with myriads of his saints)
H. Dramatic Aorist
1.used in reference to something that just happened, rendered “just”
2. Ex: Mark 5:35 (Your daughter has just died)
II. Perfect
A.
1. expresses the verbal idea as a condition or state of affairs (parade manager considering all of the details
of the parade)
B. Consummative Perfect
1. state of affairs continued for awhile but has now come to an end
2. Ex: John 2:10, “You have kept the good wine until now.”
C. Iterative Perfect
1. context suggests state of affairs took place in intervals
2.Ex: 1 John 1:1, (that which was from the beginning, that which we have heard, that which we have seen
with our eyes)
D. Intensive Perfect
1. context depicts a prior act which is in a new state of affairs
2.Ex: John 16:28 “I have come into the world”
E. Dramatic Perfect
1. vividly describes a past state of affairs; rendered in English with a simple past
2.Ex: Matthew 13:46 (he sold everything)
F. Perfect of Present State
1.context, verbal idea, and perfect form convey a present state of affairs with no antecedent action;
common with “oida”
2. Ex: Matt. 24:25 (I am telling you beforehand)
G. Gnomic Perfect
1. omnitemporal action or timeless truth
2. Ex: Matt.4:4 (it has been written)
III. Pluperfect
A.
1. Described like perfect, but is placed antecedent to the temporal framework of the passage
2 The temporal notion often does not conform to the way it is used
3. Ex. Acts 1:10 (not “had stood” but “were standing”)
B. Consummative Pluperfect
1. context indicates that a state of affairs is finished and that some event separates it from the main event
line or from the time of the speaker
2. a past perfect translation is used
3. Ex: John 4:8 (the disciples had gone)
C. Intensive Pluperfect
1. concurrent with the time frame of the context
2.Ex: John 18:16 (Peter stood outside near the door)
D. Pluperfect of Past State
1. **Most pluperfects convey (along with verbal idea and context) a past state with no antecedent action
2. Ex: John 1:31 (and I did not know him)
E. Iterative Pluperfect
1. on rare occasions the context suggests an iterative force
2.Ex: Luke 8:29 (for the evil spirit seized him many times)
i.
9. Voice and Mood
a. Voice
i. Active Voice
ii. Middle Voice
iii. Passive Voice
b. Mood
i. Indicative
ii. Subjunctive
1. Subjunctive in dependant clauses
2. Deliberative subjunctive
3. Hortatory subjunctive
iii. Optative
iv. Imperative
10.Participles
a. Intro: (p. 147)
i. Classified as verbal adjectives (like verb, have aspect and voice; like the adjective have gender,
#, and case)
1. The verb of deep structure clauses (adverbial or adjectival clauses in English)
ii. Participles themselves are timeless
1. It is often said that the time of the participle is relative to the time of the main verb
2. But tense indicators merely indicate aspect (not time)
a. present: speaker perceives an action in progress
b. aorist: speaker perceives is as a whole
b. Participles Functioning in the Noun Phrases (p. 148)
1. Noun Phrase: a group of words that function as a noun
2. may include verb or participle
3. ex. “the man who came to our house is good”
a. 2 kernel clauses at the deep structure level: “The man is good” and “the man
came to our house”
b. Fuse the 2 together by transforming the 2nd into a relative clause
c. o` e;lqwn pro.j to.n oi=kon h`mw/n evsti.n avgaqoj
ii. Subject (p. 148)
1. ex. evxh/lqen o` spei,pwn spei/rai = the one who is sowing went out to
sow
2. Often an article and a participle can be transformed into a noun rather than into a
relative clause
a. ex. o` kleptwn = the thief
iii. Direct Objective(p. 149)
1. Regular direct object
a. ex. e;feron pro.j auvto.n…tou.j diamonizome,nouj = they
were bringing to him the ones possessed with demons
2. Indirect discourse
a. the noun phrase direct object that follows a verb of speaking (the report of what
someone said)
b. ex. “John said that he would be in class”
c. different from direct discourse (in which the actual words are quoted)
d. usually formed with o[ti but can also be formed with an infinitive or
participle
e. both the participle and its subject will be in the accusative case
3. Direct object after verbs of perception and cognition
a. Function in the same way as participles following verbs of speaking
b. Include: ble,pw( ginw,skw( ei=don( eu`ri,skw( oi=da(
o`ra,w
c.
d. Can also form noun phrase direct objects with an oblique case participle
i. Ex. ei=den scizome,nouj tou.j ouvranou,j = he saw that
the heavens were being divided
ii. in this case, the complementizer (that) is not included
4. Complement after other verbs
a. A word of group of words that completes the meaning and syntactical structure
of the predicate
b. Some verbs, like tele,w (I finish) or pau,omai (I cease), require a
participle or infinitive to complete the verbal idea
c. Ex. evpau,sato lalw/n = he ceased speaking
iv. Indirect Object(p. 150)
1. ex. i[na avpo,krisin dw/men toi/j pemyasin h`maj = that we might
give an answer to the ones who sent us
v. Object of Preposition (p. 150)
1. Substantival participles functioning as objects of prepositions
2. ex. proseu,cesqe u`per tw/n diwko,ntwn u`ma/j = pray for the ones
persecuting you
vi. Apposition (p. 150)
1. ex. vIhsou/j o` lego,menoj Cristo,j = Jesus, the one called Christ
vii. Predicate Nominative (p. 150)
1. ex. Ou-to,j evstin o` evlqw.n div u[datoj kai. ai[matoj = This
is the one coming through water and blood
c. Participles Functioning in Adjectival Phrases (p.150)
1. modify noun or pronoun
2. will agree in gender, number, and case with the word it modifies
ii. Restrictive Adjective Phrases (p. 151)
1. a phrase is essential for the proper identification of the head noun
2. limits the noun to a particular individual, thing, or group
3. most common type of adjectival participle
4. Three forms:
a. Article-participle-noun
i. ex. tw/n progegono,twn a`marthma,twn = the sins which
happened before
b. Article-noun-participle (most common)
i. ex. o` a;rtoj o` evk tou/ ouvranou/ katabai,nwn =
the bread which comes down from heaven
c. Noun-participle
i. ex. panti. avnqrw,pw| peri temnomen,nw| = to every man
who allows himself to be circumcised
iii. Descriptive Adjective Phrases (p. 151)
1. when a modifier does not occur, it simply gives additional description (non-restrictive
adjective phrase)
2. not essential to the meaning of the sentence
3. ex. tou/ qeou/ tou/ zw/ntoj = the living God
iv. Predicate Adjective (p. 151)
1. makes a descriptive affirmation about the subject
2. ex. kai. ivdou. zw/n eivmi = and behold I am the living one
d. Participles Functioning in Adverbial Phases (p. 152)
i. Time (p. 153)
1. conveys a temporal relation to the leading verb
2. insert “when”, “while”, or “after” (determined by context)
3. “when” or “at which time” (aorist), “while” or “during which time” (present)
4. ex. Eiv pneu/ma a[gion evlabete pisteu,santej = Did you receive the
Holy Spirit when you believed?
ii. Manner (p. 153)
1. conveys how something is done (modal)
2. ex. speu,saj kata,bhqi = come down quickly
3. sometimes w`j is used with the participle
a. ex. h=n ga.r dida,skwn auvtou.j w`j evxousi,an e;cwn =
for he was teaching them as having authority (in an authoritative manner, with
authority, or authoritatively)
iii. Means (p. 154)
1. conveys the means by which a person accomplishes something (instrumental)
2. insert the phrase “by means of”
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.
3. ex. ti,j evx u`mw/n merimnw/n du,natai prosqei/nai evpi.
th.n h`liki,an auvtou/ ph/cun e[na = which one of you by means of
worrying is able to add one cubit to his stature
Reason (p. 154)
1. conveys the unintentional/natural cause that brought about some circumstance (causal
principle)
2. insert “because” or “for”
3. ex. evca,rhsan ou=n oi` maqhtai. ivdo,ntej to.n ku,rion = the
disciples rejoiced because they saw the Lord
Grounds (p. 155)
1. conveys the grounds for a conclusion or exhortation
2. refers to the evidence or facts upon which a conclusion is based
3. insert “since” before participial clause (and “therefore in conclusion” before the main
clause)
4. ex. Dikaiwqe,ntej evk pi,stewj eivrh,nhn e;comen pro.j to.n
qeo,n = Since we have been justified by faith, we have peace with God
5. ex. “I have sinned since I have betrayed innocent blood” (the betrayal was the evidence
that led Judas to the conclusion that he sinned, not the cause of the sin)
Condition (p. 155)
1. states a condition that, when fulfilled, issues into a certain consequence indicated by the
main clause
2. participle functions as the verb of the protasis (“if” clause) of a conditional sentence
3. ex. kai. pa,nta o[sa a;n aivth,shte evn th/| proseuch/|
pisteu,ontej lh,myesqe = and whatever you ask in prayer, if you believe, you
will receive
Concession (p. 156)
1. states a circumstance in spite of which the action of state of the main verb is realized
(main clause is contrary to what one would expect)
2. insert “though” or “although”
3. ex. tuflo.j w;n a;rti ble,pw = although I was blind, now I see
Purpose (p. 156)
1. reveals the content behind the action of the leading verb (telic or final)
2. insert “to”, “in order to”, “for the purpose of”, or “so that”
3. it is equivalent to infinitives and I i[na clauses that express purpose
4. ex. poreu,omai eivj vIerousalh.m diakonw/n toi/j a`gi,oij =
I am going to Jerusalem to minister to the saints
Result (p. 157)
1. a debated category, several grammars do not list it (rare)
2. refers to consequence of an action
3. insert “so that” or “with the result that”
4. ex. ouvke,ti avfi,ete auvto.n ouvde.n poih/sai tw|/ patri.
h; th/| mhtai,( avkurou/ntej to.n lo,gon tou/ qeou/ = You no
longer permit him to do anything for his father or mother, with the result that you are
making void the word of God
Attendant Circumstance (p. 158)  use as a last resort
1. expresses an action or circumstance that accompanies the action of the leading verb
(circumstantial)
2. translate participle into a finite verb of the same mood and insert “and” between the 2
verbal expressions
3. participle is still subordinate to the leading verb
4. ex. avfe,ntej ta. di.katua hvkolou,qhsan auvtw/| = They left their
nets and followed him
5. when used with an infinitive, the participle is to be translated as a second infinitive (I
am not worthy to bend down and loose)
xi. Genitive Absolute (p. 159)
1. consists of a participle and a noun, both in the genitive case (occasionally the noun in
absent)
2. functions as a subordinate clause, modifying the leading verb with one of the above
adverbial uses
3. called “absolute” because the subject of the adverbial clause is not mentioned elsewhere
in the sentence (ex. “When John came home from the war, the family rejoiced”)
4. ex. vAnacwrhsa,ntwn de. auvtw/n ivdou. a'ggeloj kuri,ou
fai,netai= and when they departed an angel of the Lord appeared (genitive absolute
of time)
xii. Pleonastic Participles (p. 160)
1. 2 types of pleonastic (redundant) expressions:
a. Participle-verb
i. Often called empty formula
ii. Often translated with a single word (“replied” or “said”)
iii. Ex. avpokriqei.j ei=pen = having answered he said
b. Verb-participle: such as evla,lhsen le,gwn = he spoke saying
e. Participles Functioning as Verbs (p. 160)
i. Imperative Participles (p. 160)
1. debated
2. ex. gunai/kej u`potasso,menai toi/j ivdi,oij avndra,sin =
wives, be in submission to your husbands
ii. Indicative Participles (p. 160)
1. can function as indicative verbs
2. ex. avlla. kai. kaucw,menoi evn tw/| qew/| = But we also rejoice in
God
iii. Periphrastic Participles (p. 161)
1. refers to the use of several words where one would do
2. ex. eivmi. poiw/n says the same thing as poi/w
3. 6 types (p. 161-162):
a. Present periphrastic
i. Constructed with a present form of evimi, and present participle
ii. ex. o[ evstin Krani,ou To,pos lego,menoj = The Place
of a Skull
b. Imperfect periphrastic
i. Constructed with a imperfect form of evimi, and present participle
ii. ex. h=n ga.r dida,skwn auvtou,j = For he was teaching them
c. Future periphrastic
i. Constructed with a future form of evimi, and present participle
ii. ex. avpo tou/ nu/n avnqrw,pouj e;sh| zwgrw/n= from
now on you will be catching men
d. Perfect periphrastic
i. Constructed with a present form of evimi, and perfect participle
e. Pluperfect periphrastic
i. Constructed with an imperfect form of evimi, and perfect participle
f. Future perfect periphrastic
i. Constructed with a future form of evimi, and perfect participle
11. Infinitives
a. Infinitives Functioning in Adverbial Phrases
i. Time
ii. Reason
b.
c.
d.
e.


iii. Purpose
iv. Result
v. Means
vi. Manner
vii. Explaining an Adjective
Infinitives Functioning as Nouns
i. Subject
ii. Direct Object
iii. Apposition
Infinitives Functioning as Adjectives
Infinitives Functioning as Main Verbs
i. Imperatives
ii. Periphrasis for Future Verb
Infinitives Functioning as Interjections
12.Conjunctions – Bryan
Coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or) can connect any size unit: paratactic relation
Subordinating conjunctions (when, because, if) connect dependent clauses to independent (main) clauses:
hypotactic relation
a. Conjunctions and Relationships
 Although most sentences begin with a conjunction, some do not. The absence of a conjunction at
the beginning of a sentence is called asyndeton.
b. The Major Conjunctions
 Except the following ones, there are temporal conjunctions o[te and o[tan (when,
whenever), the local conjunction o[pou (where), and the disjunctive conjunction h; (or).
i. avlla,
o Contrast: “but” or “however”. It is a stronger adversative than de,..
o Emphasis: ex. “indeed”; when used with an imperative, it strengthens the command and
could be translated “now” or “then”
o Exclusion: “except”
o Transition: used to mark a transition to a new topic or thought rather than to convey a sharp
contrast with the preceeding.
ii. a;ra
o Conclusion: most commonly used as an inferential conjunction. “so,” “then,” “therefore,”
or “consequently”
o Emphasis: distinguish between a;ra and a=ra (interrogative). a=ra expects a
negative response or indicates anxiety or impatience. B
iii. ga,r
o Syntactically ga,r can function either as a coordinate conjunction to link independent
units or as a subordinate conjunction to introduce dependent clauses.
o When ga,r introduces an independently standing unit that gives the reason for another
semantic unit, it must be translated with the ambiguous “for,” left untranslated, or perhaps
with a phrase such as “the reason for this is that...”
o Reasons: express the unintentional cause that brought about a certain result.
o Grounds: the basis or supporting evidence for a conclusion, question, or exhortation.
Reason is part of a direct cause/effect relationship; ground is not.
o Explanation: used to introduce an explanatory statement. “for,” “for example,” “for
instance,” “that is,” or the like.
o Emphasis: “indeed,” “certainly,” “surely,” “actually,” or the like.
o Transition: can indicate the transition of a discourse into a new discussion. “now,” “and,”
or left untranslated.
iv. de,
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
o Contrast: “but,” “however,” or “yet.” It is said that de, is a weaker adversative than
avlla,, yet the contrast can still be rather pronounced. The contrast between elements is
more pronounced when it is used with me,n.
o Addition: as a copulative conjunction, de joins members in an additive relation and is
translated “and.”
o Transition: in narrative discourse de often introduces a shift or change in thought. Also it
shifts the reader off the main event line (for background information or parenthetical
material) and then back to it. In addition, it can indicate a movement from one episode to
another in historical narrative. “now,” “then,” or untranslated. When used with a
nominative case article (without a noun), it functions as a switch-reference device, showing
a shift in subject from the previous sentence. (chapter 4)
o Explanation: it is rare. This use could be considered as transition to indicate a shift to
parenthetical material.
o Emphasis
dio,
o primary function is to introduce a conclusion. It is a strong inferential conjunction, meaning
“therefore” or “wherefore”
eva,n
o Condition: normally used with the subjunctive (but sometimes with the indicative) in third
class conditional sentences.
o Time: can be used as a temporal conjunction to convey a future event that is
contemporaneous with another future event.
o Indefiniteness: often used as a modal particle after relatives to make them indefinite, with
the meaning “whoever,” “wherever,” or “whatever” This use is equivalent to a;n after
relatives.
o Exclusion: eva,n mh, serves as a negative condition or exception clause, meaning
“unless,” “if not,” or “except.”
Eiv
o Condition: introduces the premise (protasis) of a conditional sentence. It is found in first,
second, and fourth class conditions.
o Grounds: introduces the grounds for a conclusion or exhortation, with the meaning of
“since.” About one third of the sentences with the form of a first class condition
semantically convey a grounds-conclusion relation rather than a condition-consequence
relation.
o Concession: The construction ei vkai, introduces a concession clause, meaning
“although” Sometimes eiv alone can introduce a concession clause.
o Noun Clauses: functions as a complementizer to transform an embedded sentence into a
complement noun clause. This is common after verbs or emotion or wonder, but occurs
with other verbs as well.
o Questions: As an interrogative particle eiv introduces either direct or indirect questions.
Questions involving eiv will be yes/no questions, not content questions.
 When eiv introduces a direct question, it will not be translated.
 When eiv introduces an indirect question, it might be preferable to translate it as
“whether” rather than “if.”
o Emphasis: functions as an emphatic particle, meaning “indeed” or “surely.”
i[na
o Purpose: i[na with the subjunctive or future indicative often forms a purpose clause and is
translated “in order that,” “that,” or “so that”
o Noun Clauses: 4 types
 Complement clause: i[na with the subjunctive may serve as a complement noun
clause following verbs of speaking, wishing, asking or praying, exhorting.


ix.
x.
xi.
xii.
Subject clause: i[na with the subjunctive may serve as a subject noun clause.
Appositional clause: i[na with the subjunctive may serve as a noun clause in
apposition to another noun.
 John 2:25 (epexegetical) and 4:34 (predicate nominative)
o Result: not very common
o Imperative: it is debatable.
o Time
kai,
o Addition
1. Simple additive: join two elements without specifying any particular relationship or
focus. “and”
2. Combining additive: kai ... kai (both ... and)
3. Discourse additive: functions within a narrative episode to join elements that continue
the main line of the plot. de is more often used to represent a shift in thought
4. Focusing additive: used to add something to the discussion and, at the same time, to
highlight it.
a. Ascensive (“even”): further develops the previous thought
b. Adjunctive (“also”): introduces another thought
o Emphasis: has an emphatic force and could be rendered “indeed,” “certainly.”
o Reason
o Contrast: functions as an adversative conjunction and can be translated “but,” “however,”
“and yet,” or “nevertheless”
o Purpose
o Condition
o Consequence: can also function to introduce the apodosis of a conditional sentence.
o Concession
o Time
o Relative
o Concluseion
o Comparison
o[pwj
o Purpose: used with the subjunctive to denote purpose
o Noun Clauses: with subjunctive may be used after verbs of asking, exhorting, and praying
to form a complement noun clause.
o[ti
o Reason: unintentional clause
o Grounds: basis or evidence for supposing the first clause to be true (it did not cause it).
o Noun Clauses:
 Complement clause: functions as a complementizer after verbs of speaking,
perception, thinking, and emotion to form complement noun clauses. This is
commonly called indirect discourse.
 o[ti also introduces direct discourse, in which case it is not to be
translated. (o[ti recitativum)
 Subject clause
 Appositional clause: often introduces an appositional clause after a cataphoric
demonstrative pronoun. Sometimes what appears as apposition is the result of
raising the subject of the complement clause into the matrix (main) clause.
o Result: on rare occasions
ou=n
o Conclusion: The primary use is an inferential conjunction which signals that what follows
is the conclusion or inference from what precedes. “therefore,” “wherefore,” “then,”
“consequently,” or “accordingly.”
o Transition: In historical narrative, it is often used to resume the main event line after an
interruption, such as a parenthesis, quotation, or introduction of background material.
“now” or “then”.
o Response: function as a narrative link that introduces an action in response to a previous
action or utterance. “therefore” (but does not denote a logical inference) or “in reply”
o Emphasis: “certainly,” “indeed,” or “really”
o Contrast: used as an adversative conjunction, meaning “but” or “however”
xiii. w`j
o Comparison: can introduce a comparison between words, phrases, or clauses. (could be
classed adverbially as manner) It can also function as a preposition.
o Time: “When,” “while”
o Purpose: “In order that”
o Reason
o Noun Clauses: often used after verbs of knowing, speaking, or hearing to introduce a
complement noun clause. Equivalent to o[ti
o With numbers: “about”
xiv. w[ste
o Conclusion: when it is followed by the indicative, it usually introduces a conclusion or
inference from the preceding thought.
o Result: when it is followed by an infinitive, it usually introduces a result which is most
often unintentional. Sometimes it conveys intentional result.
o Purpose: On a few occasions, with a infinitive can express purpose.
13. Adverbs and Particles a. Adverbs
i. Adverbs of Time
ii. Adverbs of Place
iii. Adverbs of Manner
iv. Adverbs of Degree
b. Participles
i. Emphatic Participles
ii. Indefinite Participles
iii. Negative Participles
14. Sentence Structure (p. 205, 212-219)
Introduction
-
Complete thoughts are expressed by larger discourse units within situational contexts rather than complete
sentences.
-
Transformational Grammar consists of rules that can generate every possible sentence in a language from the
deep structure. The two kinds of rules are:
o Phase structure rules – used to analyze the structure of both deep and surface levels
o Transformational rules – used to analyze the changes that take place as the underlying kernel clauses are
encoded into the surface structure of a language
-
Although transformational grammar is useful, there is no single grammatical approach that is broad enough to
cover the entire communication act.
Basic Transformations
-
Focus rule – changes the deep structure word order for emphasis. This transformation is called focus or fronting.
-
Relative pronoun rule
o The sentence “The ball, which John hit, went over the fence,” contains the relative clause “which John hit”.
o The relative clause is an embedded sentence (e.g., John hit the ball).
o To transform a regular sentence into a relative clause, the object is moved to the beginning of the sentence and
replaced with a relative pronoun.
-
WH movement
o “Wh” refer to question words (who, what, when, where, why) that introduce content questions.
o The question words (e.g., tij) will be moved to the front of the sentence by a transformation rule to account
for the Greek surface structure.
o For example, an interrogative adverb will be moved from the regular placement for local adverbs (after the
verb) to the initial position (front of sentence).
-
The passive shift
o Agent – person who performs an action
o Experiencer – person or thing affected by the action
o On the deep level the agent is the subject and the experiencer is the object. For example, “John baptized
Jesus” – John is the agent, Jesus is the experiencer.
o Passive Shift – changing the deep structure object into the subject, inserting the preposition “by”, making the
deep structure subject its object, and changing the voice of the verb from active to passive.

-
For example, Jesus (deep structure object) was baptized (passive voice) by (preposition) John (deep
structure subject)
The participle rule – transforms a finite adverbial clause at the deep structure into a non-finite expression using a
participle.
o When John arrived, he ate dinner (finite adverbial clause)
o John, having arrived, ate dinner (non-finite expression using a participle)
o To transform it, you drop the relative designator (when) and change the verb into a participle with the same
case as its subject.
Word Order
-
There are recognizable patters in Greek word order.
-
Active sentences
o The basic sentence that does not have linking verbs is VSO (verb-subject-object)
o An expanded word order is:

Adverb (time, manner) -> Verb -> Subject -> Direct Object -> Indirect Object -> Prepositional Phrase > Adverb (place)
o Pronouns move forward - If the subject is a pronoun, its normal order will be in front of the verb
o Complex nominal forms move to the rear of the sentence

If the subject, direct object, or indirect object is within a clause (e.g., relative clause), then it usually
comes after the non-clausal elements.
o Negative Adverbs precede the verb

If the negative is immediately before the verb, then it signals the negation of the whole clause

If the negative is in front of a non-verbal element, then the element is negated (not the whole clause)

The only exception to this rule occurs in double negatives
o WH words are clause initial - Relative pronouns and interrogative words come first in their clause, regardless
of their grammatical function
o Modifiers follow the noun

Genitives, adjectives, and other modifiers normally follow the head noun they modify

The order of modifiers in noun phrases appears to be:

Head noun -> Demonstratives -> Indefinitives -> Numerals -> Descriptives -> Participles
o Subordinate clauses follow or precede the main clause

Subordinate clauses rarely break up the main clause. They will either follow or precede the main
clause depending on their semantic classification.

The following chart provides the normal order of subordinate clauses. (note: shift to the opposite
position signals prominence).
Condition
Main Clause
Purpose
Concession
Result
Temporal
Cause
Completion
Temporal
Local
Comparative
-
Non-active sentences
o In sentences with a linking verb (“to be”), the most common word order is:

Verb -> Subject -> Complement
o If the subject is a pronoun, its normal order will be before the verb
-
Reasons for variations in normal word order
o Contrast – When an element in one clause is contrasted with an element in another clause, both of the
contrasted elements are place before their respective verbs.
o Contraexpectation – A word which constitutes a contraexpectation is placed before its verb. For example,
“Although they to a restaurant, Mary did not eat.” In Greek, Mary would be before the verb.
o Comparison – Both parts of a comparison are placed before their verbs in their respective clauses.
o Topicalization – The topic is the subject being discussed. A new topic is often marked by fronting it before
the verb.
o Motif – A motif is an item other than the major theme that occurs throughout the discourse unit (e.g., a
character or an idea). Fronting is used to highlight the first mention of a motif in a particular segment of
discourse.
o Rhetorical emphasis – expresses the emotion or expectation of the speaker. The emphasized word will be
fronted before the verb.
o Focus – refers to narrowing the reader’s attention to specific, important information. A more general form of
motif and topicalization.
15. Special Sentences and Clauses
a. Rhetorical Questions
i. Emphatic Declaration
ii. Evaluation of the Situation
iii. Commands
iv. Discourse Functions
v. Other Rhetorical Questions
vi. Rhetorical Questions Using ouv and mh,
b. Conditional Sentences
i. Traditional Classification
ii. Semantic Analysis of Conditional Sentences
c. Relative Clauses
i. Condition
ii. Concession
iii. Purpose
iv. Reason
v. Grounds-Conclusion
16. Figurative Language
a. Simile
b. Metaphor
i. Topic and Image
ii. Image and Point of Similarity
iii. Only the Image
c. Metonymy
d. Synecdoche
e. Personification/Apostrophe
f. Anthropomorphism
g. Ellipsis/Aposiopesis
h. Euphemism
i. Litotes
j. Hyperbole
k. Meiosis
l. Irony
m. Hendiadys
n. Epizeuxis
o. Chiasmus
p. Anacoluthon
17. Discourse Analysis
18. Diagramming