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Learning
LEARNING CONCEPTS
• Learning
– any relatively permanent change in behavior that
occurs due to experience.
• Conditioning-forming associations between
environmental stimuli and responses
– Classical Conditioning
– Operant Conditioning
• Cognitive learning
Classical Conditioning
• The process of learning by which a previous
neutral stimulus comes to elicit an identical or
similar response to one originally elicited by
another stimulus as the result of the pairing of
the two stimuli.
• Ivan Pavlov was the first to describe and
document the form of learning we now call
classical conditioning.
• Classical conditioning is also called Pavlovian or
respondent conditioning.
Principles of Classical Conditioning
– Unconditioned stimulus (US)--stimulus eliciting an
automatic or reflexive response
– Unconditioned response (UR)--response that is
automatically produced
– Neutral Stimulus (NS) stimulus that before
conditioning does not produce a particular respomce
– Conditioned stimulus (CS)--an originally neutral
stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response
after being paired with a US
– Conditioned response (CR)--response that is elicited
by a CS
Extinction
When the conditioned stimulus (CS) is
presented repeatedly without the
unconditioned stimulus (US), the
conditioned response (CR) eventually
disappears.
Spontaneous Recovery
After a response has been extinguished, it may
spontaneously reappear after the passage of
time, with exposure to the conditioned stimulus.
Higher-order Conditioning
A neutral stimulus (NS) can become a
conditioned stimulus (CS) by being paired with
an already established conditioned stimulus
(CS).
Stimulus Generalization
After a stimulus becomes a conditioned
stimulus for some response, similar stimuli may
produce the same reaction.
Reconditioning
Relearning conditioned response after
Extinction.
Conditioned Emotional Reaction
(CER)
Emotional response to a particular stimulus
acquired through classical conditioning.
Operant Conditioning
Process of learning in which the
manipulation of the consequence of a
response influences the like hood or
probability of the response occurring.
Thorndike and the Law of Effect
• Thorndike observed that behavior is
controlled by its consequences.
• Responses that have satisfying effects are
more likely to recur, while those that have
unpleasant effects are less likely to recur.
Radical Behaviorism
• Introduced at the turn of the 20th Century.
• Philosophical position that free will is an
illusion or myth and that human and
animal behavior is completely determined
by environmental and genetic influences.
Burrhus Frederic (B.F.) Skinner
• Behavior is explainable by looking outside
of the individual.
Reinforcers
Always increase the likelihood of a response
• Positive reinforcement
– something pleasant is presented
• Negative reinforcement
– something unpleasant is removed
Reinforcers
• Primary reinforcers
– satisfy biological needs
• Secondary reinforcers
– reinforcing through association with other
(possibly primary) reinforcers
Schedule of Continuous Reinforcement
• Reinforcing a response each time it
occurs.
• Most effective for initial learning.
Schedule of Partial Reinforcement
• Also known as intermittent schedules.
• Reinforcement occurs only after a certain
amount of time has passed or only after a
certain number of responses have been
made.
Fixed-Ratio Schedule
• Reinforcement is given after a specific
number of correct responses.
Variable-Ratio Schedule
• Certain number of correct responses
needed before reinforce is given varies
around some average number.
• Gamblers never know when their lucky
number will come.
Escape and Avoidance Learning
• Escape Learning
– Learning of behavior that allows the individual
to escape from an aversive stimulus.
• Avoidance learning
– Learning of behavior that allow an organism
to avoid an aversive stimulus.
Punishment
• Aversive stimulus or removal of reinforcing
stimulus after a response occur, which leads to
the weakening or suppression of the response
• Punishers
– decrease the likelihood of a response
• Positive punishment
– something unpleasant occurs
• Negative punishment
– something pleasant is removed
Behavior Modification
• The systematic application of learning
principles to strengthen adaptive behavior
and weaken maladaptive behavior.
Token Economy
• Behavior modification technique.
• Uses tokens earned for performing desired
behaviors.
• Tokens can be exchanged for positive
reinforcers.
Programmed Instruction
• Complex material is broken into a series of
small steps.
• Individual learn at their own pace.
Computer-Assisted Instruction
• Computer is used to guide student through
a series of increasingly difficult questions.