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Learning LEARNING CONCEPTS • Learning – any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs due to experience. • Conditioning-forming associations between environmental stimuli and responses – Classical Conditioning – Operant Conditioning • Cognitive learning Classical Conditioning • The process of learning by which a previous neutral stimulus comes to elicit an identical or similar response to one originally elicited by another stimulus as the result of the pairing of the two stimuli. • Ivan Pavlov was the first to describe and document the form of learning we now call classical conditioning. • Classical conditioning is also called Pavlovian or respondent conditioning. Principles of Classical Conditioning – Unconditioned stimulus (US)--stimulus eliciting an automatic or reflexive response – Unconditioned response (UR)--response that is automatically produced – Neutral Stimulus (NS) stimulus that before conditioning does not produce a particular respomce – Conditioned stimulus (CS)--an originally neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being paired with a US – Conditioned response (CR)--response that is elicited by a CS Extinction When the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus (US), the conditioned response (CR) eventually disappears. Spontaneous Recovery After a response has been extinguished, it may spontaneously reappear after the passage of time, with exposure to the conditioned stimulus. Higher-order Conditioning A neutral stimulus (NS) can become a conditioned stimulus (CS) by being paired with an already established conditioned stimulus (CS). Stimulus Generalization After a stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus for some response, similar stimuli may produce the same reaction. Reconditioning Relearning conditioned response after Extinction. Conditioned Emotional Reaction (CER) Emotional response to a particular stimulus acquired through classical conditioning. Operant Conditioning Process of learning in which the manipulation of the consequence of a response influences the like hood or probability of the response occurring. Thorndike and the Law of Effect • Thorndike observed that behavior is controlled by its consequences. • Responses that have satisfying effects are more likely to recur, while those that have unpleasant effects are less likely to recur. Radical Behaviorism • Introduced at the turn of the 20th Century. • Philosophical position that free will is an illusion or myth and that human and animal behavior is completely determined by environmental and genetic influences. Burrhus Frederic (B.F.) Skinner • Behavior is explainable by looking outside of the individual. Reinforcers Always increase the likelihood of a response • Positive reinforcement – something pleasant is presented • Negative reinforcement – something unpleasant is removed Reinforcers • Primary reinforcers – satisfy biological needs • Secondary reinforcers – reinforcing through association with other (possibly primary) reinforcers Schedule of Continuous Reinforcement • Reinforcing a response each time it occurs. • Most effective for initial learning. Schedule of Partial Reinforcement • Also known as intermittent schedules. • Reinforcement occurs only after a certain amount of time has passed or only after a certain number of responses have been made. Fixed-Ratio Schedule • Reinforcement is given after a specific number of correct responses. Variable-Ratio Schedule • Certain number of correct responses needed before reinforce is given varies around some average number. • Gamblers never know when their lucky number will come. Escape and Avoidance Learning • Escape Learning – Learning of behavior that allows the individual to escape from an aversive stimulus. • Avoidance learning – Learning of behavior that allow an organism to avoid an aversive stimulus. Punishment • Aversive stimulus or removal of reinforcing stimulus after a response occur, which leads to the weakening or suppression of the response • Punishers – decrease the likelihood of a response • Positive punishment – something unpleasant occurs • Negative punishment – something pleasant is removed Behavior Modification • The systematic application of learning principles to strengthen adaptive behavior and weaken maladaptive behavior. Token Economy • Behavior modification technique. • Uses tokens earned for performing desired behaviors. • Tokens can be exchanged for positive reinforcers. Programmed Instruction • Complex material is broken into a series of small steps. • Individual learn at their own pace. Computer-Assisted Instruction • Computer is used to guide student through a series of increasingly difficult questions.