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Learning motivation and Involvement
Motivation: Motivation is the activation of goal-oriented behavior. Motivation is said to be intrinsic or
extrinsic. The term is generally used for humans but, theoretically, it can also be used to describe the
causes for animal behavior as well. This article refers to human motivation. According to various
theories, motivation may be rooted in the basic need to minimize physical pain and maximize pleasure,
or it may include specific needs such as eating and resting, or a desired object, goal, state of being, ideal,
or it may be attributed to less-apparent reasons such as altruism, selfishness, morality, or avoiding
mortality. Conceptually, motivation should not be confused with either volition or optimism.[1]
Motivation is related to, but distinct from, emotion.
Cues: A sensory cue is a statistic or signal that can be extracted from the sensory input by a perceiver,
that indicates the state of some property of the world that the perceiver is interested in perceiving.
Sensory cues include visual cues, auditory cues, tactile cues, haptic cues, olfactory cues, and so on.
Sensory cues play an important role in theories of perception, especially theories of appearance (how
things look).
Response: : how the organism reacts to a stimulus and results in a change in behavior. It is a fancy
way of saying “effect”.
Example: Getting a drink when you are thirsty
Reinforcement: Reinforcement is a term in operant conditioning and behavior analysis for the
process of increasing the rate or probability of a behavior (e.g. pulling a lever more frequently)
by the delivery or emergence of a stimulus (e.g. a candy) immediately or shortly after the
behavior, called a response, is performed.
The response strength is assessed by measuring frequency, duration, latency, accuracy, and/or
persistence of the response after reinforcement stops. Experimental behavior analysts measured
the rate of responses as a primary demonstration of learning and performance in non-humans
(e.g. the number of times a pigeon pecks a key in a 10 minute session).
A reinforcer is the stimulus, event, or situation that is presented or otherwise emerges when the
response behaviour is performed.
Classical conditioning theory: Classical conditioning (also Pavlovian or respondent conditioning,
Pavlovian reinforcement) is a form of associative learning that was first demonstrated by Ivan
Pavlov (1927).[1] The typical procedure for inducing classical conditioning involves
presentations of a neutral stimulus along with a stimulus of some significance. The neutral
stimulus could be any event that does not result in an overt behavioral response from the
organism under investigation. Pavlov referred to this as a conditioned stimulus (CS). Conversely,
presentation of the significant stimulus necessarily evokes an innate, often reflexive, response.
Pavlov called these the unconditioned stimulus (US) and unconditioned response (UR),
respectively. If the CS and the US are repeatedly paired, eventually the two stimuli become
associated and the organism begins to produce a behavioral response to the CS. Pavlov called
this the conditioned response (CR).
Popular forms of classical conditioning that are used to study neural structures and functions that
underlie learning and memory include fear conditioning, eyeblink conditioning, and the foot
contraction conditioning of Hermissenda crassicornis.
The original and most famous example of classical conditioning involved the salivary
conditioning of Pavlov's dogs. During his research on the physiology of digestion in dogs,
Pavlov noticed that, rather than simply salivating in the presence of meat powder (an innate
response to food that he called the unconditioned response), the dogs began to salivate in the
presence of the lab technician who normally fed them. Pavlov called these psychic secretions.
From this observation he predicted that, if a particular stimulus in the dog's surroundings were
present when the dog was presented with meat powder, then this stimulus would become
associated with food and cause salivation on its own. In his initial experiment, Pavlov used a bell
to call the dogs to their food and, after a few repetitions, the dogs started to salivate in response
to the bell
Repetition: The spaced repetition system (SRS) is a advanced form of rote memorization that
uses electronic flash cards in an algorithmically determined sequence. With traditional flash
cards, you work through a deck, one card at a time, until you reach the end. More astute learners
will sort through the cards at the beginning of each session to eliminate the items they already
know well, so they can focus their studying on the material that needs it most. A spaced
repetition program automates this elimination process, but that’s only one advantage.
One of the most important findings in memory research is that forgetting happens exponentially,
following a predictable curve that varies from item to item. An item that you remember well has
a flatter forgetting curve than an item you remember tenuously.
Stimulus generalization: The inability to perceive differences between slightly dissimilar stimuli.
Generalization allows consumers to simplify the process of evaluation because they do not have
to make a separate judgement for each stimulus. Brand loyalty is a form of stimulus
generalization. The consumer assumes that positive past experiences with the brand will be
repeated. Therefore, a consumer does not need to make a separate judgement with each purchase.
It may include the following techniques
Product line Extension, product form extension, product category extension, family branding
Stimulus discrimination: Stimulus Generalization - a response to a specific stimulus becomes
associated to other stimuli (similar stimuli) and now occurs to those other similar stimuli. For
Example - a child who gets bitten by black lab, later becomes afraid of all dogs. The original fear
evoked by the Black Lab has now generalized to ALL dogs.
Another Example - little Albert (I am assuming you are familiar with Little Albert, so I will give
a very general example). John Watson conditioned a baby (Albert) to be afraid of a white rabbit
by showing Albert the rabbit and then slamming two metal pipes together behind Albert's head
(nice!). The pipes produced a very loud, sudden noise that frightened Albert and made him cry.
Watson did this several times (multiple trials) until Albert was afraid of the rabbit. Previously he
would pet the rabbit and play with it. After conditioning, the sight of the rabbit made Albert
scream -- then what Watson found was that Albert began to show similar terrified behaviors to
Watson's face (just looking at Watson's face made Albert cry. What a shock!). What Watson
realized was that Albert was responding to the white beard Watson had at the time. So, the fear
evoked by the white, furry, rabbit, had generalized to other white, furry things, like Watson's
beard.
Instrumental conditioning (operant conditioning): Operant conditioning is the use of a behavior's
antecedent and/or its consequence to influence the occurrence and form of behavior. Operant
conditioning is distinguished from classical conditioning (also called respondent conditioning) in
that operant conditioning deals with the modification of "voluntary behavior" or operant
behavior. Operant behavior "operates" on the environment and is maintained by its
consequences, while classical conditioning deals with the conditioning of reflexive (reflex)
behaviors which are elicited by antecedent conditions. Behaviors conditioned via a classical
conditioning procedure are not maintained by consequences.
Reinforcement: a type of advertising, targeted at consumers who have already tried and used the
product before, that reminds consumers of a product's continued existence and of its unique
benefits.
Reinforcement and punishment, the core tools of operant conditioning, are either positive
(delivered following a response), or negative (withdrawn following a response). This creates a
total of four basic consequences, with the addition of a fifth procedure known as extinction (i.e.
no change in consequences following a response).
It's important to note that actors are not spoken of as being reinforced, punished, or extinguished;
it is the actions that are reinforced, punished, or extinguished. Additionally, reinforcement,
punishment, and extinction are not terms whose use is restricted to the laboratory. Naturally
occurring consequences can also be said to reinforce, punish, or extinguish behavior and are not
always delivered by people.
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Reinforcement is a consequence that causes a behavior to occur with greater frequency.
Punishment is a consequence that causes a behavior to occur with less frequency.
Extinction is the lack of any consequence following a behavior. When a behavior is
inconsequential, producing neither favorable nor unfavorable consequences, it will occur
with less frequency. When a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced with
either positive or negative reinforcement, it leads to a decline in the respons
Cognitive learning theory: The phenomenon of cognitive learning is a more profound one than
that of conditional learning. For advertisers, it is a prolific means of communication with their
target audience. The impact resulting from the incorporation of the cognitive learning approach
goes a longer way in enabling the customers to develop an honest and comprehensive
understanding of the brand. Normally the objective of advertising is to draw customers towards
the brand and as a result increase the sales. But as far as cognitive learning is concerned, the
approach does not aim at the prospect of attracting customers. In fact it aims at consolidating the
relationship between the customers and the brand by informing them and apprising them about
the brand, enabling them to utilize the brand's benefits with convenience. This approach reflects
objectivity as well as thoughtfulness on behalf of the advertiser and builds trust and respect in the
hearts of the consumers.
Memory: According to memory systems theory, there are three types of memory: sensory, shortterm, and long-term. Sensory memory is the “instant” sensory information sent to our brain
regarding the environment, such as temperature, smell, touch, and visionary sensations, from
which we can make decisions on what to do after receiving such information. It is often
considered as “short term memory,” but it is actually much shorter than short term memory. It is
probably what Malcolm Gladwell, the author of Blink, would call as “blink” memory instead.
Short-term memory is the storage system of information in the brain that will be retained for a
short period of time and the capacity is limited. It is basically the working information of
whatever activity we are doing at the time being. It can be stored based on the sound or the
meaning.
Long-term memory is the storage system of information that usually means a lot of information
will be retained indefinitely. The capacity is also usually unlimited, so important information can
be stored permanently. Some people who are considered “smart” by novice standards, usually
have long-term memory that would allow them to retain permanently in a faster mode. People
with photographic memory are also often considered “genius.” In fact, they merely have more
efficient retainment and retrieval of long-term memory.
For marketers, short-term memory allows product information to be transmitted and be
acknowledged, also retained for a short time. Long-term memory would be useful in retaining
information that is already repeatedly transmitted, such as in jingles and visual ads.
A combination of both types of memory is the key to create associations with brands and
retention of promotional messages. This explains why advertisements usually include
mnemonics and subliminal messages that can be transformed into meaningful information, which
is hoped to be useful for the marketer at a later date.
In a nutshell, sensory information sparks sensory memory through getting a person’s attention.
The next step is transforming the attention into a short-term memory, which can later be retransformed into long-term memory through repetitions and awareness. During the first
transformation (from sensory memory to short-term memory), there is a 50-50 chance of being
re-transformed into long-term memory or not, which largely depends on importance,
significance, and impression received. With repetitions and developed awareness, the possibility
to be retained permanently would be increased. This explains why marketers focus on repeated
actions to increase brand awareness.
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Semantic memory refers to the memory of meanings, understandings, and other concept-based
knowledge unrelated to specific experiences. The conscious recollection of factual information
and general knowledge about the world[1] is generally thought to be independent of context and
personal relevance. Semantic and episodic memory together make up the category of declarative
memory, which is one of the two major divisions in memory. The counterpart to declarative, or
explicit memory, is procedural memory, or implicit memory.[2]
Semantic memory includes generalized knowledge that does not involve memory of a specific
event. For instance, you can answer a question like "Are wrenches pets or tools?" without
remembering any specific event in which you learned that wrenches are tools.
Consumer involvement Theory - CIT - is one way to understand the psychology and behavior of
your target audience. > There are others. But none quite so quick, simple and insightful.
Involvement refers to how much time, thought, energy and other resources people devote to the
purchase process.
The Emotional / Rational scale is a measure of reason vs. impulse, desire vs. logic, passion vs.
prudence. That sort of psycho stuff.
There are four general categories. And we have some examples plotted on a grid, courtesy of our
friend Brian.
> High involvement / emotional
> High involvement / rational
> Low involvement / emotional
> Low involvement / rational
> Look inside Brian's brain.
High
involvement
/
rational
In this category you find expensive business purchases: anything relating to the technological
infrastructure, the office location and lease, as well as the company health insurance plan.
On the consumer side, high involvement / rational purchases tend to be linked to high cost. This
category can include financial services and products, the purchase of a home or car, as well as
major appliances and electronics.
That said, high involvement consumer purchases can vary significantly on the rational /
emotional scale from individual to individual. For Ms. Smith, a car is strictly a way to get to
work, and her selection is based on fuel economy and reliability. For Mr. Wilson, a car is an
important expression of his status and ego.
Your task is to determine how the majority of your target market relates to the purchase of the
particular product or service.
For both B2C and BtoB markets, advertising for Hi/R purchases tend to be copy driven, with
clear explanations of features and benefits.
High
involvement
/
emotional
Business purchases that fall into this category might include such things as office design,
advertising, and perhaps the hiring of certain employees.
For individuals, high involvement / emotional purchases can include jewelry, weddings, and
holiday travel plans. In some societies the selection of a husband or wife will fall into group. As
can the purchase of a home or car. Again, depends on the culture, person, and how much
purchasing power she has.
Advertising in this category tends to focus on visual and emotional appeals. Give people visual
details, with music.
Low
involvement
/
rational
These are the things we buy out of habit, without much thought. This category includes most of
the things you put into your basket at the drug store or market. The places you eat lunch, say the
local McDonald's. And office supplies.
Here the typical role for advertising is to get people to sample or switch. To break the automatic
habit of spending their money with the competitor. So consider consider coupons and other
incentives. As well as ways to differentiate or re-position the product.
Over the counter medicines tend to fall into this category. But pain relievers, cough medicines
and the like, especially those for children, can be more emotionally driven. In that case, see the
LI/E below.
Low
involvement
/
emotional
The gratification we get from these products is emotional or sensual. But fleeting; it doesn't last a
long time. So we don't spend a lot of time thinking about the purchase. Movies, candy, an
entertaining magazine, or a birthday card. Perhaps selecting a restaurant for a special occasion.
The advertising challenge here tends to be the flash promise of pleasure, of gratification, the prA
model is proposed of the effect of advertising exposure and trial upon product evaluation from a
cognitive response perspective. LISREL VI was utilized to test the hypothetical model under
conditions that vary in terms of the degree of advertising content processing involvement.
The results reveal that across involvement conditions, different cognitions intervene between
disconfirmation and posttrial evaluation. That is, under higher involvement conditions,
counterargumentation shows a negative linkage to posttrial evaluation, whereas under relatively
lower involvement, support argumentation is directly linked to posttrial evaluation. Moreover, ad
exposure proved to be more influential in the formation of product evaluation in the higher
involvement condition
omise of a benefit. Strong positioning can help, especially in a crowded product category.
Brand loyalty: Brand loyalty, in marketing, consists of a consumer's commitment to repurchase
or otherwise continue using the brand and can be demonstrated by repeated buying of a product
or service or other positive behaviors such as word of mouth advocacy.[1]
Brand loyalty is more than simple repurchasing, however. Customers may repurchase a brand
due to situational constraints (such as vendor lock-in), a lack of viable alternatives, or out of
convenience.[2] Such loyalty is referred to as "spurious loyalty". True brand loyalty exists when
customers have a high relative attitude toward the brand which is then exhibited through
repurchase behavior.[1] This type of loyalty can be a great asset to the firm: customers are willing
to pay higher prices, they may cost less to serve, and can bring new customers to the firm.[3][4]
For example, if Joe has brand loyalty to Company A he will purchase Company A's products
even if Company B's are cheaper and/or of a higher quality.