Download HUBS1406 Summary Notes

HUBS1406 Summary Notes
Table of Contents
Abbreviations .................................................................................................................................................................. 6
Molecules of Life ............................................................................................................................................................. 7
Terminology ................................................................................................................................................................ 7
Atom Structure ........................................................................................................................................................... 7
Ionic & Covalent Bonds ............................................................................................................................................... 7
Ionic........................................................................................................................................................................ 7
Covalent ................................................................................................................................................................. 7
Molar Concentration .................................................................................................................................................. 8
Buffers ........................................................................................................................................................................ 8
Carbonic Acid-Bicarbonate Buffer System ............................................................................................................. 8
Organic Compounds ................................................................................................................................................... 8
Carbohydrates ........................................................................................................................................................ 8
Proteins .................................................................................................................................................................. 8
Lipids ...................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Nucleotides ............................................................................................................................................................ 9
Diffusion ..................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Osmosis....................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Cell Biology .................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Plasma Membrane.................................................................................................................................................... 10
Functioning Cell Parts ............................................................................................................................................... 10
Nucleus................................................................................................................................................................. 10
Mitochondria ....................................................................................................................................................... 10
Ribosomes ............................................................................................................................................................ 10
Endoplasmic Reticulum ........................................................................................................................................ 10
Golgi Apparatus.................................................................................................................................................... 10
Lysosomes ............................................................................................................................................................ 10
Cytoskeleton ........................................................................................................................................................ 10
Life Cycle of Cell ........................................................................................................................................................ 11
Mitosis ...................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Interphase ............................................................................................................................................................ 11
Prophase .............................................................................................................................................................. 11
Prometaphase ...................................................................................................................................................... 11
Metaphase ........................................................................................................................................................... 11
Anaphase.............................................................................................................................................................. 11
Telophase ............................................................................................................................................................. 12
Cytokinesis ........................................................................................................................................................... 12
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Molecules of Life
Terminology
Atomic number: number of protons in nucleus
Atomic weight: number of protons + neutrons in nucleus
Molecular weight: sum of the atomic weights of component atoms (NaCl: Na (23) + Cl (35) = 58)
Ion: atom that loses or gains an electron
Cation: loses an electron
Anion: gains an electron
Electrolyte: soluble inorganic molecules whose ions conduct an electrical current in solution
pH: expresses acidity/alkalinity of a solution
pH < 7 = acidic
pH > 7 = alkaline
pH = 7 = neutral
Atom Structure
Positively charged subatomic particle found in nucleus
Neutrally charged subatomic particle found in nucleus
Negatively charged subatomic particle found around atoms
Ionic & Covalent Bonds
Ionic
Exchange of electron/s
2Na(s) + Cl2(g)  2NaCl(s)
Covalent
Sharing of electron/s
2H2(g) + O2(g)  2H2O(l)
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Cell Biology
Plasma Membrane
-
Also known as cell membrane
Makes up simple cell along with cytoplasm + organelles
Like a mosaic
Phospholipid bilayer:
o Tail: hydrophobic
o Head: hydrophilic
- Membrane protein molecules give cells immunological identity
- Receptors for hormones and chemical messages
- Involved in transport across membrane
Functioning Cell Parts
Nucleus
-
Contains DNA which directs all metabolic activities of cell
o Organised into chromosomes (23 pairs: one/pair from mother, one from father)
o Pair 23 = sex chromosomes
- Genes = sections of DNA that code for one polypeptide/characteristic
Mitochondria
-
Powerhouse of cell where ATP is produced
Membranous structure
More work  more ATP production  more mitochondria
Ribosomes
-
Proteins factories which consist of RNA + proteins
Make all proteins needed by cell using instructions from RNA template from nucleus
Endoplasmic Reticulum
-
Interconnecting membranous tubes or channels
Rough: studded with ribosomes, produce protein for export
Smooth: synthesise lipids + steroid hormones, detoxify some drugs
Golgi Apparatus
-
Stack of flattened membranous sacs
Receive proteins
Synthesise proteins into secretory granules/packages
Stores packages until needed
Releases packages by exocytosis
Lysosomes
-
Packages created by Golgi apparatus
Contain enzymes to break down large organic molecules (bacteria)
Provide isolated environment for dangerous reactions
Cytoskeleton
-
Made of protein fibres
Microfilaments: small fibres for structural support
Microtubules: large fibres for movement of organelles, chromosomes, cell extensions
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Components of Blood
Blood
Characteristics
-
Sticky, opaque
Scarlet/dark red
pH: 7.35-7.45 (slightly alkaline)
38°C
Approximately 8% of body weight
Volume:
o Males: 5-6 L
o Women: 5-4 L
Functions
Transport
- Dissolved O2 and CO2
- Nutrients from GI tract to all cells
- Fat from stores in adipose tissue  cells
- Metabolic wastes for elimination (CO2 from lungs, urea from kidneys)
- Hormones + drugs from point of origin to site of action
Homeostasis
- Regulates body temperature by losing/gaining heat from environment + distributing heat around
the body
- Regulates pH by utilising buffers
- Regulates circulating blood volume due to osmotic pull of plasma proteins
Defence
- Fights infection due to containing WBCs, antibodies
- Contains clotting factors (proteins) + platelets to form clots + prevent excessive blood loss when
blood vessels burst
Plasma
-
55% of blood
92% H2O, 7% plasma proteins, 1-2% other solutes
Clotted plasma = serum
Plasma Proteins
-
Produced by liver
Remain in blood due to large size incapable to diffuse through capillary wall
H2O also trapped in blood vessels due to osmotic pressure
Albumin – 60%
- Maintain normal plasma osmotic pressure
- Carrier molecules for fatty acids, drugs + steroid hormones
Globulins – 35%
- Antibodies (immunoglobulins)
- Transport proteins (transferrin-iron)
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Healing
Connective Tissue Matrix
Connective Tissue
Loose
Microscopic Appearance
Matrix
Jelly-like with
collagen and elastic
fibres
Cells in Matrix
Fibroblasts
Cartilage
Collagen fibres and
some elastin
Chondrocytes
Tendon
Close-packed
collagen + small
amount elastin
Fibroblasts
Ligament
Close-packed
collagen + elastin
Fibroblasts
Bone
Collagen fibres with
Ca2+ deposits
Osteoblasts
Osteoclasts
Skin
-
Protection: physical barrier – epidermis + other layers made of epithelium + follicle
Sensation: temp control, vibration, pressure and
pain using sensory nerves in dermis
Absorption: partly – pores in epidermis, sweat
glands
Damage + Risks
-
Small wound
o Phagocytes ingest debris from wound
o Fibroblasts fill gap + heal
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Communication & Control Systems
Nervous System
-
Network of neurons
Made up of:
o CNS: central nervous system – brain + spinal cord
o PNS: peripheral nervous system – cranial + spinal nerves
- Specialised tissue to send electrical impulses
- Nerve cell = neuron
-
Neurons connect all organs + tissues
Signals are rapid – allow body to respond quickly
Somatic Nervous System
-
Things we consciously control using skeletal muscle
Functions are those voluntary actions such as:
o Walking, talking, breathing
Autonomic Nervous System
-
Things we unconsciously control using smooth muscle
Functions are those involuntary actions such as:
o Blood vessel dilation, bladder emptying
o Heart rate changes – but are controlled by cardiac muscle rather than smooth
Sympathetic Division
- Produces ‘fight or flight’ response
- Activated when under stress
Parasympathetic Division
- Produces ‘rest and restore’ response
- Functions when calm
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Communication & Control Systems II
Feedback Loops
Negative
-
Almost all homeostatic mechanisms are negative feedback loops
Change variable back to ideal value – output reduces effect
Stimulus
Effector
Sensor
Body temp exceeds
37°C
Blood vessels dilate
Control
Temp sensors in
skin detect change
Temp control
centre in brain
activated
Positive
-
Output enhances original stimulus
Childbirth, blood clotting
Birth of baby
Stimulus: head of baby
pushes against cervix
causing a stretch
Effector: oxytocin
stimulates uterine
contraction which pushes
baby toward cervix
Sensor: nerve impulses
from cervix sent to brain
Control: brain --> pituitary
gland --> oxytocin -->
uterus
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Reproduction
Meiosis
-
Cell division which results in 4 daughter cells (sex cells/gametes) with half the number of
chromosomes of the parent cell
During fertilisation, male gamete and female gamete bind to form zygote with 23 pairs of
chromosomes (½ of each pair from each parent)
Meiosis I
-
Primary cell (usually gamete) divides to form two cells
Each cell receives both copies of either maternal or paternal chromosomes  different to
mitosis where cell receives one maternal AND one paternal
Cells now haploid with 23 double chromosomes
Meiosis II
-
Secondary gametes divide against into spermatids or ootids and polar bodies (23 chromosomes)
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Cardiovascular System
-
Also known as circulatory system
Consists of:
o A series of vessels supplying all
structures + tissues of body
o A pump to keep the blood moving
through these vessels
The ‘Pump’ (Heart)
-
Keeps blood circulating through
97000km of vessels
- 4 chambers
o 2 on left
o 2 on right
o Allow heart to act as a double pump
- Between ribs 1-6
- In centre of chest but apex leans to left
7. Lungs
1. Superior vena cava
13. Aorta
6. Pulmonary artery
8. Pulmonary veins
2. Right atrium
9. Left atrium
10. Mitral valve
12. Aortic valve
3. Tricuspid valve
11. Left ventricle
1. Inferior vena cava
4. Right
ventricle
Right coronary artery,
left coronary artery +
anterior
interventricular artery
supply cardiac muscle
with nutrients + O2
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5. Pulmonary valve
Blood transports:
- CO2 from tissues  lungs
- O2 from lungs  tissues
- Nutrients from gut  tissues
3 layers:
- Endocardium
- Myocardium
- Pericardium
o Fluid for protection in
movement and
lubrication
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Respiration
Functions of Respiratory System
-
Supply O2 to blood
Remove CO2 from blood
Gas Exchange Membrane – Alveoli + Capillaries
-
Alveoli are ‘air sacs’ in lungs which maintain concentration gradients of O2 + CO2
o O2 – out into capillaries
o CO2 – into alveoli from capillaries
- Small bundles = large surface area
- Simple squamous epithelium layer is
thin = fast diffusion
- Gas exchange is compromised by:
o Poor blood supply
o Partial pressure of O2 + CO2
o Supply of gases
Defence Mechanisms
-
Alveoli – macrophage + surfactant secreting cell
Upper RT – nasal hairs + turbinates
Lower RT – cilia which line bronchus
The Airways – Bronchus + Bronchioles
-
-
Braced open by rings of cartilage which ↓ in bronchioles
Degree of constriction determines resistance to air flow into airways
o Bronchodilation: relaxed
o Bronchoconstriction: constricted
↓air flow = ↑ resistance as seen in obstructive diseases such asthma, bronchitis, emphysema
System of Bellows – Chest Wall + Muscles of Respiration
Muscles of Respiration
-
Diaphragm = skeletal muscle under conscious control
Accessory muscles only utilised when ↑ effort is required
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Digestion + Metabolism
Principal Digestive Enzymes
Enzyme
Amylase
Lipase
Pepsin (protease)
Nucleases
Bile salts
Site of Action
Saliva, pancreas
Saliva, pancreas,
stomach
Pancreas, stomach
Pancreas
Small intestine
Substrate
Carbohydrates
Fats/lipids
Product
Maltose
Fatty acids, glycerol
Proteins
Nucleic acids
Fat globules
Peptides, amino acids
Nucleotides
Fat droplets
Sites of Absorption
Small intestine
-
Fats
Lipids
Sugars
Peptides
Amino acids
Large intestine
-
Sodium
Water
Non-fat soluble vitamins
Metabolism
-
-
-
1g carbs = 1g protein (4kJ)
All chemical reactions occurring in all cells of the body
Anabolism: building up of substances from simple to more
1g fat = 38kJ
complex
o Require energy input
Catabolism: breaking down of complex substances into simpler ones
o Release energy
Energy to power growth + repair:
o Amino acids
o Fats/lipids
o Glucose
Energy to power activities:
o Glucose
o Fats/lipids
o Amino acids
Glucose
-
Leaves liver from hepatic vein
Some is stored as glycogen in muscles
Used to produce ATP
Used to maintain BGL
Some converted to fat and stored
Cannot be stored in brain  needs constant supply
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The Kidney
Urinary System
Vena cava
Adrenal gland
Aorta
Kidney
Ureters
Bladder
Kidney Functions
Urethra
Red text indicates symptoms of kidney failure
Nitrogenous Waste Elimination
-
How excess amino acids are broken down + excreted
Rate of excretion = rate of production of nitrogenous wastes
-
More due to ↑ metabolic activity
-
Excretion rate↓  level of waste in blood↑
-
o Uraemia = urea in the blood
o BUN = blood urea nitrogen
Uraemia = pericarditis, pruritus, nausea, vomiting + anorexia, neurological disturbances,
haemostasis problems  ↑ bleeding
Drug Metabolite Elimination
-
Removal of products from drug metabolism
Drugs metabolised/processed by liver + secreted from kidney
Fat soluble – must go through liver first to ensure drug is water soluble + can pass with urine
Drugs not metabolised  potential overdosing
Electrolyte Balance
-
Sodium and potassium balance and other charged cations
Control Blood Pressure
-
Na+ levels change  H2O levels change  BP changes
Causes Na+ and H2O retention  increases circulating blood volume 
vasoconstriction due to angiotensin II  long term BP control
Hypertension, heart failure, oedema
See Figure 1
Acid-Base Balance
-
Maintains blood pressure within narrow limits and controls buffer reaction, can remove H+ (lungs
CO2)
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