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Octavian Returns to Rome
Octavian was now, in the year 31 BC, in a position that was utterly unprecedented. Civil
war had troubled Rome for nearly twenty years, during which time the machinery of
government was thrown into complete disarray. The constitution had been abrogated
and ignored so often that it could scarcely be said to exist. The Senate, too, had been
alternately ravaged and ignored, and its rights and powers now were largely
theoretical.
Against this Octavian had the wealth of Egypt, two hundred thousand soldiers, an
immense fleet, and complete authority. He was also immensely popular. He conducted
himself well, exhibited traditional Roman virtues and values, and was hailed from one
end of the Mediterranean to the other as the bringer of peace. After a generation of
bloodshed, the ancient equivalent of twenty years of world war, everyone was eager for
a peace-giver.
Imperator
The question on everyone's mind was: what next? What would Octavian do? He was still quite a young man,
with the world to command. Would he become a tyrant? A monarch?
Octavian was a conservative, traditional Roman. His desire was to preserve the Republic, and he had a
genuine respect for it. At the same time, he realized clearly, perhaps more clearly than had his adoptive
father, that the Republic was moribund (nearly dead). Something new was in order.
His goals were simple: first and foremost, there would be an end to civil war. Octavian from beginning to end
insisted on peace and insisted on public order. To affect this, he had to retain control of the military. The
Senate and the nobility in general had failed in their duty towards the State in this regard. Sulla had made a
mistake in retiring and relinquishing control of the army. Octavian would not make that mistake.
With control of the army came control of foreign policy and, by implication, control of state finances. For a
time, he simply continued by virtue of the powers he had won as a triumvir.
His official title was imperator, by which he had full consular power. As consul, he commanded the army. By
other titles he had control over all the provinces and the right to appoint officials at every level of government.
His personal wealth was so vast that he was able to pay the salaries of as much as a third of the government
out of his own pocket.
And so he began arranging the empire. He reduced the number of legions from sixty to twenty-nine,
mustering out over 100,000 soldiers and founding numerous colonies. He again packed the Senate, raising its
number to 800, nearly all his own creatures. This body proceeded to give the stamp of Republican law to his
every act.
It is worth noting here how makeshift this was. Octavian had no grand plan, no innovations. To outward
appearance, he worked entirely within the system, employing traditional titles and traditional powers; but, in
reality, he was inventing a new system. Even though he invented no new offices, never in Rome's history had
one man held so many public offices himself. The title imperator would stick, though and the Imperium
Romanum is traditionally dated from Actium.
Even so, it took a number of years before Octavian hit on the proper combination of titles, and the proper
balance between himself and the Senate.
Caesar Augustus
For the next few years, Octavian ran everything. The business of the city,
of the provinces, the army, finance, foreign affairs -- he tended to all of it,
or he delegated it to hand-picked men. It was a burden he could not carry
indefinitely, and in 27 he made a significant change.
In the year 27, Octavian sent notice to the Senate that he wished to speak
to that body on a matter of grave importance. Before the assembled
senators, he spoke of all he had done for Rome, detailing his
accomplishments. He spoke also of how hard was the work, and the toll it
was taking on him. Saying he was tired, and that he had already done far
more for Rome than any other individual citizen, he resigned all his offices.
The senators cried out in dismay. They pleaded with him to reconsider, for
the good of the state. A spokesman stepped forward to offer a
compromise: Octavian would remain consul, but a second consul would be
elected annually, as of old, so that he could share the burden. He would
remain proconsul over Italy, Spain, Gaul and Syria, but the Senate would
take up responsibility for the rest of the provinces.
Octavian accepted these terms. A grateful Senate designated him Augustus, by which name he is generally
known in the history books. Augustus means ‘Revered One’ or ‘ the One Worthy of Honor’. He is usually
called Octavian until the year 27, and Augustus after that.
The likelihood is rather low that Augustus truly walked into the Senate that day intending to retire from public
life like Sulla. He had too clear an understanding as to the true state of the Republic. But he really was tired
and he really was overworked, and he needed some strategy by which to share power. So he (likely) cooked
up this resignation scene, with his own men putting forward the compromise that he desired.
The effect of the arrangement of 27 was that the Senate now was able to run domestic affairs. Once again,
elections were held for aedile, praetor, quaestor and the other traditional offices of the Republic. The Senate
even got to manage some provinces. Augustus retained control over the military, though, and over finances,
and over foreign affairs.
The Reign of Augustus
An important example of Augustus' wisdom in ruling was his treatment of the Senate. He understood that the
Senate was, in many respects, the manifestation of the old Republic and that the Republic still exercised a
deep pull on the hearts of Romans.
Even though many were there by his own patronage, still he allowed them a measure of independence. He
would often submit questions to them, asking their advice. He kept them informed of his actions, rather than
behaving autocratically. He let them pass legislation and, if the point were minor, even yielded gracefully on
laws he did not like.
He treated the Senators with respect when speaking with them, and accorded them honors. He never
interfered with elections, though he did let his preferences be known in some cases.
And he gave the Senate real power: provinces to govern, and two consular armies. Much of the business of
running the city itself he likewise gave over to them.
By all these concessions he made his imperial rule easier to tolerate. It was possible at least to pretend that
the Republic had somehow returned. Everything had changed, of course, and all knew it. But the false front
was respectable enough and while there were some conspiracies hatched to restore the Republic, none got
very far. The benefits of life under Augustus were too great to throw away lightly, and besides, the memories
of the civil wars were still vivid.
The Foundations of Imperial Power
I have mentioned already, the proconsular power of the emperor.
Augustus took other concrete steps to concentrate the key threads of
power in his own hands.
First and foremost was imperial control of the military. The Senate had two
legions, but the emperor had two dozen. Every soldier in every legion
swore an oath of allegiance to the emperor personally, as well as to the
Republic. Disloyalty to the emperor was treason.
Secondly, Augustus had control of the treasury. With the entire nation of Egypt at his command, plus
provincial income, the emperor could do as he pleased without ever touching the state treasury.
Third, the emperor controlled foreign policy completely. He could declare war, make peace, conclude treaties,
all in his own name and binding on the state.
Fourth, the emperor controlled the bureaucracy, the civil service of Rome. This was a vast machine of
administrators, judges, governors, and tax collectors. Like the soldiers, they swore an oath of personal loyalty.
Indeed, Augustus was so rich that he paid the salaries of many of them.
With all these under his control, he could well afford to yield this or that office to the Roman nobility.
Reforms
Augustus also undertook a variety of reforms and acts that benefited the common people of Rome. Most
notably, he undertook a vast series of building projects that both gave employment and beautified the city. In
the Res Gestae, his own account of his career, he stated that he found Rome a city of wood and left it a city of
marble.
He ensured water supply to most Roman houses, building or completing aqueducts and a sewage system. He
built or renovated many temples. He created a fire department. He ensured at long last a steady supply of
wheat to the city and removed the constant fear of famine. And he gave magnificent games, many of which
were free to the poor.
These and similar acts endeared him to the common people, even as other acts won him the allegiance of the
upper classes.
Death of Augustus
Caesar Augustus died on the 14th of September in the year 14 AD. Three days later, he was declared divine,
and shrines for his worship were built. Indeed, such shrines had existed even before his death, but he would
not countenance them, so they remained private while he was alive. His elevation to divine status didn't mean
people thought the man himself was a god; rather, it was a sign of deep respect and signified that his spirit,
his soul, would be taken into the company of the gods.
He left some interesting instructions to Tiberius in his will. Three points are notable. First, he recommended
that Tiberius restrict the granting of citizenship and the freeing of slaves. Citizenship would be devalued if
extended too freely, and slaves were critical to the functioning of the economy (there was, in the early first
century, something of a fad of manumission).
Second, he said to rely only on men of tried ability. He was recommending against playing favorites, against
granting offices to friends and relatives unless they truly were worthy.
Finally, and above all, Augustus instructed Tiberius to keep the Empire within the bounds he had set for it.
Augustus had been badly shaken by the defeat of Varro at the Teutoburger Wald, and he was certain that
further disasters awaited if Rome should become over-extended.
It is worth noting that, over the course of the next two centuries, Roman emperors violated each of these
three recommendations.
The succession went smoothly. There were no revolts, no mass uprising to bring back the Republic. In the first
place, few wanted the Republic back. In the second place, Augustus had provided for everything in his will.
This system required that the emperor die in old age and with time for planning. That would not always prove
to be the case.
Read the article
the questions thoroughly.
and answer
1. What were Octavian’s goals when he returned to Rome?
2. How did he change Rome?
3. What did Octavian tell the Senate he wanted to do in 27 B.C.? What changes were made to
his role?
4. What does Augustus mean?
5. How did Augustus handle the Senate? Do you think he did a good job? Why or why not?
6. How was Augustus able to control the empire?
7. What were some reforms Augustus created?
8. What instructions did Augustus leave to Tiberius