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Reading Handbook Reading for Different Purposes Having a clear purpose can help you better remember and understand what you read. You may be reading for relaxation and pleasure. Perhaps you need information so you can pass a test. Maybe you need to follow directions to program your VCR or to fill out a form. Perhaps you need to analyze an argument to make sure it makes sense. You will need specific reading strategies for every type of reading you do. This Reading Handbook will help you become a better reader of all kinds of materials. Reading Literature Forms: stories, plays, poems, memoirs, biographies, some nonfiction Purpose for reading: for pleasure, for increased understanding Strategies for Reading Predict Visualize Connect Question Clarify Evaluate See page S3 for details about each strategy. Reading for Information Forms: newspapers, magazines, reference works, on-line information, textbooks Purpose for reading: to be informed Strategies for Reading Look for text organizers such as titles, subheads, graphics, and other devices. Notice the organization of the text. Look for connections to something you already know. Read, reread, and answer questions to increase your understanding. See pages R4—R10 for help with these strategies. R2 Critical Reading Forms: newspaper editorials, advertisements, political ads, letters, opinion statements Purpose for reading: to be informed, to make a decision Strategies for Reading Find the main ideas. Evaluate the supporting details. Determine the author's purpose. Decide how well the author achieved that purpose. See pages R11—R14 for detailed examples. Functional Reading ---see sample Forms: instruction manuals, applications, workplace documents, product information, technical directions, public notices Purpose for reading: to make decisions and solve problems Strategies for Reading Skim the whole piece. Read the information in the order presented. Look carefully at any drawings or pictures. Reread when the meaning is unclear. See pages R15—R19 for examples. Methods of Reading When you read something for the first time, review material for a test, or search for specific information, you use different methods of reading. The following techniques are useful with all kinds of reading materials. Skimming When you run your eyes quickly over a text, looking at headings, graphic features, and highlighted words, you are skimming. Skimming is useful in previewing textbook material that you must read for an assignment. Scanning In a text, to find a specific piece of information, such as the date of a battle, use scanning. Place a card under the first line of a page and move it down slowly. Look for key words and phrases. In-Depth Reading In-depth reading involves asking questions, taking notes, looking for main ideas, and drawing conclusions as you read slowly and carefully. Use this type of reading for literary works and textbooks. R3 Reading for Information When you read informational materials such as textbooks, magazines, newspapers, and on-line text, you need to use specific strategies. It is important to study text organizers, such as headings and special type, that tell you what the main ideas, facts, and terms are on the page. It is also important to recognize patterns of organization in the text and to map them in a graphic organizer. Using these strategies will help you read and understand any kind of informational text. Text Organizers Writers use special features such as headings, large or dark type, pictures, or drawings to show you the most important information on the page. You can use these special features to help you understand and remember what you read. Strategies for Reading ---see sample A First, look at the title and any subheads. These will tell you the main ideas of the lesson. B Many textbooks have one or more objectives or key terms at the beginning of each lesson. Keep these in mind as you read. This will help you identify the most important details. You may also want to read any questions at the end of the section to find out what you'll need to learn. C Watch for pulled-out text—quotations or other materials that are placed in a box or in different type. Such text often includes especially surprising, important, or memorable information. R4 D Don't forget about the key terms. These are often boldfaced or underlined where they first appear in the text. Be sure you understand what they mean. E Look at the visuals— photographs, illustrations, time lines, or other graphics— and read their captions. These will help you understand what you are about to read. F Read and questions that are part of the text. They will help you focus your reading. More Examples To examine the structural features of other kinds of informational materials, see the pages listed below. For examples of newspaper articles, see pages 528, and 634. For examples of magazine articles, see pages 44, 211, 283, and 733. For examples of Internet articles, see pages 130 and 363. R5 Patterns of Organization Reading any type of writing is easier if you understand how it is organized. A writer organizes ideas in a sequence, or structure, that helps the reader see how the ideas are related. Four important structures are the following: main idea and supporting details chronological order comparison and contrast cause and effect proposition and support This page contains an overview of the four structures, which you will learn about in more detail on pages R7—R10. Each type has been drawn as a map or graphic organizer to help you see how the ideas are related. Main Idea and Supporting Details The main idea of a paragraph or a longer piece of writing is its most important point. Supporting details give more information or evidence about the statements made in the main idea. Chronological Order Writing that is organized in chronological order presents events in the order in which they occur. Comparison and Contrast Comparison-and-contrast writing explains how two or more subjects are similar and how they are different. Cause and Effect Cause-and-effect writing explains the relationship between events. The cause is the first event. The effect happens as a result of the cause. A cause may have more than one effect, and an effect may have more than one cause. Proposition and Support A proposition, or a proposal, is a plan offered for acceptance. The need for the plan, the plan itself, and a description of how the plan would work are the usual parts of a proposition. R6 Main Idea and Supporting Details The main idea of a paragraph is the basic point you should remember from your reading. The supporting details give you additional information about the main idea. A main idea can be stated directly, or it can be implied. If it is stated, it can appear anywhere in the paragraph. Often, it will be the first or the last sentence. An implied main idea is suggested by the details that are provided. Strategies for Reading To find the main idea, ask, "What is this paragraph about?" To find supporting details, ask, "What else do I learn about the main idea?" MODEL Main Idea as the First Sentence Main Idea Both the North and the South needed more soldiers as the Civil War continued year after year. As a result, each side passed draft laws These laws required all men to serve in the military. The Confederate law went into effect in the spring of 1862. The Union draft began in 1863. Supporting Details MODEL Main Idea as the Last Sentence Supporting Details The South experienced severe food shortages during the Civil War. This was because both men and machines were serving in the army rather than working in the fields. Inflation was a problem in both the South and the North. Prices increased much faster than wages. The war caused economic hardship for almost everyone. Main Idea MODEL Implied Main Idea While the men were at war, women worked in the fields to produce food. They also took over office and factory jobs left by men serving in the army. Other women served as nurses and volunteers on the battlefields. Some brave women, like Harriet Tubman, even acted as spies. Implied main idea: Women made important contributions to the Civil War. PRACTICE AND APPLY MODEL Approximately 3 million men, nearly 10 percent of the population, served in the Civil War. More than one-fifth of these soldiers died. Almost that many more were wounded. Not only the soldiers suffered, though. The economy of the nation also was deeply affected. Some people did not have enough to eat. Prices everywhere got higher. The life of practically every citizen was disrupted by the conflict. Read the model above and then do the following activities. 1. Identify the main idea of the paragraph. 2. List four details that support the main idea. R7 Chronological Order Chronological, or time, order presents ideas in the order that they happened. Historical events are usually presented in chronological order. The steps of a process may also be presented in time order. Strategies for Reading Identify the individual events or steps. These will often be presented in separate paragraphs. Look for words that signal order, such as first, afterward, then, before, finally, and next. Look for words and phrases that identify time, such as in a year, two hours earlier, in July 4,1776; and later. MODEL Time phrases Event On Wednesday morning at a quarter past five came the earthquake. A minute later the flames were leaping upward. In a dozen different quarters south of Market Street, in the working-class ghetto, and in the factories, fires started. There was no opposing the flames. There was no organization, no communication. . . . By Wednesday afternoon, inside of twelve hours, half of the heart of the city was gone. At that time I watched the vast conflagration from out on the bay. It was dead calm. Not a flicker of wind stirred. . . . Day and night this dead calm continued, and yet, near to the flames, the wind was often half a gale, so mighty was the vacuum. Wednesday night saw the destruction of the very heart of the city. Dynamite was lavishly used, and many of San Francisco's proudest structures were crumbled by man himself into ruins, but there was no withstanding the onrush of the flames. . . . At nine o'clock Wednesday evening I walked down through the very heart of the city. I walked through miles and miles of magnificent buildings and towering skyscrapers. Here was no fire. All was in perfect order. The police patrolled the streets. Every building had its watchman at the door. And yet it was doomed, all of it. There was no water. The dynamite was giving out. And at right angles two different conflagrations were sweeping down upon it. At one o'clock in the morning I walked down through the same section. Everything still stood intact. There was no fire. And yet there was a change. A rain of ashes was falling. The watchmen at the doors were gone. The police had been withdrawn. There were no firemen, no fireengines, no men fighting with dynamite. The district had been absolutely abandoned. . . . Half a dozen blocks away it was burning on both sides. The street was a wall of flame. And against this wall of flame, silhouetted sharply, were two United States cavalrymen sitting on their horses, calmly watching. That was all. —Jack London, "The Story of an Eyewitness" PRACTICE AND APPLY After reading the model, do the following activities. 1. Create a time line on your paper. Begin with the earthquake that struck San Francisco on Wednesday, April 18, 1906, at 5:15 a.m. List the other events in the order that they happened. 2. List all words or phrases in the model that signal time. 3. List the two subjects that are being compared and contrasted in the final two paragraphs. R8 Comparison and Contrast Comparison-and-contrast writing explains how two different subjects are alike and different. This type of writing is usually organized by subject or by feature. In subject organization, the writer discusses subject 1, then discusses subject 2. In feature organization, the writer compares a feature of subject 1 with a feature of subject 2, then compares another feature of both, and so on. Strategies for Reading Look for words and phrases that signal comparison, such as like, similarly, both, also, and in the same way. Look for words and phrases that signal contrast, such as unlike, on the other hand, in contrast, and however. MODEL Subjects Contrast words Comparison words In 1788 the newly drafted Constitution of the United States was a subject of great debate. On one side were the Federalists, those who supported the Constitution. On the other side were the Antifederalists, who opposed the Constitution. The Federalists believed in a system of government called federalism. In this type of government a central - or federal - government shares power with the individual states. The Antifederalists, on the other hand, believed that the Constitution took too much power away from the states and the people. Unlike the Federalists, the Antifederalists supported keeping all the important political power with the stated. Both the Federalists and the Anifederalists agreed that the government should be made up of several branches. The Federalists believed that power should be divided equally among the executive, the judicial, and the legislative branches. Because of this system of checks and balances, the Federalists thought that a single person should head the executive branch. The Antifederalists, in contrast, were afraid to give too much power to the executive branch. They thought that the legislative branch should be the most powerful arm of the government. They feared that if the executive branch became too strong, the president might become like a king or a tyrant. The Federalists thought that the Constitution fully protected the rights of individual citizens. The Antifederalists disagreed. They argued that a separate bill of rights was needed to make sure that the people were protected from the power of a strong federal government. The Constitution that was ratified by the states was a compromise between the Federalist and the Antifederalist positions. As the Federalists wanted, it gave more power to the federal government than to the states. It also divided the power of the federal government among its three branches. As the Antifederalists demanded, however, the Constitution included a bill of rights. PRACTICE AND APPLY Read the model and do the following activities. 1. In the model, some contrast words are pointed out to you. Find two more contrast words or phrases and write them on your paper. 2. Decide whether the model is organized by subject or by feature. Explain your answer. 3. Create a Venn diagram like the one on page R6. Then fill in the similarities and differences between the Federalist and Antifederalist positions. R9 Cause and Effect Cause-and-effect writing explains the relationship between events. A cause is an event that brings about another event. An effect is something that happens as a result of the first event. Cause-and-effect writing is usually organized in one of three ways: 1. Starting with cause(s) and explaining effect(s). 2. Starting with effects and explaining cause(s). 3. Describing a chain of causes and effects. Strategies for Reading To find the effect or effects, ask "What happened?" To find the cause or causes, ask "Why did it happen?" Look for signal words and phrases such as because, as a result, for that reason, so, consequently, and since. MODEL Effect Signal Word Causes Immigrants streamed into the United States during the mid-1800s. Most of them came from European countries, including Germany, Ireland, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Britain. There were basically two types of forces that caused them to leave their homelands: reasons they were pushed out and reasons they were pulled to the new land. Pushing them out were events in people's homelands that made living there more and more difficult. A huge growth in population, for example, resulted in overcrowding and a shortage of food. At the same time, small plots of land were being combined into large farms. Consequently, farmers were forced off their land and could no longer make a living. Religious persecution and political unrest also were reasons for people to leave their homelands and look for a new and better life across the ocean. Another important reason was the Industrial Revolution. Factories began to produce goods more cheaply and quickly than independent tradespeople could. So these tradespeople were forced out of business. Immigrants also left their countries because such things as vast amounts of land, economic opportunity, and freedom drew them to the United States. Many immigrants left their homelands because of overcrowding and loss of their farms. The United States, on the other hand, kept expanding westward and adding more territory. For this reason, the immigrants thought they could obtain land and make a better life for their families in America. The Industrial Revolution opened up many factory jobs for skilled immigrants in the United States. As a consequence, tradesmen as well as farmers looked to this country as a land of economic opportunity. Finally, immigrants were drawn to the United States because it offered them the freedom to practice their religion in any way they chose. PRACTICE AND APPLY Read the model on this page and then do the following activities. 1. List six of the main causes of immigration to the United States in the mid-1800s. 2. Identify five words or phrases in the passage that signal causes and effects. 3. List the effects of the following events in Europe: a) population growth, b) religious persecution and political unrest, c) the Industrial Revolution. R10 Critical Reading: Persuasion Persuasive writing attempts to convince readers to agree with the writer's point of view Persuasive writing can take many forms. Advertisements, political posters, newspaper editorials, proposals, and reviews are all forms of persuasion. Proposals to convince you to support a change or a new idea are common forms of persuasion. What Is a Proposal? A proposal is a special type of persuasive writing that outlines a plan to meet a need or solve a problem. A proposal includes three parts: (1) a brief summary of the plan of action, (2) a statement of the need or problem and support explaining the need, and (3) a detailed discussion of the plan and how it will solve the problem. The following strategies can help you read a proposal: Strategies for Reading Identify the need or problem and the plan of action proposed to solve it. Evaluate the evidence—facts, statistics, and opinions—that the writer gives to support the proposal. Evaluate the reasoning behind the writer's statements. ---see model R11 Evaluating Reasoning To be convincing, a proposal or other persuasive statement must show sound reasoning. The conclusions that the author makes must follow clearly and logically from the information presented. Four types of unsound reasoning to watch out for are overgeneralization, the either-or fallacy, the cause-and-effect fallacy, and circular reasoning. Overgeneralization An overgeneralization is a broad statement that says something is true for every case, with no exceptions. In fact, very few statements have no exceptions. Overgeneralizations often include the words all, none, everyone, no one, any, and anyone. Overgeneralization: Every school official who cares about students supports video monitoring. Logical statement: Some school officials believe that video monitoring can help provide a safe environment for students to learn both academic and social skills. Either-Or Fallacy The either-or fallacy states that there are only two possible ways to view a situation or only two options to choose from. In most situations, there are actually a number of views and options. Either-or fallacies often include the words either ... or. Either-or fallacy: Either video monitors are installed in the school, or students will be injured. Logical statement: A safety problem exists in the school and video monitoring will help solve it. Cause-and-Effect Fallacy In the cause-and-effect fallacy, the writer makes the assumption that because one event follows another, the second event was caused by the first one. As you read, think carefully about the evidence that one event actually caused another. Cause-and-effect fallacy: Westview School cut security staff, and two students fell down the stairs and were seriously injured. Logical statement: Two Westview students were injured because they were running down a slippery stairway that had just been mopped. Circular Reasoning Circular reasoning is an attempt to support a statement by simply repeating it in other words. If a statement does not include any supporting facts and leaves you thinking "So?", it may be circular reasoning. Circular reasoning: Using video cameras to monitor school hallways is good because it feels right. Logical statement: Monitoring school hallways with video cameras will help reduce fights and damage to property. R12 Evaluating Evidence In addition to evaluating the logic of an argument, you also must carefully examine the evidence presented to support statements. First, to accurately evaluate information, you must know the difference between facts and opinions. The statements of experts also provide good evidence. Be careful, though, of arguments that present expert opinions from only one side of an issue. Here are some types of evidence to watch out for: fact and opinion, stereotyping, bias, propaganda, and emotional appeals. Fact and Opinion A fact is a statement that can be proved. An opinion is a statement of personal belief that cannot be proved. Make sure you identify when a statement is a fact and when it is an opinion. Opinion statement: Video monitors in our school will save lives. Factual statement: Schools with video monitors have reported less running in hallways and fewer accidents within their facilities. Stereotyping A stereotype is a generalization about a group of people that doesn't take individual differences into account. Stereotyping: All school officials really care about are their jobs, not what is good for students. Balanced statement: Some school officials are not fully aware of how much a safe environment affects student learning. Bias Bias is a preference for one side of an argument. Bias: Video monitoring is a terrible crime. Unbiased statement: Some people think that video monitoring is an invasion of students' privacy. Propaganda Propaganda is a form of communication that may use distorted, false, or misleading information. Propaganda: Video monitoring will turn students into criminals. Balanced statement: Some people think that students may resent monitoring and find ways to do what they're not supposed to do without getting caught. Emotional Appeals Emotional appeals are statements that create strong feelings rather than use facts and evidence to make a point. Be alert for statements that make you feel angry, sad, or even very happy. Because emotional appeals are directed at feelings rather than thoughts, they are also sometimes called unreasonable persuasion. Emotional appeal: What idiot would not support video monitoring of students? Balanced statement: The evidence that video monitoring works and is reasonable in cost should convince people to support installing it in schools. R13 PRACTICE AND APPLY Read the model on this page and then do the activities that follow. MODEL Summary of Proposal I propose that the city put up a stoplight at Park and Oak to help regulate traffic and make our streets safer. Need The corner of Park Avenue and Oak Street is one of the most dangerous places in town. In the past six months, two pedestrians and a cyclist have been hit by cars at that intersection. Because there isn't a traffic signal at the intersection, drivers aren't always sure about who has the right of way. Because of the confusion, drivers sometimes don't pay enough attention to people in the crosswalks. Another reason this intersection is so dangerous is that it is on the edge of town. As cars are coming off the highway, they sometimes don't see the change in speed limit and go faster than the posted 25 miles per hour. Proposed Solution There is good evidence that a traffic light would help solve these problems. Before the city installed a traffic light at the corner of Main and Elm, a 12year-old girl was killed there. Since the light went up two years ago, there hasn't been a single accident at that intersection. How could anyone in his or her right mind not realize that a traffic light is the solution to this problem? The chief of police, Gerald McCourt, agrees: "I just don't understand why the city has to wait until people are seriously injured or killed to do something about the traffic situation. It's been shown time and again that when traffic lights go up, accidents go down. Putting up a traffic light is a low-cost solution. And a single light can preserve the most precious thing in the world—the life of a human being." In conclusion, I urge the City Council to vote to install a traffic light at Park and Oak. The light would make the right of way clear. It would also force drivers to slow down and pay attention to what is going on around them. Either the city installs this traffic light or we'll all end up in the hospital. 1. List the evidence—facts, statistics, and expert opinions—that the writer uses to support her statements. 2. The sentence beginning "How could anyone in his or her right mind ..." is an emotional appeal. Rewrite the sentence to make the appeal more reasonable. 3. Find another example of unsound reasoning. Rewrite it to make a logical statement. R14 Functional Reading Often, to make decisions and solve problems in life, you will need to use consumer, public, or workplace documents. The applications, technical directions, schedules, product information, and public notices you will read require some special strategies. By becoming familiar with the features and elements of these documents, you will be better able to use them to make informed choices. Look at each example as you read the strategies. Product Information: Warranty Strategies for Reading A Notice the title stating the type of warranty and the product for which it applies. B Read the section on the types of services the manufacturer will carry out and the length of time they will be available. C Read the conditions under which the company is not responsible for repair of the product. D Check the list of requirements you must supply in order to obtain warranty service. E Use the contact information, such as the manufacturer's phone number and address, to find out where the product can be repaired. PRACTICE AND APPLY Reread the warranty and explain the following: 1. For how many days after the purchase is labor free? 2. What conditions are not covered by the warranty? 3. How long does the warranty cover accessories? 4. What do you need to provide to prove that you bought the product within the warranty period? R15 Technical Directions Strategies for Reading A Notice headings or rules that separate one section from another. B Read the directions all the way through at least once. C Look for numbers or letters that give the steps in sequence. D Watch for warnings, notes, or other page references with more information. PRACTICE AND APPLY Reread the microwave instructions and explain how to solve the following problems. 1. The clock needs to be reset after a power outage. 2. The clock was incorrectly set at 14:30. 3. The power level needs to be set for defrosting. 4. A program needs to be canceled while the food in the microwave is cooking. ---see sample R16 Workplace Document Strategies for Reading A Read the letterhead to find out the name of the company sending the letter. B Notice the address and salutation to find out the receiver's name. C Check the first paragraph to find out the overall purpose of the letter. D Look for details in the body of the letter that will explain what the letter writer wants you to do. E Notice who signed the letter, so you know how to address your reply. PRACTICE AND APPLY Reread the letter and answer the questions. 1. Who is this letter from? 2. What is the purpose of the letter? 3. What does the letter tell the yearbook staff to do? ---see sample R17 Public Notice Strategies for Reading A Read the title, which often states the purpose of the notice. B Read the introduction, if there is one, to find out the focus of the notice and whom it should concern. C Read the body of the notice for instructions, announcements, and general information. D Check the source of the notice to find contact information. E Look for special features that may provide additional or related information. PRACTICE AND APPLY Reread the notice and explain the following. 1. Whom this notice is for 2. What the notice asks readers to do 3. What will happen to people who do not follow the library's rules for Internet use 4. How the notice defines "netiquette" ---see sample R18 Train Schedule Strategies for Reading A Scan the title to learn what the schedule covers. B Study row labels, such as station names, to determine the category of information in each row. C Look at column headings, which are train numbers in this schedule, to determine the category of information in each column. D Look down columns and rows to find specific information. E Notice any graphics or symbols that help you interpret the schedule. ---see sample PRACTICE AND APPLY Reread the schedule and answer the questions. 1. Where do the trains on this schedule go? 2. Which days does this schedule cover? 3. List two stations that train 306 skips. 4. If you board train 316 at Grant St., what will be its next stop? 5. If you missed the 6:26 at Fort Peck, what time is the next train you could take? FUNCTIONAL READING REVIEW: COMPARE AND CONTRAST 1. Compare the train schedule and the public notice. What features do they share? How are they different? 2. Compare the warranty on page R15 and the technical directions on page R16. Both of these types of documents are often included with a product. How are these documents different? R19 Vocabulary Handbook 1 Context Clues One way to figure out the meaning of a word you don't know is by using context clues. The context of a word is made up of the punctuation marks, words, sentences, and paragraphs that surround it. 1.1 General Context Sometimes you need to infer the meaning of an unfamiliar word by reading all the information in the sentence or paragraph. Kevin set out the broom, a dustpan, dusting rag, vacuum cleaner, and three trash bags before beginning the monumental task of cleaning his room. 1.2 Definition Clue Often a difficult word will be followed by a definition of its meaning. Commas, dashes, or other punctuation marks can signal a definition. Sometimes the explorers encountered leads—open channels of water—and were forced to wait until the ice formed before going on. 1.3 Restatement Clues Sometimes a writer restates a word or term in easier language. Commas, dashes, or other punctuation can signal restatement clues, as can expressions such as that is, in other words, and or. The boy put together a hand-collated set of trading cards; in other words, he put together a set of trading cards by hand. 1.4 Example Clues Sometimes a writer suggests the meanings of words with one or two examples. The cabin had several annoyances, including a leak in the roof, mildew in the shower, and a family of mice. 1.5 Comparison Clues Sometimes a word's meaning is suggested by a comparison to something similar. Like and as are words that signal comparison clues. The twins barreled through the living room like a tornado. 1.6 Contrast Clues Sometimes writers point out differences between things or ideas. Contrast clues are signaled by words like although, but, however, unlike, and in contrast to. The student was usually bold, but he became hesitant when he had to present a report to the class. 1.7 Idiom and Slang An idiom is an expression whose overall meaning is different from the meanings of the individual words. Slang is informal language containing made-up words and ordinary words used to mean something different from their meaning in formal English. Use context clues to figure out the meaning of idioms and slang. The mosquitoes drove us crazy on our hike through the woods. (idiom) That's a really cool backpack that you are wearing. (slang) TIP Be sure to provide appropriate context for words when you write. One way to verify a word's meaning is to use one of the context-clue strategies in your sentence. For example, use restatement or definition clues in a sentence where understanding a word's precise meaning is important. For more about context clues, see page 301; idioms and slang, see page 83. R20 2 Word Parts If you know roots, base words, and affixes, you can figure out the meanings of many new words. 2.1 Base Words A base word is a complete word that can stand alone. Other words or word parts can be added to base words to form new words. 2.2 Roots Many English words contain roots that come from older languages, such as Latin, Greek, or Old English. A root is a word part that conveys the core meaning 01 a word. Knowing the meaning of a word's root can help you determine the word's meaning. root meanings example alt high altitude vert to turn divert grad step, degree graduate 2.3 Prefixes A prefix is a word part that appears at the beginning of a root or base word to form a new word. A prefix usually changes the meaning of a root or a base word. prefix meanings example ex- out, from export in- in, into, not incite pre- before preface pro- forward, favoring propose re- again, back rebound un- not, opposite unhappy 2.4 Suffixes A suffix is a word part that appears at the end of a root or base word to form a new word. Some suffixes do not change word meaning. These suffixes are added to nouns to change the number added to verbs to change the tense added to adjectives to change the degree of comparison added to adverbs to show how suffix meanings -s, -es to change the number of a noun example snack + -s, snacks -ed, -ing to change verb tense walk + -ed, walked walk + -ing, walking -er, -est to change the degree of comparison in modifiers wild + -er, wilder wild + -est, wildest Other suffixes are added to a root or base word to change the word's meaning. These suffixes can also be used to change the word's part of speech. suffix meanings example noun -age action or process pilgrim + -age, pilgrimage adjective -able ability remark + -able, remarkable verb -ize to make public + -ize, publicize To find the meaning of an unfamiliar word, divide the word into parts. Think about the meaning of the prefix, the suffix, and the root or base word. Use what you know to figure out the meaning of the word. Then check to see if the word makes sense in context. For more about prefixes and suffixes, see page 394. R21 3 Word Origins 3.1 Development of the English Language During the past 2,000 years or so, English has developed from a language spoken by a few Germanic tribes into a language that is more widely spoken and written than any other in the world. Some experts, in fact, call today's English the first truly global language. Its most valuable characteristic is its ability to change and grow, adopting new words as the need arises. The history of the English language can be divided into three main periods. Old English About the year A.D. 449, Germanic people who lived on the European continent along the North Sea began a series of invasions into Britain. At that time, Britain was inhabited by the Celts, whose native language was Gaelic. Over a period of years, the raiders conquered and settled in Britain. The conquerors, known today as the Anglo- Saxons, prospered in Britain. In time, Britain became "Engla land," and the Anglo-Saxon languages evolved into "Englisc," or what modern scholars call Old English. Old English was very different from the English we speak today. It was harsher in sound, had no silent letters, and was written phonetically. Few examples of Old English remain in our current English vocabulary. Those that do exist, however, are common words for people, places, things, and actions. man (mann) wife (wif) child (cild) house (hus) meat (mete) drink (drincan) sleep (shipan) live (libban) fight (feohtan) In the sixth and seventh centuries, missionaries from Rome and other Christian cities arrived in England, bringing with them their knowledge of religion and ancient languages. Among the most influential figures was St. Augustine, who helped convert thousands of Anglo-Saxons, including a king, to Christianity. As the Anglo-Saxons accepted this faith, they also accepted words from Latin and Greek. Latin Greek candle alphabet cup angel priest box noon demon scripture school During the 790s, Viking invaders from Denmark and Norway settled in northeast England. As a result, Scandinavian words became part of Old English. sky knife are steak leg birth they skin seat window them their Middle English The Norman Conquest brought great changes to England and its language. In 1066, England was defeated by the Normans, a people from an area in France. Their leader, William the Conqueror, staged a successful invasion of England and became the nation's new monarch. With William on the throne of England, Norman French became the language of the English court, government business, nobility, and scholars. Eventually, French words were adopted in everyday vocabulary as well. The language that evolved is called Middle English. Middle English was not as harsh-sounding as Old English and borrowed many words and grammatical conventions from Norman French. attorney joint mallet baron jolly marriage chivalry laundry merchandise gown lodge petty R22 Norman French itself borrowed thousands of words from Latin and Greek as well as from ancient Indian and Semitic languages. Consequently, Middle English also contained many of these foreign terms. Latin Greek Indian Semitic language circle ginger camel library hour jungle cinnamon money lantern orange coffee serpent leopard sugar lion square magnet pepper syrup Modern English By the late 15th century, Middle English began to develop into Modern English. The various pronunciations, word forms, and spellings common to Middle English were becoming more uniform. One invention that aided this process was the printing press. Introduced to London in around 1476, the printing press allowed printers to standardize the spellings of common English words. As a result, readers and writers of English became accustomed to following "rules" of spelling and grammar. During this period, the English vocabulary also continued to grow as new ideas and discoveries demanded new words. As the English began to colonize and trade with other areas of the world, they borrowed foreign words. In time, the English vocabulary grew to include words from diverse languages, such as French, Dutch, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, and Chinese. Many of these words stayed the way they were in their original languages. French Dutch Spanish Italian ballet boss canyon diva beret caboose rodeo carnival mirage dock taco spaghetti vague skate tornado studio Portuguese Chinese Japanese Native American cashew chow kamikaze caribou mango ginseng karaoke moccasin jaguar kung fu sushi papoose yam kowtow tsunami tomahawk Today, the English language is still changing and absorbing new words. It is considered the international language of science and technology. It is also widely used in business and politics. 3.2 Dictionary as a Source of Word Origins When you study a word's history and origin, you find out when, where, and how the word came to be. A complete dictionary entry includes each word's history. tan•gi•ble (tadja-bal) adj. la. Discernible by the touch; palpable. b. Possible to touch. c. Possible to be treated as fact; real or concrete. 2. Possible to understand or realize. 3. Law That can be valued monetarily. Mate Lain from Latin langcre. to t0tich.1 3.3 Word Families Words that have the same root make up a word family and have related meanings. The charts below show some common Greek and Latin roots. Notice how the meanings of the example words are related to the meanings of their roots. Latin Root: circum, around or about English: circumference the boundary line of a circle circumnavigation the act of moving completely around circumstance a condition or fact surrounding an event Greek Root: mon, single or alone English: monopoly exclusive control by one group monologue a speech delivered by one person monotonous sounded or spoken in a single, unvarying tone R23 TIP Once you recognize a root in one English word, you will notice the same root in other words. Because all these words developed from the same root, they share a core meaning. For more about researching word origins, see page 783. 4 Synonyms and Antonyms When you read, pay attention to the precise words a writer uses. 4.1 Synonyms A synonym is a word that has the same or almost the same meaning as another word. Read each set of synonyms listed below. occasionally/sometimes parcel/package pledge/vow satisfy/please rob/steal schedule/agenda You can find synonyms in a thesaurus or dictionary. In a dictionary, synonyms are often given as part of the definition of a word. Although synonyms have similar meanings, the words do not necessarily mean exactly the same thing. 4.2 Antonyms An antonym is a word with a meaning opposite of that of another word. Read each set of antonyms listed below. accurate/incorrect similar/different reveal/conceal rigid/flexible fresh/stale unusual/ordinary Sometimes an antonym is formed by adding the negative prefix anti-, in-, or un- to a word as in the chart below. word prefix antonym climax anti- anticlimax kind un- unkind capable in- incapable TIP Dictionaries of synonyms and antonyms, as well as some thesauri, can help you find antonyms. For more about synonyms and antonyms, see page 604. R24 5 Connotative and Denotative Meaning Good writers choose just the right word to communicate specific meaning. 5.1 Denotative Meaning A word's dictionary meaning is called its denotation. For example, the denotative meaning of the word thin is "having little flesh; spare; lean: 5.2 Connotative Meaning The images or feelings you connect to a word give it finer shades of meaning, called connotation. Connotative meaning stretches beyond a word's most basic dictionary definition. Writers use connotations of words to communicate positive or negative feelings. Some examples are listed below. Positive Connotations thin careful fast thrifty young Negative Connotations scrawny cowardly hasty cheap immature For more information about denotative and connotative meanings, see page 669. R24 6 Homonyms, Homophones, and Words with Multiple Meaning Homonyms, multiple-meaning words, and homophones can be confusing to readers and can plague writers. 6.1 Homonyms Words that have the same spelling and pronunciation but different meanings and (usually) origins are called homonyms. Consider this example: The boy had to stoop to find his ball under the stoop. Stoop can mean "a small porch," but an identically spelled word means "to bend down!' Because the words have different origins, each word has its own dictionary entry. 6.2 Words with Multiple Meanings Multiple-meaning words are ones that have acquired additional meanings over time based on the original meaning. Consider these examples: Thinking of the horror movie made my skin creep. I saw my little brother creep around the corner. These two uses of creep have different meanings, but both of them have developed from an original meaning. You will find all the meanings of creep listed in one entry in the dictionary. 6.3 Homophones Words that sound alike but have different meanings and spellings are called homophones. Consider this example: Paul heard his mother say on the phone, "I hear you as well as I would if you were here talking to me." Homophones don't usually cause problems for readers, but they can be problems for writers. Many common words with Old English origins (there, their; write, right) have homophones. Be sure to check your writing for misspelled homophones. For more about homonyms and multiple- meaning words, see page 669. 7 Analogies 7.1 Analogy An analogy is a statement that compares two pairs of words. The relationship between the first pair of words is the same as the relationship between the second pair of words. In the example below, each pair of words shows a relationship of an item to a category. TRACTOR : VEHICLE :: wrench : tool A tractor is a type of vehicle, just as a wrench is a type of tool. The sign : stands for "is to:' The sign :: stands for "as:" The analogy is read like this: "Tractor is to vehicle as wrench is to tool!" 7.2 Types of Analogies Here are some common word relationships. type of analogy example relationship Part to whole STAGE: THEATER is a part of Synonyms SWEET : THOUGHTFUL is similar in meaning Antonyms FANTASTIC : AWFUL is different in meaning Degree of intensity SATISFACTORY : EXCELLENT is less (or more) intense than Characteristic to object ROUGHNESS : SANDPAPER is a quality of Item to category ANT : INSECT is a type of For more about analogies, see page 534. 8 Specialized Vocabulary Professionals who work in fields such as law, science, or sports use their own technical or specialized vocabulary. Use these strategies to help you figure out the meanings of specialized vocabulary. 8.1 Use Context Clues Often the surrounding text gives clues that help you infer the meaning of an unfamiliar term. 8.2 Use Reference Tools Textbooks often define special terms when they are first introduced. Look for definitions or restatement clues in parentheses. You also try to find definitions in footnotes, a glossary, or a dictionary. If you need more information, refer to a specialized reference, such as an encyclopedia, a field guide, an atlas, a user's manual, a technical dictionary For more about specialized vocabulary, see page 143. R26 9 Decoding Multisyllabic Words Many words are familiar to you when you speak them or hear them. Sometimes these same words may be unfamiliar to you when you see them in print. When you come across a word unfamiliar in print, first try to pronounce it to see if you might recognize it. Use these syllabication generalizations to help you figure out a word's pronunciation. Generalization 1: VCCV When there are two consonants between two vowels, divide between the two consonants unless they are a blend or a digraph. pic/ture a/brupt feath/er Generalization 2: VCCCV When there are three consonants between two vowels, divide between the blend or the digraph and the other consonant. an/gler mer/chant tum/bler Generalization 3: VCCV When there are two consonants between two vowels, divide between the consonants, unless they are a blend or a digraph. The first syllable is a closed syllable, and the vowel is short. lath/er ush/er ten/der Generalization 4: Common Vowel Clusters Do not split common vowel clusters, such as long vowel digraphs, r-controlled vowels, and vowel diphthongs. par/ty poi/son fea/ture Generalization 5: VCV When you see a VCV pattern in the middle of a word, divide the word either before or after the consonant. Divide the word after the consonant if the first vowel sound is short. Divide the word before the consonant if the first vowel sound is long. mod/el ro/bot cra/zy Generalization 6: Compound Words Divide compound words between the individual words. grape/vine life/guard Generalization 7: Affixes When a word includes an affix, divide between the base word and the affix. re/bound rest/less R27 Spelling Handbook 1 Improving Your Spelling Good spelling gives your writing a professional look and impresses your audience. You can improve your spelling by practicing the habits of successful spellers. The following guidelines and tips should help. Good Spelling Habits 1. Conquer your personal spelling demons. Keep a list of the words you have misspelled in your writing. 2. Pronounce words carefully. Pronouncing words correctly can help you spell them correctly. For example, if you spell helpfully as "helpfly," it might be because you are mispronouncing the word. 3. Get into the habit of seeing the letters in a word. Some English spellings are tricky. By looking at new or difficult words letter by letter, you will remember the spellings more easily. 4. Create memory devices for difficult words. For example: acquaint (cq) To get acquainted, I will seek you. principal (pal) The principal is my pal. principle (ple) Follow this principle, please. 5. Proofread everything you write. Slowly read what you've written, word for word. You might even try reading a line in reverse order. Otherwise, your eyes may play tricks on you and let you skip a misspelled word. Mastering the Spelling of Difficult Words 1. Look at the word and say it one syllable at a time. 2. Look at the letters and say each one. 3. Write the word without looking at it. 4. Check to see whether you spelled the word correctly. If you made a mistake, note exactly what the mistake was. Then repeat steps 1-3. Words Ending in a Silent e Before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel to a word ending in a silent e, the e is usually dropped. amaze + -ing = amazing love + -able = lovable nerve + -ous = nervous Exceptions: change + -able = changeable; courage + -ous = courageous When adding a suffix beginning with a consonant to a word ending in a silent e, keep the e. late + -ly = lately noise + -less = noiseless state + -ment = statement Exceptions: true + -ly = truly; argue + -ment = argument Words Ending in y Before adding a suffix to a word that ends in y preceded by a consonant, change the y to i easy + -est = easiest crazy + -est = craziest However, when you add -ing, the y does not change. worry + -ed = worried BUT worry + -ing = worrying When adding a suffix to a word that ends in y preceded by a vowel, the y usually does not change. play + -er = player employ + -ed = employed R28 Words Ending in a Consonant In one-syllable words that end in one consonant preceded by one vowel, double the final consonant before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel, such as -ed or -ing. These are sometimes called 1+1+1 words. dip + -ed = dipped set + -ing = setting hop + -ed = hopped drug + -ist = druggist The rule does not apply to words of one syllable that end in a consonant preceded by two vowels. feel + -ing = feeling peel + -ed = peeled reap + -ed = reaped heat + -ing = heating In words of more than one syllable, double the final consonant when the word ends with one consonant preceded by one vowel and when the word is accented on the last syllable. be•gin' per•mit re•fer' In the following examples, note that in the new words formed with suffixes, the accent remains on the same syllable. be•gin' + -ing = be•gin' ning permit' + -ed = per•mit' ted But in the following examples, the accent does not remain on the same syllable; thus, the final consonant is not doubled. re•fer + -ence = ref' e•ence con•fer' + -ence = con' fe•ence Prefixes and Suffixes When adding a prefix to a word, do not change the spelling of the base word. dis- + approve = disapprove re- + build = rebuild ir- + regular = irregular mis- + spell = misspell When adding -ly to a word ending in I, keep both I's. When adding -ness to a word ending in n, keep both n's. careful + -ly carefully sudden + -ness = suddenness final + -ly = finally thin + -ness = thinness Special Spelling Problems Only one English word ends in -sede: supersede. Three words end in -ceed: exceed, proceed, and succeed. All other verbs ending in the sound seed are spelled with -cede. concede precede recede secede In words with ie and ei when the sound is long e (e), the word is spelled ie except after c. i before e thief relieve piece field grieve pier except after c conceit perceive ceiling receive receipt Exceptions: either neither weird leisure seize When -ion is added to the end of words that contain the syllable -mit, -cede, or -ceed, change the final letter, or letters (-t, -d, or -de) to -ss-. transmit + -ion = transmission secede + -ion = secession proceed + -ion = procession Some prefixes, such as ad- (which means "to; toward"), in- ("in; not"), and com- ("with; together") usually change their final consonant to match the beginning consonant of a root or base word to which they are added. ad- + parent = apparent in- + merse = immerse com- + laborate = collaborate R29 When the letters c and g have a hard sound, they are usually followed by the vowels a, o, or u, or by any consonant except y. When the letters c and g have a soft sound, they are usually followed by e, i, or y. c and g before a, o, u, or a consonant cause common curious gap gopher ghost c and g before e, i, or y certain circumstance cycle agile giant gyrate Exceptions: gift, giddy 2 Using the Right Word Good writers master words that are easy to misuse and misspell. As you read through the following words, notice how their meanings differ. all ready, already All ready means "all are ready" or "completely prepared!' Already means "previously" The astronauts were all ready to land. The other team has already started practicing. bring, take Bring refers to the movement toward or with something. Take refers to the movement away from something. I'll bring you a glass of water. He took five dollars from his sister. capital, capitol, the Capitol Capital means "excellent," "most serious," or "most important" It also means "seat of government!' Capitol is a building in which a state legislature meets. The Capitol is the building in Washington, D.C., in which the U.S. Congress meets. Proper nouns begin with capital letters. Is Madison the capital of Wisconsin? Protestors rallied at the state capitol. A subway connects the Senate and the House in the Capitol. choose, chose Choose is a verb that means "to decide" or "prefer Chose is the past tense form of choose. He had to choose between taking art or band. She chose to write for the school paper. farther, further Farther refers to distance. Further refers to something additional. We traveled two hundred miles farther that afternoon. This idea needs further discussion. fewer, less Fewer refers to numbers of things that can be counted. Less refers to amount, degree, or value. Fewer than ten students camped out. We made less money this year on the walkathon than we did last year. good, well Good is always an adjective. Well is usually an adverb that modifies an action verb. Well can also be an adjective meaning "in good health." Dana felt good when she finished painting her room. Angela ran well in yesterday's race. I felt well when I left my house. hear, here Hear means "to listen to!' Here means "in this place:' Because of the noisy crowd, we couldn't hear the candidate. After leaving Italy, my grandparents settled here in Chicago. its, it's Its is a possessive pronoun. It's is a contraction for it is or it has. Sanibel Island is known for its beaches. It's great weather for a picnic. lay, lie Lay is a verb that means "to place." It takes a direct object. Lie is a verb that means "to be in a certain place!' Lie never takes a direct object. The carpenter will lay the planks on the bench. My cat likes to lie under the bed. R31 lead, led Lead can be a noun that means "a heavy metal" or a verb that means "to show the way: Led is the verb's past-tense form. A plumb is a weight made of lead. Maria leads the league in home runs. She led a discussion on ways to help homeless people. learn, teach Learn means "to gain knowledge." Teach means "to instruct:' Raul is learning how to play chess. Alicia is teaching Spanish. like, as, as if Use as or as if, not like, to introduce a clause. He walks as if his ankle were sore. loan, lone Loan refers to "something given for temporary use:' Lone refers to "the condition of being by oneself, alone." I gave that shirt to Max as a gift, not a loan. The lone plant in our yard turned out to be a scraggly weed. of Use have, not of, in phrases such as could have, should have, and must have. He could have passed if he had studied for the test. passed, past Passed is the past tense of pass and means "went by." Past is an adjective that means "of a former time." Past is also a noun that means "the time gone by." We passed through the Grand Tetons during our vacation. Our past experiences have taught us we can win. Ebenezer Scrooge is a character who relives his past. peace, piece Peace means "calm or quiet." Piece means a "section or part of something" Music can bring a sense of peace. We cut the pizza into pieces. quiet, quite Quiet refers to "freedom from noise or disturbance." Quite means "truly" or "almost completely." Observers must be quiet during the recording session. We were quite worried about the results of the test. set, sit Set means "to place." It takes a direct object. Sit means "to occupy a seat or a place." It does not take a direct object. He set the box down outside the shed. We sit in the last row of the upper balcony at every concert. their, there, they're Their means "belonging to them." There means "in that place:' They're is the contraction for "they are." All the campers returned to their cabins. I keep my card collection there in those folders. Because Lisa and Beth run daily, they're on the track team. to, too, two To means "toward" or "in the direction of." Too means "also" or "very:' Two is the number 2. We went to the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. It was too cold to play baseball. Two newspapers sent critics to review the play. whose, who's Whose is the possessive form of who. Who's is a contraction for who is or who has. Whose parents will drive us to camp? Who's going to the recycling center? your, you're Your is the possessive form of you. You're is a contraction for you are. Please take your places in line. You're going to the library after school, aren't you? R31 1 The Writing Process The writing process consists of the following four stages: prewriting, drafting, revising and editing, and publishing. As the graphic shows, these stages are not steps that you must complete in a set order. Rather, you may return to any step at any one time in your writing process, using feedback from your readers along the way. 1.1 Prewriting In the prewriting stage, you explore your ideas and discover what you want to write about. Finding Ideas for Writing Try one or more of the following techniques to help you find a writing topic. Personal Techniques Practice imaging, or trying to remember mainly sensory details about a subject—its look, sound, feel, taste, and smell. Complete a knowledge inventory to discover what you already know about a subject. Browse through magazines, newspapers, and online bulletin boards for ideas. Start a clip file of articles that you want to save for future reference. Be sure to label each clip with source information. Sharing Techniques With a group, brainstorm a topic by trying to come up with as many ideas as you can without stopping to critique or examine them. Interview someone who knows a great deal about your topic. Writing Techniques After freewriting on a topic, try looping, or choosing your best idea for more freewriting. Repeat the loop at least once. Make a list to help you organize ideas, examine them, or identify areas for further research. Graphic Techniques Create a pro-and-con chart to compare the positive and negative aspects of an idea or a course of action. Use a cluster map or tree diagram to explore subordinate ideas that relate to your general topic or central idea. Determining Your Purpose Your purpose for writing may be to express yourself, to entertain, to describe, to explain, to analyze, or to persuade. To clarify it, ask questions like these: Why did I choose to write about my topic? What aspects of the topic mean the most to me? What do I want others to think or feel after they read my writing? LINK TO LITERATURE One purpose for writing is to inform. For example, Jack London wrote "The Story of an Eyewitness," page 160, to inform R32 people about the disastrous effects of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Identifying Your Audience Knowing who will read your writing can help you focus your topic and choose relevant details. As you think about your readers, ask yourself questions like these: What does my audience already know about my topic? What will they be most interested in? What language is most appropriate for this audience? 1.2 Drafting In the drafting stage, you put your ideas on paper and allow them to develop and change as you write. Two broad approaches in this stage are discovery drafting and planned drafting. Discovery drafting is a good approach when you are not quite sure what you think about your subject. You just plunge into your draft and let your feelings and ideas lead you where they will. After finishing a discovery draft, you may decide to start another draft, do more prewriting, or revise your first draft. Planned drafting may work better for research reports, critical reviews, and other kinds of formal writing. Try making a writing plan or a scratch outline before you begin drafting. Then, as you write, you can fill in the details. LINK TO LITERATURE Some writers plan and outline. Others write in a great flurry, without much previous planning, as ideas occur to them. Describing the approach she uses to draft stories like "Raymond's Run" on page 33, Toni Cade Bambara says, "I babble along, heading I think in one direction, only to discover myself tugged in another, or sometimes I'm absolutely snatched into an alley." 1.3 Revising, Editing, and Proofreading The changes you make in your writing during this stage usually fall into three categories: revising for content, revising for structure, and proofreading to correct mistakes in mechanics. Use the questions that follow to assess problems and determine what changes would improve your work. Revising for Content Does my writing have a main idea or central focus? Is my thesis clear? Have I incorporated adequate detail? Where might I include a telling detail, revealing statistic, or vivid example? Is any material unnecessary, irrelevant, or confusing? Revising for Structure Is my writing unified? Do all ideas and supporting details pertain to my main idea or advance my thesis? Is my writing clear and coherent? Is the flow of sentences and paragraphs smooth and logical? Do I need to add transitional words, phrases, or sentences to clarify the relationships among ideas? Are my sentences well constructed? What sentences might I combine to improve the grace and rhythm of my writing? WRITING TIP Be sure to consider the needs of your audience as you answer the questions under Revising for Content and Revising for Structure. For example, before you can determine whether any of your material is unnecessary or irrelevant, you need to identify what your audience already knows. Proofreading to Correct Mistakes in Grammar, Usage, and Mechanics When you are satisfied with your revision, proofread your paper, looking for mistakes in grammar, usage, and mechanics. You may want R33 to do this several times, looking for different types of mistakes each time. The following checklist may help. Sentence Structure and Agreement Are there any run-on sentences or sentence fragments? Do all verbs agree with their subjects? Do all pronouns agree with their antecedents? Are verb tenses correct and consistent? Forms of Words Do adverbs and adjectives modify the appropriate words? Are all forms of be and other irregular verbs used correctly? Are pronouns used correctly? Are comparative and superlative forms of adjectives correct? Capitalization, Punctuation, and Spelling Is any punctuation mark missing or not needed? Are all words spelled correctly? Are all proper nouns and all proper adjectives capitalized? WRITING TIP For help identifying and correcting problems that are listed in the Proofreading Checklist, see the Grammar Handbook, pages R70—R92. You might wish to mark changes on your paper by using the proofreading symbols shown in the chart below. Proofreading Symbols ---see symbols 1.4 Publishing and Reflecting Always consider sharing your finished writing with a wider audience. Reflecting on your writing is another good way to bring closure to a project. Creative Publishing Ideas Here are some ideas for publishing and sharing your writing. Post your writing on an electronic bulletin board or send it to others via email. Create a multimedia presentation and share it with classmates. Publish your writing in a school newspaper or literary magazine. Present your work orally in a report, a speech, a reading, or a dramatic performance. Submit your writing to a local newspaper or a magazine that publishes student writing. Form a writing exchange group with other students. WRITING TIP You might work with other students to publish an anthology of class writing. Then exchange your anthology with another class or another school. Reading the work of other student writers will help you get ideas for new writing projects and find ways to improve your work. Reflecting on Your Writing Think about your writing process and whether you would like to add what you have written to your portfolio. You might attach a note in which you answer questions like these: What did I learn about myself and my subject through this writing project? Which parts of the writing process did I most enjoy and which did I least enjoy? As I wrote, what was my biggest problem? How did I solve it? What did I learn that I can use the next time I write? R34 1.5 Using Peer Response Peer response consists of the suggestions and comments your peers or classmates make about your writing. You can ask a peer reader for help at any point in the writing process. For example, your peers can help you develop a topic, narrow your focus, discover confusing passages, or organize your writing. Questions for Your Peer Readers You can help your peer readers provide you with the most useful kinds of feedback by following these guidelines: Tell readers where you are in the writing process. Are you still trying out ideas, or have you completed a draft? Ask questions that will help you get specific information about your writing. Open-ended questions that require more than yes-or-no answers are more likely to give you information you can use as you revise. Give your readers plenty of time to respond thoughtfully to your writing. Encourage your readers to be honest when they respond to your work. It's OK if you don't agree with them—you always get to decide which changes to make. Tips for Being a Peer Reader Follow these guidelines when you respond to someone else's work: Respect the writer's feelings. Make sure you understand what kind of feedback the writer is looking for, and then respond accordingly. Use "I" statements, such as "I like ... ," "I think ... ," or "It would help me if ...." Remember that your impressions and opinions may not be the same as someone else's. WRITING TIP Writers are better able to absorb criticism of their work if they first receive positive feedback. When you act as a peer reader, try to start your review by telling something you like about the piece. The chart below explains different peer- response techniques to use when you are ready to share your work. Peer-Response Techniques Sharing When you are just exploring ideas or when you want to celebrate the completion of a piece of writing, phrase your question like this. Will you please read or listen to my writing without criticizing or making suggestions afterward? Summarizing When you want to know if your main idea or goals are clear, ask these questions. What do you think I'm saying? What's my main idea or message? Replying Ask these questions when you want to enrich your writing by adding new ideas. What are your ideas about my topic? What do you think about what I have said in my piece? Responding to Specific Features Ask these questions when you want a quick overview of the strengths and weaknesses of your writing. Are the ideas supported with enough examples? Did I persuade you? Is the organization clear enough for you to follow the ideas? Telling Ask these questions to find out which parts of your writing are affecting readers the way you want and which parts are confusing. What did you think or feel as you read my words? Would you show me which passage you were reading when you had that response? R35 2 Building Blocks of Good Writing Whatever your purpose in writing, you need to capture your readers' interest, organize your ideas well, and present your thoughts clearly. Giving special attention to some particular parts of a story or an essay can make your writing more enjoyable and more effective. 2.1 Introductions When you flip through a magazine trying to decide which articles to read, the opening paragraph is often critical. If it does not grab your attention, you are likely to turn the page. Kinds of Introductions Here are some introduction techniques that can capture a reader's interest. Make a surprising statement. Provide a description. Pose a question. Relate an anecdote. Address the reader directly. Begin with a thesis statement. Make a Surprising Statement Beginning with a startling statement or an interesting fact can capture your reader's curiosity about the subject, as in the model below. MODEL Imagine something only 15 to 20 inches long dropping down out of the sky at 200 miles an hour! It would be nothing but a blur. And that is what makes the peregrine falcon such an effective bird of prey. Provide a Description A vivid description sets a mood and brings a scene to life for your reader. In the following model, details about heating the air for a hot air balloon set the tone for a narrative about a balloon ride. MODEL Whoosh! The red and yellow flame shot up into the great nylon cone. The warm air filled the balloon so that the cooler air below held the apparatus aloft. A soft breeze helped to push the balloon and basket along. The four passengers hardly noticed the noise or the heat as they stared in awe at the hilly farmland below. Ask a Question Beginning with a question can make your reader want to read on to find out the answer. Note how the introduction that follows invites the reader to learn more about a great sports achievement. MODEL What did St. Louis Cardinal Mark McGwire do in the 1998 baseball season that no other player had ever done? He hit 70 home runs in a single season, breaking the previously held record of 61 set by Roger Maris in 1961. Both McGwire and Chicago Cub Sammy Sosa passed Maris's record during the season, but it wasn't until the season's end that the home-run race was won by McGwire. Relate an Anecdote Beginning with a brief anecdote, or story, can hook readers and help you make a point in a dramatic way. The anecdote below introduces a firsthand account of a rescue from a burning apartment building. MODEL A red light began blinking. A siren started up slowly but built to a screeching pitch. Twenty-five sleepy faces appeared a few at a time in the hallway. As I recall, each of us looked to the left and right almost in unison as if watching an imaginary tennis match. R36 Address the Reader Directly Speaking directly to the readers establishes a friendly, informal tone and involves them in your topic. MODEL Find out how to maintain your cardiovascular system while enjoying yourself. Come to a free demonstration of Fit for Life at the Community Center Friday night at 7:00 P.M. Begin with a Thesis Statement A thesis statement expressing a paper's main idea may be woven into both the beginning and the end of nonfiction writing. The following example begins with a thesis statement that introduces a research report. MODEL There are many similarities between Mohandas Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr. Both believed in nonviolent resistance to laws they felt were unfair. Both were leaders who rallied millions behind their causes, and both leaders met a tragic end. 2.2 Paragraphs A paragraph is made up of sentences that work together to develop an idea or accomplish a purpose. Whether or not it contains a topic sentence stating the main idea, a good paragraph must have unity and coherence. Unity A paragraph has unity when all the sentences support and develop one stated or implied idea. Use the following techniques to create unity in your paragraphs. Write a Topic Sentence A topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph; all other sentences in the paragraph provide supporting details. A topic sentence is often the first sentence in a paragraph. However, it may also appear later in the paragraph or at the end, to summarize or reinforce the main idea, as shown in the model that follows. MODEL They unite against a common enemy but never quarrel among themselves. They feel no need to take over territory or conquer new waters. In fact, they never even fight over food. This ability to live together in total peace is one of the dolphins' most remarkable qualities. Relate All Sentences to an Implied Main Idea A paragraph can be unified without a topic sentence as long as every sentence supports the implied, or unstated, main idea. In the example below, all the sentences work together to create a unified impression of baking an apple pie. MODEL The chef carefully poured in the mixture of freshly sliced apples, sugar, flour, salt, cinnamon, and nutmeg. Then she floured her hands again before adding strips of pastry in crisscrosses across the top. She dotted some butter all along the top and sprinkled a little more sugar and cinnamon. Finally she placed the masterpiece in the oven. Coherence A paragraph is coherent when all its sentences are related to one another and flow logically from one to the next. The following techniques will help you write coherent paragraphs. Present your ideas in the most logical order. Use pronouns, synonyms, and repeated words to connect ideas. Use transitional words and phrases to show the relationships among ideas. MODEL According to the English colonist John Smith, Pocahontas saved his life. A few years later, she was kidnapped by other colonists. While living with them, she fell in love with John Rolfe, and they were married. Later, Pocahontas, her husband, and their infant son traveled to England, where Pocahontas was introduced to the king. R37 Transitions are words and phrases that show the connections between details. Clear transitions help show how your ideas relate to each other. 2.3 Transitions Kinds of Transitions Transitions can help readers understand several kinds of relationships: Time or sequence Spatial order Degree of importance Compare and contrast Cause and effect Time or Sequence Some transitions help to clarify the sequence of events over time. When you are telling a story or describing a process, you can connect ideas with such transitional words as first, second, always, then, next, later, soon, before, finally, after, earlier, afterward, and tomorrow. MODEL The orchestra members were seated. At first, the sounds conflicted with one another as the players tuned and tested their instruments. Then the concertmaster stood and played one note on her violin. Next, all the instruments tuned to that tone so that one great sound on the same pitch filled the auditorium. Spatial Order Transitional words and phrases such as in front, behind, next to, along, nearest, lowest, above, below, underneath, on the left, and in the middle can help readers visualize a scene. MODEL On my mother's dresser you can read the history of our family. On the left, a picture shows my parents' wedding. The picture in the middle is of my older brother as a baby, still toothless. The picture on the right shows all of us children in our fanciest clothes. Degree of Importance Transitional words such as mainly, strongest, weakest, first, second, most important, least important, worst, and best may be used to rank ideas or to show degree of importance. MODEL I look for several qualities in a friend. Most important, I like someone who shares my interests. Second, I want someone who can keep a secret. Least important, my new friend should get along with all my other friends. Compare and Contrast Words and phrases such as similarly, likewise, also, like, as, neither . . . nor, and either . . . or show similarity between details. Words and phrases such as however, by contrast, yet, but unlike, instead, whereas, and while show difference. MODEL Like the lawyer in "The Bet," Jerry in "A Mother in Mannville" spends much of his time alone. Both characters experience loneliness. However, as an orphan, Jerry never chooses to be alone, whereas the lawyer agreed to his solitary confinement. WRITING TIP Both but and however may be used to join two independent clauses. When but is used as a coordinating conjunction, it is preceded by a comma. When however is used as a conjunctive adverb, it is preceded by a semicolon and followed by a comma. Cause and Effect When you are writing about a cause-and-effect relationship, use transitional words and phrases such as since, because, thus, therefore, so, due to, for this reason, and as a result to help clarify that relationship. MODEL My notebook might look tattered, but I treasure it because Silvio gave it to me. He was my best friend, and he moved to Texas. Since the notebook is all I have to remember him by, I will never throw it out. R38 2.4 Conclusions A conclusion should leave readers with a strong final impression. Try any of these approaches. Kinds of Conclusions Here are some effective methods for bringing your writing to a conclusion: Restate your thesis. Ask a question. Make a recommendation. Make a prediction. Summarize your information. Restate Your Thesis A good way to conclude an essay is by restating your thesis, or main idea, in different words. The conclusion below restates the thesis introduced on page R37. MODEL There can be no doubt that Mohandas Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr., had much in common. Each was a great leader who struggled to help the oppressed people of his country. Ask a Question Try asking a question that sums up what you have said and gives readers something new to think about. The question below concludes a request to consider visiting a place of educational entertainment. MODEL If you enjoy science experiments and you like puzzles, shouldn't you plan soon to visit the Science Museum? Make a Recommendation When you are persuading your audience to take a position on an issue, you can conclude by recommending a specific course of action. MODEL Shawn, Maria, and Katie are all real children. The next time you see a homeless person, remember these children and think about what you can do to help. Make a Prediction Readers are concerned about matters that may affect them and therefore are moved by a conclusion that predicts the future. MODEL If this state continues to permit landowners to drain wetlands, we will see a tremendous decline in the number of animals and the variety of wildlife. Summarize Your Information Summarizing reinforces the writer's main ideas, leaving a strong, lasting impression. The model below concludes with a statement that summarizes a literary analysis of the works of Mark Twain. MODEL Although Roughing It and "A Fable" are very different in terms of style and subject matter, in both works Mark Twain uses humor as a way of criticizing society. 2.5 Elaboration Elaboration is the process of developing a writing idea by providing specific supporting details that are relevant and appropriate to the purpose and form of your writing. Facts and Statistics A fact is a statement that can be verified, while a statistic is a fact stated in numbers. Make sure the facts and statistics you supply are from a reliable, up- to-date source. As in the model below, the facts and statistics you use should strongly support the statements you make. MODEL Female cicadas cut little slits in the bark of twigs on trees and lay their eggs inside the slits. The eggs hatch after 6 to 10 weeks. When the eggs hatch, the twigs drop from the trees. Although this might seem threatening to the host trees, in fact there is little danger. R39 Sensory Details Details that show how something looks, sounds, tastes, smells, or feels can enliven a description, making readers feel they are actually experiencing what you are describing. Which senses does the writer appeal to in this paragraph? MODEL On the second day of the heat wave, the temperature hit a sweltering 106 degrees. Outside, the sun melted the soft tar of newly paved streets. Inside, people sipped sweet, cool lemonade and hovered around whirring old fans. Incidents Describing a brief incident can help to explain or develop an idea. The writer of the following example includes an incident to help make a point about safety. MODEL Pedestrians, like drivers, should follow certain rules of the road, such as looking both ways before crossing the street. I learned how dangerous it can be to break that rule when I was nearly hit by a driver who was traveling the wrong direction down a one-way street. Examples An example can help make an abstract or a complex idea concrete or can provide evidence to clarify a point for readers. MODEL Narrative poetry tells a story in poetic form. Like a work of prose fiction, a narrative poem has a setting, characters, and a plot. For example, "Paul Revere's Ride" by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow tells the story of the dramatic events that took place in Massachusetts on April 18, 1775, the night before the battles of Lexington and Concord. Quotations Choose quotations that clearly support your points and be sure that you copy each quotation word for word. Remember always to credit the source. MODEL In his short story "The Tell-Tale Heart," Edgar Allan Poe uses bizarre and frightening details to grip the reader with a sense of horror. "I saw it [the eye] with perfect distinctness—all a dull blue, with a hideous veil over it that chilled the very marrow in my bones . . ." 2.6 Using Language Effectively Effective use of language can help readers to recognize the significance of an issue, to visualize a scene, or to understand a character. This is true of all writing, from novels to office memos. Keep these particular points in mind. Specific Nouns Nouns are specific when they refer to individual or particular things. If you refer to a city, you are being general. If you refer to Austin, you are being specific. Specific nouns help readers identify the who, what, and where of your message. Specific Verbs Verbs are the most powerful words in sentences. They convey the action, the movement, and the drama of thoughts and observations. Verbs such as trudged, skipped, and sauntered provide a more vivid picture of the action than the verb walked. Specific Modifiers Use modifiers sparingly, but when you use them, make them count. Is the building big or towering? Are your poodle's paws small or petite? WRITING TIP Knowing synonyms and antonyms can help you choose the best words when you write. A dictionary of synonyms, also known as a thesaurus, will provide you with exact word choices. R40 3 Descriptive Writing Descriptive writing allows you to paint word pictures about anything and everything in the world, from events of global importance to the most personal feelings. Description is an essential part of almost every piece of writing, including essays, poems, letters, field notes, newspaper reports, and film scripts. RUBRIC STANDARDS FOR WRITING A successful description should have a clear focus and sense of purpose. use sensory details and precise words to create a vivid image, establish a mood, or express emotion. present details in a logical order. 3.1 Key Techniques Consider Your Goals What do you want to accomplish in writing your description? Do you want to show why something is important to you? Do you want to make a person or scene more memorable? Do you want to explain an event? Identify Your Audience Who will read your description? How familiar are they with your subject? What background information will they need? Which details will they find most interesting? Gather Sensory Details Which sights, smells, tastes, sounds, and textures make your subject come alive? Which details stick in your mind when you observe or recall your subject? Which senses does your subject most strongly affect? MODEL Davis slouched at the table and gazed out the coffee-shop window, his worn shirt soaked with perspiration. A fly began buzzing furiously against the torn window screen, so Davis took aim with a rolled-up newspaper. When an order of fried eggs and grits was served at the next table, his mouth watered and his stomach growled. You can use a chart like the one below to collect sensory details about your subject. Organize Your Details Details that are presented in a logical order help the reader form a mental picture of the subject. Descriptive details may be organized chronologically, spatially, by order of importance, or by order of impression. In the following model, descriptive details are organized by order of impression. MODEL The new teacher's towering height and her icy blue eyes drew our attention immediately. As she strode firmly to the board, our gaze followed her nervously. Only when she finally spoke, in a tone that was warm and friendly, did we begin to relax. Show, Don't Tell Instead of telling about a subject in a general way, provide details that enable your readers to share your experience. The following sentence, for example, just tells and doesn't show: I was proud when the local paper published my article. The model that follows uses descriptive details to show how proud the writer felt. MODEL I've delivered newspapers since I was eight, but last Thursday, for the first time, the newspaper printed an article I had written for a contest. I bought a pad of sticky notes and left messages for my customers: "Check out page B7. Enjoy the paper today." I thought about signing the article, but I decided that would be too much. R41 3.2 Options for Organization Spatial Order Choose one of these options to show the spatial order of a scene. MODEL Thunder's nostrils quivered as he was led into the barn. How would this be as a place to spend nights from now on? In the stall to the left, the straw smelled fresh. Beyond that stall, a saddle hung from the rough boards. To the right of his stall was another from which a mare looked at him curiously. So far, so good. To the far right, beyond two empty stalls, a cat lay on its side. WRITING TIP Use transitions that help the reader picture the relationship among the objects you describe. Some useful transitions for showing spatial relationships are behind, below, here, in the distance, on the left, over, and on top. Order of Impression Order of impression is how you notice details. What first catches your attention What you notice next What you see after that What you focus on last MODEL As she lost her balance on the slippery pebbles, her first thought was that she was going to sprain her ankle and be swept away by the surf. Her heart beat rapidly, but before she knew it, she was sitting in the sand while the warm surf rolled in, almost covering her. She realized that the water was not going to reach beyond her shoulders and that she was safe. Then, suddenly, she felt the tug of the water in the other direction as the undertow flowed back, sweeping the sand from under her as it went. As soon as the water had receded, she scrambled to her feet. WRITING TIP Use transitions that help readers understand the order of the impressions you are describing. Some useful transitions are after, next, during, first, before, finally, and then. Order of Importance You might want to use order of importance as the organizing structure for your description. Least Important More Important Most Important MODEL Jordana tried desperately to remember the details of the accident. She found it easy to remember unimportant details, like the song that was playing on the radio when the truck appeared coming toward them. Gradually she recalled more important information—the ice on the road, the look on the driver's face as the truck plowed into their car. Most importantly, she remembered the panic she had felt. She knew it would be a long time before she forgot that feeling of panic. WRITING TIP Use transitions that help the reader understand the order of importance that you attach to the elements of your description. Some useful transitions are first, second, mainly, more important, less important, and least important. R42 4 Narrative Writing Narrative writing tells a story. If you write a story from your imagination, it is a fictional narrative. A true story about actual events is a nonfictional narrative. Narrative writing can be found in short stories, novels, news articles, and biographies. RUBRIC STANDARDS FOR WRITING A successful narrative should include descriptive details and dialogue to develop the characters, setting, and plot have a clear beginning, middle, and end have a logical organization with clues and transitions to help the reader understand the order of events maintain a consistent tone and point of view use language that is appropriate for the audience demonstrate the significance of events or ideas 4.1 Key Techniques Identify the Main Events What are the most important events in your narrative? Is each event part of the chain of events needed to tell the story? In a fictional narrative, this series of events is the story's plot. MODEL An electrical storm approaches while two ranchers search for Kid Turner, a missing ranch hand. They find his horse and follow its hoof prints up a dry riverbed. The storm breaks as they find Kid lying helpless with his leg broken. They carry him to safety just before a flash flood rolls down the riverbed where he was lying. Define the Conflict The conflict of a narrative is the problem that the main character faces. What is the main problem that Jake faces? Is his conflict external or internal? MODEL Jake looked at the dark clouds that hovered overhead. How much time did they have to find Kid before the storm broke? Judging by the sky, the storm would break any minute, endangering all the men who were part of the search. On the other hand, Kid might be seriously hurt. His life depended on their getting to him as fast as possible. Depict Characters Vividly What do your characters look like? What do they think and say? How do they act? MODEL Jake had the hard, lined face of a veteran cowhand. His dark, piercing eyes scanned the countryside from beneath the shadow of his hat brim. He studied the clouds rolling in from the western horizon, gauging how severe the coming storm would be. WRITING TIP Dialogue is an effective way of developing characters in a narrative. As you write dialogue, choose words that express your characters' personalities and feelings. MODEL "Better find 'im soon," Jake said. Edna Mae could barely make out the words that were muffled by the wind. "We'll find him, Jake," was her reply, given with somewhat more confidence than she felt. "I'll know the hoof prints of Kid's horse if we ever pick up the frail," Jake answered. R43 4.2 Options for Organization Option 1: Chronological Order One way to organize a piece of narrative writing is to arrange the events in chronological order, as shown below. MODEL Kid Turner hasn't come back to the ranch in three days. Fearing that he is hurt, Jake and Edna Mae set out to search for him. As a thunderstorm approaches, they find his horse and backtrack up a dry wash. They find Turner just as the storm breaks. He has a broken leg, so he can't drag himself out of the dry wash. They carry him out of the riverbed and find shelter under a rock ledge. As they watch, a flash flood surges through the riverbed where Kid had been lying. WRITING TIP Try hooking your reader's interest by opening a story with an exciting event or some attention-grabbing dialogue. After your introduction, you may need to go back in time and relate the incidents that led up to the opening event. Option 2: Character Chronological order is the most common way to organize a narrative. However, you may wish to focus more directly on characters. Introduce the main character. Describe the conflict that the character faces. Relate the events and the changes that the character goes through as a result of the conflict. Present the final change or new understanding. Option 3: Focus on Conflict When the telling of a fictional narrative focuses on a central conflict, the story's plot may follow the model shown below. MODEL The brothers arrive at the school gym long before the rest of the basketball team. Although the twins are physically identical, their personalities couldn't be more different. Mark is outgoing and impulsive, while Matt is thoughtful and shy. Matt realizes Mark is missing shots on purpose and worries they will lose the championship. Matt has a chance at a basketball scholarship if they win the championship. Mark needs money to buy a car. He is being paid to lose the game. Matt and Mark have stood by each other no matter what. Matt retells a family story in which their grandfather chose honor and integrity over easy money. The story encourages Mark to play to win. Option 4: Flashback It is also possible in narrative writing to arrange the order of events by starting with an event that happened before the beginning of the story. Flashback Begin with a key event that happened before the time in which the story takes place. Introduce characters and setting. Describe the events leading up to the conflict. R44 5 Explanatory Writing Explanatory, or expository, writing informs and explains. For example, you can use it to explain how to cook spaghetti or to compare two pieces of literature. The rubric on the left shows you the basics of successful expository writing. RUBRIC STANDARDS FOR WRITING Successful explanatory writing should engage the interest of the reader state a clear purpose develop the topic with supporting details create a visual image for the reader by using precise verbs, nouns, and adjectives conclude with a detailed summary linked to the purpose of the composition 5.1 Types of Explanatory Writing There are many types of explanatory writing. Select the type that presents your topic most clearly. Compare and Contrast How are two or more subjects alike? How are they different? MODEL While the domestic honeybee has been bred for good honey production and gentleness, the Africanized bee is a "wild" bee that is quick-tempered and uncomfortable around animals and people. Cause and Effect How does one event cause something else to happen? What are the results of an action or a condition? MODEL If the Africanized bees drive out or breed into domesticated honeybee colonies, commercial beekeepers in the United States could be forced out of business. Problem-Solution How can you identify, state and analyze a problem? How can it be solved? MODEL The best way to protect yourself against the stings of the Africanized bee is to understand how it behaves. Analysis/Classification How does something work? How can it be defined? What are its parts? How can it be classified into categories? MODEL The Africanized honeybee is a new insect that has the potential to affect agriculture, recreation, and the environment. 5.2 Compare and Contrast Compare-and-contrast writing examines the similarities and differences between two or more subjects. RUBRIC STANDARDS FOR WRITING Successful compare-and-contrast writing should clearly identify the subjects that are being compared and contrasted. include specific, relevant details. be easy to follow, using either feature-by-feature or subject-by-subject organization. use transitional words and phrases to signal similarities and differences. end with a conclusion that summarizes how the subjects are alike and different. R45 Options for Organization Compare-and-contrast writing can be organized in different ways. The diagrams that follow demonstrate feature-by-feature organization and subject-by-subject organization. WRITING TIP: Remember your purpose for comparing and contrasting your subjects, and support your purpose with expressive language and specific details. 5.3 Cause and Effect Cause-and-effect writing explains why something happened, why certain conditions exist, or what resulted from an action or a condition. You might use cause-andeffect writing to explain a character's actions, the progress of a disease, or the outcome of a war. RUBRIC STANDARDS FOR WRITING Successful cause-and-effect writing should clearly state the cause-and-effect relationship. show clear connections between causes and effects. present causes and effects in a logical order and use transitions effectively. use facts, examples, and other details to illustrate each cause and effect. use language and details appropriate to the audience. Options for Organization Your organization will depend on your topic and purpose for writing. If you want to explain the causes of an event, such as the threat of Africanized bees to commercial beekeeping, you might first state the effect and then examine its causes. Option 1: Effect-to-Cause Organization If your focus is on explaining the effects of an event, such as the appearance of Africanized bees in the United States, you might first state the cause and then explain the effects. Option 2: Cause-to-Effect Organization R46 Sometimes you'll want to describe a chain of cause-and-effect relationships to explore a topic such as the disappearance of tropical rain forests or the development of home computers. Option 3: Cause-and-Effect Chain Organization WRITING TIP: Don't assume that a cause-andeffect relationship exists just because one event follows another. Look for evidence that the later event could not have happened if the first event had not caused it. 5.4 Problem—Solution Problem—solution writing clearly states a problem, analyzes the problem, and proposes a solution to the problem. It can be used to identify and solve a conflict between characters, analyze a chemistry experiment, or explain why the home team keeps losing. RUBRIC STANDARDS FOR WRITING Successful problem—solution writing should identify the problem and help the reader understand the issues involved. present a workable solution and include details that explain and support it. conclude by restating the problem. Options for Organization Your organization will depend on the goal of your problem—solution piece, your intended audience, and the specific problem you choose to address. The organizational methods that follow are effective for different kinds of problem— solution writing. Option 1: Simple Problem—Solution Description of problem and why it needs to be solved Recommended solution Explanation of solution Conclusion Option 2: Deciding Between Solutions Description of problem and why it needs to be solved Solution A Pros Cons Solution B Pros Cons Recommendation WRITING TIP: Have a classmate read your problem—solution writing. Ask your peer reader: Is the problem clearly stated? Is the organization easy to follow? 5.5 Analysis/Classification In writing an analysis, you explain how something works, how it is defined, or what its parts are. The details you include will depend upon the kind of analysis you write. Process Analysis What are the major steps or stages in a process? What background information does the reader need to know— such as definitions of terms or a list of needed equipment—to understand the analysis? You might use process analysis to explain how to program a VCR or prepare for a test. R47 Definition Analysis What are the most important characteristics of a subject? You might use definition analysis to explain a quality such as proficiency, the characteristics of a sonnet, or the features of a lever. Parts Analysis What are the parts, groups, or types that make up a subject? Parts analysis could be used to explain the makeup of an organization or the anatomy of an insect. Classification and Division How can one or more items be classified into groups? For example, you might use classification and division to explain how honey bees are either drones, workers, or queens. RUBRIC STANDARDS FOR WRITING Successful analysis should hook the readers' attention with a strong introduction. clearly state the subject and its parts. use a specific organizing structure to provide a logical flow of information. use transitions to connect thoughts. use language and details appropriate to the audience. Options for Organization Organize your details in a logical order appropriate to the kind of analysis you're writing. Option 1: Process Analysis A process analysis is usually organized chronologically, with steps or stages in the order they occur. MODEL Insect metamorphosis Many insects grow through a four-step cycle. Step 1 egg Step 2 larva Step 3 pupa Step 4 adult Option 2: Definition Analysis You can organize the details in a definition or parts analysis in order of importance or impression. MODEL What is an insect? An insect is a small animal with an external skeleton, three body segments, and three pairs of legs. Feature 1: external skeleton Feature 2: three body segments Feature 3: three pairs of legs Option 3: Parts Analysis The following parts analysis explains the parts of an insect's body. MODEL An insect's body is divided into three main parts. Part 1: The head includes eyes, mouth, and antennae. Part 2: The thorax has the legs and wings attached to it. Part 3: The abdomen contains organs for digesting food, eliminating waste, and reproducing. Option 4: Classification/Division The following classification divides things into groups or categories based on certain characteristics. MODEL One way that scientists classify insects is into species that are social insects and those that are not. The vast majority of insects are not social insects. The parents get together simply to mate. The female lays her eggs near a food source and then abandons them. Social insects, on the other hand, live in organized communities in which members depend on one another. Individual insects have specific roles within the community. All termites and ants are social insects. Many bees and some wasps are also social insects. R48 6 Persuasive Writing Persuasive writing allows you to use the power of language to inform and influence others. It can take many forms, including speeches, newspaper editorials, billboards, advertisements, and critical reviews. RUBRIC STANDARDS FOR WRITING Successful persuasion should have a strong introduction clearly state the issue and the writer's position present ideas logically answer opposing viewpoints end with a strong argument or summary or a call for action 6.1 Key Techniques State Your Opinion Taking a stand on an issue and clearly stating your opinion are essential to every piece of persuasive writing. MODEL Public tax dollars should continue to fund Green Park Zoo. Know Your Audience Knowing who will read your writing will help you decide what information you need to share and what tone you should use to communicate your message. In the model below, the writer has chosen a formal tone that is appropriate for a letter to a politician or for a newspaper editorial. MODEL In fact, an increase in funding will enable Green Park Zoo to expand its highly successful habitat program. Support Your Opinion Using reasons, examples, facts, statistics, and anecdotes will show your audience why you feel the way you do. Below, the writer uses an example to support her opinion. MODEL The zoo's habitat program concentrates on the conservation of endangered species, such as orangutans. Ways to Support Your Argument Statistics Facts that are stated in numbers Examples Specific instances that explain your point Observations Events or situations you yourself have seen Anecdotes Brief stories that illustrate your point Quotations Direct statements from authorities Begin and End with a Bang How can you hook your readers and make a lasting impression? What memorable quotation, anecdote, or statistic will catch their attention at the beginning or stick in their minds at the end? What strong summary or call to action can you conclude with? BEGINNING Have you ever enjoyed the antics of the orangutans at Green Park Zoo? Have you learned about the habitat of polar bears by visiting the zoo's polar bear exhibit? If you want to ensure that this wonderful facility does not close down, make sure that public funding for the zoo continues. R49 CONCLUSION Many people, old and young alike, have spent countless enjoyable hours at Green Park Zoo. Not only is it a place for relaxation and fun, it is also an important scientific laboratory where trained professionals work together to create educational programs and ensure the survival of endangered species. Don't let this valuable asset close down. Make sure that public tax dollars continue to support Green Park Zoo. 6.2 Options for Organization In persuasive writing, you need to gather information to support your opinions. Here are some ways you can organize material to convince your audience. Option 1: Reasons for Your Opinion MODEL Opinion: Public tax dollars should continue to fund Green Park Zoo animals. Reason 1: This zoo enables scientists to learn more about the habits and the diseases of animals. Reason 2: The zoo educates city dwellers about nature. Reason 3: Most important, the zoo breeds endangered species to protect them from extinction. Depending on the purpose and form of your writing, you may want to show the weaknesses of other opinions as you explain the strength of your own. Two options for organizing writing that includes more than just your side of the issue are shown below. Option 2: Why Your Opinion Is Stronger Option 3: Why Another Opinion Is Weaker WRITING TIP: Start a persuasive piece with a question, a surprising fact, or an anecdote to capture your readers' interest and make them want to keep reading. The ending of a persuasive piece is often the part that sticks in a reader's mind. Your conclusion might summarize the two sides of an issue, restate your position, invite readers to make up their own minds, or call for some action. R50 7 Research Report Writing In research report writing, you can find answers to questions about a topic you're interested in. Your writing organizes information from various sources and presents it to your readers as a unified and coherent whole. RUBRIC STANDARDS FOR WRITING An effective research report should clearly state the purpose of the report in a thesis statement use evidence and details from a variety of sources to support the thesis. contain only accurate and relevant information. document sources correctly. develop the topic logically and include appropriate transitions. include a properly formatted works cited list. 7.1 Key Techniques Formulate Questions Asking thoughtful questions will help you find an interesting, specific topic. Focus on the who, what, when, where, and why of your topic. If you were researching Frederick Douglass, you might develop these questions. MODEL When did Frederick Douglass live? What were his most important accomplishments? What difficulties did he overcome? Clarify Your Thesis Your thesis statement explains to your readers the question your report will answer. In the following example, the thesis statement answers the question "How did Frederick Douglass draw support for the antislavery movement?" MODEL In his writing and lectures Frederick Douglass used compelling tales of his own experience as a slave to gain support for the antislavery movement. Support Your Ideas You need to support your ideas with details and facts from reliable sources. In the following example, the writer supports the claim that Douglass risked his freedom. MODEL Douglass wrote his autobiography at the risk of being arrested as a runaway slave. According to writer Richard Conniff, Douglass only revealed his true identity because people doubted his stories about slavery. Document Your Sources You need to document, or credit, the sources where you find your information. In the example below, the writer quotes Douglass and documents the source. MODEL Douglass stated that the slaveholders tried "to disgust their slaves with freedom" so that the slaves would think they were better off in captivity. (Douglass 85) LINK TO LITERATURE Your reading can inspire ideas for research topics. For example, after reading Frederick Douglass's letter to Harriet Tubman on page 765, you may be interested in learning more about him. The research demonstrated in this part of the Writing Handbook was inspired by Douglass's statement "Most that I have done and suffered in the service of our cause has been in public." R51 7.2 Finding and Evaluating Sources Begin your research by looking for information on your topic in books, magazines, newspapers, and computer databases. In addition to using your library's card or computer catalog, look up your subject in indexes, such as the Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature or the New York Times Index. The bibliographies in books that you find during your research may also help lead to additional sources. The following checklist will help you evaluate the reliability of the sources you find. Checklist for Evaluating Your Sources Authority An authoritative resource gives evidence of the author's experience and current position. An author who has written books and articles, published in respected sources, is considered to be an authority. Currency An authoritative resource clearly shows the date when the document was created or revised. You can check items in the author's works cited list for more clues on currency. For historical research, older resources can be appropriate. For current research, up- to-date resources are important. Intended audience Use materials created for serious readers. Such materials have depth of content and respected authors and publishers.Tabloid newspapers and popular-interest magazines, while entertaining, are not reliable sources for reports. For questions about appropriate sources, ask a librarian. 7.3 Making Source Cards For each source you find, record the bibliographic information on a separate index card. You will need this information to give credit to the sources you use in your paper. The following samples show how to make source cards for encyclopedia entries, magazine articles, and books. You will use the source number on each card to identify the notes you take during your research. R52 7.4 Taking Notes As you find material that suits the purpose of your report, record each piece of information on a separate note card. You will probably use all three of the following note-taking methods. Paraphrase, or restate the passage in your own words. Start by finding the main idea and rewriting it in your own words. Then find and list the details that support the idea. As you restate the passage, try to use simpler language. Remember to note the source of the passage. Summarize, or rephrase the passage in fewer words. Restate only the main ideas, using your own words. Leave out details. As a final step, check to make sure that your summary is accurate and that it does not include unnecessary details. Quote, or copy word for word, the original text, if you think the author's own words best clarify a particular point. Use quotation marks to signal the beginning and end of the quotation. For more details on making source cards and taking notes, see the Research Report Workshop on pages 818-825. 7.5 Writing a Thesis Statement A thesis statement in a research report defines the main idea, or overall purpose, of your report. A clear one-sentence answer to your main question will result in a good thesis statement. Question: How did Frederick Douglass draw support for the antislavery movement in a way that others could not? Thesis Statement: Speaking and writing as a former slave, Frederick Douglass openly criticized racism in the United States and drew support for the antislavery movement. 7.6 Making an Outline To organize your report, group your note cards into main ideas and arrange them in a logical order. With your notes, make a topic outline, beginning with a shortened version of your thesis statement. Key ideas are listed after Roman numerals, and subpoints are listed after uppercase letters and Arabic numerals, as in the following example. R53 7.7 Documenting Your Sources When you quote one of your sources or write in your own words information you have found in a source, you need to credit that source, using parenthetical documentation. Work by One Author Put the author's last name and the page reference in parentheses: (Douglass 12) If you mention the author's name in the sentence, put only the page reference in parentheses: (12) Work by Two or Three Authors Put the authors' last names and the page reference in parentheses: (Meier and Rudwick 146) Work by More Than Three Authors Give the first author's last name followed by et al. and the page reference in parentheses: (Ripley et al. 14) Work with No Author Given Give the title (or a shortened version) and the page reference in parentheses: ("Frederick Douglass" 113) One of Two or More Works by Same Author Give the author's last name, the title (or a shortened version), and the page reference in parentheses: (Conniff, "Frederick Douglass" 117) WRITING TIP Presenting someone else's writing or ideas as your own is plagiarism. To avoid plagiarism, you need to credit sources as noted in the chart. However, if a piece of information is common knowledge—available in several sources—you do not need to credit the source. PUNCTUATION TIP When only the author and the page number appear in parentheses, there is no punctuation between the two items. 7.8 Following MLA Manuscript Guidelines The final copy of your report should follow the Modern Language Association (MLA) guidelines for manuscript preparation. The heading in the upper left-hand corner of the first page should include your name, your teacher's name, the course name, and the date, each on a separate line. Below the heading, center the title on the page. Number all the pages consecutively in the upper right-hand corner, one-half inch from the top. Also, include your last name before each page number. Double-space the entire paper. Except for the margins above the page numbers, leave one-inch margins on all sides of every page. Works Cited List At the end of your research report, you need to include a list of works cited. All sources that you have cited in your research report need to be listed alphabetically by the authors' last names. If no author is named in a source, use the editor's last name or the title of the work. Note the guidelines for spacing and punctuation on the model list on page R55. Internet Sources A works cited entry for an Internet source includes the same kinds of information as one for a print source. It also includes the date you accessed the information and the electronic address of the source. Some of the information may be unavailable; include as much as you can. For more information on how to write works cited entries for Internet sources, see the MLA guidelines posted on the Internet or access that document through the McDougal Littell Web site. R54 CD-ROMs Entries for CD-ROMs include the publication medium (CD-ROM), the distributor, and the date of publication. Some of the information may not be available. Include as much as you can. ---see sample R55 8 Technical Writing Technical writing is a type of writing used for detailed instructions or descriptions of items or processes in a variety of fields, such as engineering, government, industry, and science. Technical writing can take the form of bylaws, instructions for assembling and using an object or tool, and descriptions of how a tool, machine, or scientific theory works. 8.1 Instructions for Using a Tool Often in careers or everyday life, an individual will have to use technical writing to leave detailed instructions for another person. Instructions include specific steps that guide the reader through a process. Each step should offer a specific description of how to do one particular task in the process. BASICS IN A BOX A successful set of instructions should include 1. the purpose of the tool 2. a list of necessary equipment and materials 3. numbered steps in the correct order, and clearly explained 4. definitions of unfamiliar terms if necessary How to Prepare a Hand Sander A hand sander is used to sand wood or other material to a fine finish. A hand sander makes the job easier by holding sandpaper or other types of abrasive paper in a constant flat position. Materials hand sander sandpaper 1. Choose the appropriate type of sandpaper for your job. 2. Lift the flexible rubber flap at one end of the hand sander. 3. Insert the sandpaper in the slot between the flap and the base. 4. Lower the flap. Metal pins in the flap will pierce the sandpaper to hold it in place. 5. Lift the rubber flap at the other end of the hand sander. 6. Pull the sandpaper tightly and insert it in the slot between the flap and the base. 7. Lower the flap to secure the sandpaper. 8. Rub the hand sander along the wood or other material until you get the finish you want. Be careful not to rub too hard. R56 8.2 Writing Organizational Bylaws An organizational bylaws document provides a detailed written description of the rules and regulations that allow formal organizations, governing bodies, and businesses to function smoothly. Bylaws include basic information from which an organization sets policies and conducts activities. BASICS IN A BOX Complete organizational bylaws should include 1. an opening statement with the organization's name, the type of group, and the purpose for its existence 2. sections that begin with headings and present information in a clear format 3. statements of the characteristics and operation of the organization 4. rules that cannot be changed or suspended without changing the bylaws themselves Central High School Drama Club Bylaws We, the current members of Central High School Drama Club, create the following laws for our organization. Our members include actors, scenery designers, makeup artists, costume designers, lighting and sound specialists, stagehands, and stage managers. MISSION STATEMENT: To provide an organization where members of the dramatic arts program at Central High School heighten awareness about theater in the school, support each other during shows, and provide entertainment for the Oakland community. ACTIVITIES: Biweekly meetings to talk about concerns and programming Publicity for upcoming school productions Performances, including two major drama productions MEMBERSHIP REQUIREMENTS To qualify for membership in the Drama Club, a candidate must be enrolled as a student in Central High School complete ten hours of participation in a school or community production To remain a member of the Drama Club, an individual must actively contribute to the goals of the club complete a minimum of five hours of production participation each year OFFICER ELECTION LAWS Each year the members will vote for a president, vice-president, treasurer, and secretary. 1. The individuals running for office must be nominated by another Drama Club member. 2. To be elected, a nominee must receive a majority of the votes. RULES OF ORDER FOR MEETINGS 1. All meetings will be conducted according to Robert's Rules of Order. 2. A quorum of five members must be present for discussion of business items and voting. 3. The president will call the meeting to order. 4. The secretary will record, distribute, and manage meeting minutes. R57 9 Career Handbook The ability to write clearly is an important skill in the business world As you prepare to enter the job market, you will need to know how to research different careers, fill out job applications, write business letters, and prepare résumés. 9.1 Career Report Each year, there are jobs that did not exist the year before. How will you find out about the latest career opportunities? One way is to use the library and the Internet as research tools. Here is what one eighth-grade student wrote about a career in which she has an interest— computer animation. BASICS IN A BOX A successful career report should 1. include an introductory paragraph that describes the career 2. present information about career training 3. follow a logical pattern of organization, using transitions between ideas 4. use information from multiple sources 5. credit sources of information 6. include a properly formatted Works Cited list Fantasia 1 Joyce Fantasia Writing Class 8B Mrs. Palin September Become a Computer Animator Have you ever wondered who creates the special effects in feature films such as The Phantom Menace and Titanic or who creates the animation for television commercials? The answer is professional computer animators. Computer animation is a growing field that offers many exciting career opportunities. If you are interested in this field, the first thing to think about is where to get the training you will need. Computer animation started in the 1970s and 1980s. In those days, only a few schools offered training programs. Today, however, hundreds of colleges and universities have programs and courses in computer animation (Morie). For example, the California Institute of the Arts has programs both in character animation and experimental animation, and the University of Washington has a new program that covers the basics ("Growing Demand"). The next thing to think about is what to specialize in. There are R58 Fantasia 2 many different specialties, and new ones are developing all the time. Besides being used in the field of entertainment, computer animation is used in meteorology and medicine. For example, weather forecasters use computer animation to track changes in the weather, and doctors use it to study what's happening inside the human bod y. Pilots us it in training to fly. Computer animation is even used by architects, lawyers and business executives (Lund 8-10). Finally, it's important to know what skills you will need to become a computer animator. The basic skills are the same for all computer animators—to be good at math and art (Mardis ; Morie). After you have covered the basics, what you need know depends on the specialty you choose. For example, I want to be a computer animator in the field of entertainment. (Since I was little, I've always loved to draw. I even invented two cartoon characters—Mighty Max and Asteroid Alexandra.) If I specialize in movies or in television, I might work with storyboards that set up the outlines of stories. Or I might be in charge of "in-betweening"—making the drawings that show every move each character makes. There are many opportunities because the completion of one feature-length film requires hundreds of people and takes thousands of hours of work (Lund 27). So if you are creative and a good math student, you might want to join the growing number of computer anaimators. But be prepared—you'll have to work hard to become one! Fantasia 3 Works Cited "Growing Demand for Computer Animators Spurs a New Program at University of Washington." Chronicle of 7 ug. 1997: A23. Lund, Bill. Gettin• Read for a Career as a Corn suter Animator. Mankato: Capstone, 1998. Mardis, Lori A. "Career Biographies: 3D Computer Animation." The Ir!tg!-net._ PulorlcDrar . 2 May 1997. U of Michigan School of Information. 25 Aug. 1999 <http://www.ipl.org/teen/pathways/comptech/companim.html>. Morie, Jacquelyn Ford. "CO Training for the Entertainment Film Industry." LEES. Corneuter Gra.hics and A..lications 18.1 (1998). 17 Aug. 1999 <http://wvvw.education.siggraph.org/curriculum/mischmorie.html>. R59 9.2 Job Application When you apply for a job, you may be asked to fill out an application form. Application forms vary, but most of them ask for similar kinds of information. BASICS IN A BOX When completing a job application, you should 1. print all information neatly 2. be sure your answers are accurate and complete 3. write N/A ("not applicable") if a section does not apply to you 4. list schools attended and work experience in order, giving the most recent first 5. include a brief cover letter if you mail the application (see page R62) air& R60 9.3 Résumé BASICS IN A BOX A successful résumé should 1. state your purpose or objective 2. describe your qualifications 3. list your previous employment experience 4. describe your education 5. list extracurricular activities and hobbies R61 9.4 Business Letter/ Letter of Inquiry Business letters are more formal than personal letters and require a precise form. Types of business letters include the letter of inquiry, letter of complaint, cover letters for résumés, and announcements. The letter of inquiry asks for information or service from an individual or organization that is in a position to provide it. Formal letters are printed on white stationery, 81/2 by 11 inches in size. Margins should be at least one inch wide. BASICS IN A BOX A successful business letter will have 1. a heading—showing where the letter comes from and when 2. an inside address—showing to whom the letter is being sent 3. a salutation, or greeting 4. a body, or text 5. a closing R62 9.5 Memorandum A memorandum (or memo) is a type of informal correspondence between individuals within an office or organization. The memo has a specific format but does not require a salutation or closing. BASICS IN A BOX A successful memorandum should have 1. the word memo or memorandum centered at the top of the page 2. a heading that includes guide words followed by a colon "To" line—identifies who is receiving the memo "From" line—indicates who is sending the memo "Date" line—indicates the full date of the sent memo "Re" line—indicates the subject of the memo 3. a body or message that is concise R63 10 Model Bank 10.1Research Report BASICS IN A BOX A successful research report should 1. include a strong introduction and a thesis statement that clearly states the topic and purpose. 2. use evidence from primary or secondary sources to develop and support ideas. 3. credit sources of information. 4. follow a logical pattern of organization, using transitions between ideas. 5. use information from multiple sources. 6. summarize ideas in the conclusion. 7. include a properly formatted works cited list at the end. R64 10.2 Book Review BASICS IN A BOX A successful book review should 1. have an introduction that gives the title, author, and some information about the book. 2. summarize the work without giving away the ending. 3. if the work is fiction, discuss the plot, setting, characters, and theme. 4. explain why you admire or dislike the work. 5. support your reactions with details from the work. 6. conclude with a strong statement of your opinion or a recommendation. R66 10.3 Short Story BASICS IN A BOX A successful short story should 1. have a strong beginning and ending. 2. use the elements of character, setting, and plot to create a convincing world. 3. use vivid sensory language, concrete details, and dialogue to create believable characters and setting. 4. develop a main conflict. 5. present a clear sequence of events. R67 Short Story at a Glance Introduction Sets the stage by introducing the characters describing the setting Body Develops the plot by introducing the conflict telling a sequence of events developing characters through words and actions building suspense toward a climax Conclusion Finishes the story by resolving the conflict telling the last event R69 Grammar Handbook 1 Quick Reference: Parts of Speech Noun Names a person, place, thing, idea, quality, or action. Pandora, Greece, boat, freedom, joy, sailing Pronoun Takes the place of a noun or another pronoun. Personal Refers to the one speaking, spoken to, or spoken about. I, me, my, mine, we, us, our, ours, you your, yours, she, he, it, her, him, hers, his, its, they, them, their, theirs Reflexive Follows a verb or preposition and refers to a preceding noun or pronoun. myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves Intensive Emphasizes a noun or another pronoun. (Same as reflexives) Demonstrative Points to specific persons or things. this, that, these, those Interrogative Signals questions. who, whom, whose, which, what Indefinite Refers to person(s) or thing(s) not specifically mentioned. both, all, most, many, anyone, everybody, several, none, some Relative Introduces subordinate clauses and relates them to words in the main clause. who, whom, whose, which, that Verb Expresses action, condition, or state of being. Action Tells what the subject does or did, physically or mentally. run, reaches, listened, consider, decides, dreamt Linking Connects subjects to that which identifies or describes them. am, is, are, was, were, sound, taste, appear, feel, become, remain, seem Auxiliary Precedes and introduces main verbs. be, have, do, can, could, will, would, may, might Adjective Modifies nouns or pronouns. strong women, two epics, enough time Adverb Modifies verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. walked out, really funny, far away Preposition Relates one word to another (following) word. at, by, for, from, in, of, on, to, with Conjunction Joins words or word groups. Coordinating Joins words or word groups used the same way. and, but, or, for, so, yet, nor Correlative Join words or word groups used the same way and are used in pairs. both ... and, either or, neither ... nor Subordinating Joins word groups not used the same way. although, after, as, before, because, when, if, unless Interjection Expresses emotion. wow, ouch, hurrah R70 2 Quick Reference: The Sentence and Its Parts The diagrams that follow will give you a brief review of the essentials of the sentence-subjects and predicates-and of some of its parts. The boy's clothes were ragged and worn. The complete subject includes all the words that identify the person, place, thing, or idea that the sentence is about. The simple subject tells exactly whom or what the sentence is about. It may be one word or a group of words, but it does not include modifiers. The complete predicate includes all the words that tell or ask something about the subject. The simple predicate, or verb, tells what the subject does or is. It may be one word or several, but it does not include modifiers. At the cabin, the woman had given the boy some apples. A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, its object, and any modifiers of the object. In this phrase, at is the preposition and the cabin is its object. subject Verbs often have more than one part. They may be made up of a main verb, like given, and one or more auxiliary, or helping verbs, like had. A is a direct object is a word or group of words that tells who or what receives the action of the verb in the sentence. An indirect object is a word or group of words that tells to whom or for whom or to what or for what about the verb. A sentence can have an indirect object only if it has a direct object. The indirect object always comes before the direct object in a sentence. R71 3 Quick Reference: Punctuation End Marks period, question mark, exclamation point to end sentences We can start now. When would you like to leave? What a fantastic hit! initials and other abbreviations Mr. Misenheimer, O. Henry, McDougal Littell Inc., P.M., A.D., lbs., oz., Blvd., Dr. items in outlines I. Volcanoes A. Central-vent 1. Shield exception: post office abbreviations NE (Nebraska), NV (Nevada) Commas before conjunction in compound sentence I have never disliked poetry, but now I really love it. items in a series She is brave, loyal, and kind. The slow, easy route is best. words of address Maria, how can I help you? You must do something, soldier. parenthetical expressions Well, just suppose that we can't? Hard workers, as you know, don't quit. I'm not a quitter, believe me. introductory phrases and dependent clauses In the beginning of the day, I feel fresh. Having finished my chores, I went out. While she was out, I was here. nonessential phrases and clauses Ed Pawn, captain of the chess team, won. Ed Pawn, who is the captain, won. The two leading runners, sprinting toward the finish line, finished in a tie. in dates and addresses September 21, 2001. Mail it by May 14, 2000, to Hauptman Company, 321 Market Street, Memphis, Tennessee. in letter parts Dear Jim, Sincerely yours, for clarity or to avoid confusion By noon, time had run out. What the minister does, does matter. While cooking, Jim burned his hand. Semicolons in compound sentences that are not joined by coordinators and, etc. The last shall be first; the first shall be last. I read the Bible; however, I have not memorized it. with items in series that contain commas We invited my sister, Jan; her friend, Don; my uncle Jack; and Mary Dodd. in compound sentences that contain commas After I ran out of money, I called my parents; but only my sister was home, unfortunately. R72 Colons to introduce lists Correct: We invited the following people: Dana, John, and Will. before a long quotation Abraham Lincoln wrote: "Four score and seven years ago, our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation...." after the salutation of a business letter To Whom It May Concern: Dear Leonard Atole: with certain numbers 1:28 P.M., Genesis: 2:5 Dashes to indicate an abrupt break in thought I was thinking of my mother—who is arriving tomorrow—just as you walked in. Parentheses to enclose less important material It was so unlike him (John is always on time) that I began to worry. Hyphens with a compound adjective before nouns The not-so-rich taxpayer won't stand for this! in compounds with all-, ex-, self-, -elect The ex-firefighter helped rescue him. Our president-elect is self-conscious. in compound numbers (to ninety-nine) Today, I turn twenty-one. in fractions used as adjectives My cup is one-third full. between prefixes and words beginning with capital letters Which pre-Raphaelite painter do you like best? It snowed in mid-October. when dividing words at the end of a line How could you have any reasonable expec- tations of getting a new computer? Apostrophes to form possessives of nouns and indefinite pronouns my friend's book, my friends' book, anyone's guess, somebody else's problem for omitted letters in numbers/contractions don't (omitted o); he'd (omitted woul) the class of '99 (omitted 19) to form plurals of letters and numbers I had two A's and no 2's on my report card. Quotation Marks to set off a speaker's exact words Sara said, "I'm finally ready." "I'm ready," Sara said, "finally." Did Sara say, "I'm ready"? Sara said, "I'm ready!" for titles of stories, short poems, essays, songs, book chapters I liked Paulsen's "Dirk the Protector" and Roethke's "The Bat." I like Joplin's "Me and Bobby McGee." Ellipses for material omitted from a quotation "When in the course of human events . . . and to assume among the powers of the earth. . . ." Italics for titles of books, plays, magazines, long poems, operas, films, TV series, names of ships Roughing It, Hamlet, Newsweek, The Odyssey, Madame Butterfly, Gone with the Wind, Seinfeld, U.S.S. Constitution R73 People and Titles Names and initials of people Gish Jen, J. Frank Dobie Ttles with names Professor Holmes, Senator Long Deities and members of religious groups Jesus, Allah, the Buddha, Zeus, Baptists, Roman Catholics Names of ethnic and national groups Hispanics, Irish, African Americans Geographical Names Cities, states, countries, continents Philadelphia, Kansas, Japan, Europe Regions, bodies of water, mountains the South, Lake Baikal, Mount McKinley Geographic features, parks Great Basin, Yellowstone National Park Streets and roads, planets 318 East Sutton Drive, Charles Court, Jupiter, Pluto Organizations and Events Companies, organizations, teams Talbot Toy Company, Boy Scouts of America, St. Louis Cardinals Buildings, bridges, monuments Empire State Building, Eads Bridge, Washington Monument Documents, awards the Declaration of Independence, Stanley Cup Special named events Mardi Gras, World Series Governmental bodies, historical periods and events U.S. Senate, House of Representatives, Middle Ages, Vietnam War Days and months, holidays Thursday, March, Thanksgiving, Labor Day Specific cars, boats, trains, planes Vauxhall, Mississippi Queen, Orient Express, Concorde Proper Adjectives Adjectives formed from proper nouns French cooking, Freudian psychology, Edwardian age, Atlantic coast First Words and the Pronoun I The first word in a sentence or quotation This is it. He said, "Let's go." Complete sentence in parentheses (Consult the previous chapter.) Salutation and closing of letters Dear Madam, Very truly yours, First lines of most poetry Let them be as flowers, The personal pronoun I If I could stand alone, stron and free, I'd rather be a tall, ugly weed. First, last, and all important words in titles High Tide in Tucson, "A Loaf of Poetry" R74 5 Writing Complete Sentences 5.1 Sentence Fragments A sentence fragment is a group of words that does not express a complete thought. It may be missing a subject, a predicate, or both. A sentence fragment makes you wonder What is this about? or What happened? Missing Subject or Predicate You can correct a sentence fragment by adding the missing subject or predicate to complete the thought. INCORRECT: Play an important part in a radio drama. The chug of an oncoming train. A car engine. Blows frantically. CORRECT: Sound effects play an important part in a radio drama. The chug of an oncoming train signals danger. A car engine stalls. The train whistle blows frantically. Phrase and Subordinate-Clause Fragments When the fragment is a phrase or a subordinate clause, you may join the fragment to an existing sentence. INCORRECT: In a radio drama. The music also stirs the listener's emotions. As the music speeds up. The tension builds. Suddenly, terror grips the listener. Because the music has ended abruptly. CORRECT: In a radio drama the music also stirs the listener's emotions. As the music speeds up, the tension builds. Suddenly, terror grips the listener, because the music has ended abruptly. GRAMMAR PRACTICE Correct the sentence fragments that you find in this paragraph. (1) Like The Hitchhiker, the dramatization of The War of the Worlds was produced for radio by Orson Welles. (2) Reporting a Martian invasion of the United States. (3) Broadcast October 30, 1938. (4) An announcer interrupted the broadcast several times. (5) Said that it was just a play. (6) However, the story and the acting were so convincing that millions of Americans thought it was a real news report. (7) Terror struck. (8) Spreading quickly across the country. (9) Reports of panic-stricken people in the streets. (10) Welles later apologized to the nation. (11) The radio station also. (12) The Federal Communications Commission made new regulations after the broadcast. (13) To make sure a radio drama would never cause such panic again. 5.2 Run-on Sentences A run-on sentence consists of two or more sentences written incorrectly as one. A run-on sentence occurs because the writer either used no end mark or used a comma instead of a period to end the first complete thought. A run-on sentence may confuse readers because it does not show where one thought ends and the next begins. WATCH OUT! To correct a run-on sentence, read it to yourself, noticing where you naturally pause between ideas. The pause usually indicates where you should place end punctuation. Forming Separate Sentences One way to correct a run-on sentence is to form two separate sentences. Use a period or other end punctuation after the first sentence, and capitalize the first letter of the next sentence. INCORRECT: In "The Treasure of Lemon Brown" Lemon Brown lived in an abandoned building he slept on a pile of rags. Homeless people have to live by their wits they don't have many other defenses against robbery and other dangers. CORRECT: In "The Treasure of Lemon Brown" Lemon Brown lived in an abandoned building. He slept on a pile of rags. Homeless people have to live by their wits. They don't have many other defenses against robbery and other dangers. R75 Forming Compound Sentences You can also correct a run-on sentence by rewriting it to form a compound sentence. One way to do this is by using a comma and a coordinating conjunction. Never join simple sentences with a comma alone, or a run-on sentence will result. You need a comma followed by a conjunction such as and, but, or or to hold the sentences together. EXAMPLE: Lemon Brown was homeless, but he still had his treasure and his memories to comfort him. You may use a semicolon to join two ideas that are closely related. In addition, you can correct a run-on sentence by using a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb. Commonly used conjunctive adverbs are however, therefore, nevertheless, and besides. INCORRECT: Lemon Brown had an interesting past he had once been a famous blues singer. Homeless people are often ignored, Greg learned an important lesson by taking time to get to know Lemon Brown. CORRECT: Lemon Brown had an interesting past; he had once been a famous blues singer. Homeless people are often ignored; however, Greg learned an important lesson by taking time to get to know Lemon Brown. GRAMMAR PRACTICE Rewrite this paragraph, correcting the run-on sentences. (1) In "The Treasure of Lemon Brown" we learn a little about what it's like to be homeless, it's not the whole picture. (2) It has been estimated that 250,000 to 3 million homeless people are living in the United States today one-third of these people are children. (3) In fact, children are the fastest-growing segment of the homeless population their average age is three years old. (4) Many of these kids face other problems health is a particularly big concern. (5) In 1999 over half of the children in New York City's homeless shelters had not received proper immunizations. (6) Education is another problem, homeless children are more likely to repeat a grade, and they are more likely to drop out or be placed in a special education program. 6 Making Subjects and Verbs Agree 6.1 Simple and Compound Subjects A verb must agree in number with its subject. Number refers to whether a word is singular or plural. When a word refers to one thing, it is singular. When a word refers to more than one thing, it is plural. Agreement with Simple Subjects Use a singular verb with a singular subject. When the subject is a singular noun, use the singular form of the verb. The presenttense singular form of a regular verb usually ends in -s or -es. EXAMPLE: In "The Dinner Party" a poisonous snake invades a dining room. USAGE TIP To find the subject of a sentence, first find the verb. Then ask who or what performs the action of the verb. Say the subject and the verb together to see if they agree. Use a plural verb with a plural subject. EXAMPLE: The hostess behaves calmly and orders a servant to distract the snake. These events prove what I have always believed. Women possess as much self- control as men. Agreement with Compound Subjects Use a plural verb with a compound subject whose parts are joined by and, regardless of the number of each part. EXAMPLE: The woman and the scientist realize that a snake is under the table. When the parts of a compound subject are R76 joined by or or nor, make the verb agree in number with the part that is closer to it. EXAMPLE: Neither the guests nor their hostess expects to see a cobra. GRAMMAR PRACTICE Write the correct form of the verb given in parentheses. 1. In "The Dinner Party" the narrator (describes, describe) what happened during a dinner party in India. 2. A colonial official and his wife (invites, invite) a number of people to dinner. 3. Both the host and the hostess (enjoys, enjoy) the dinner conversation. 4. The guests (discusses, discuss) an interesting topic. 5. Most of the men at the dinner party believe that a woman (tends, tend) to lose control when faced with a crisis. 6. Is it true that neither the colonel nor the other men at the dinner party (agrees, agree) with the young girl? 7. However, the hostess (proves, prove) that women also have self-control when she reacts calmly to the presence of the snake. 6.2 Pronoun Subjects When a pronoun is used as a subject, the verb must agree with it in number. Agreement with Personal Pronouns When the subject is a singular personal pronoun, use a singular verb. When the subject is a plural personal pronoun, use a plural verb. Singular pronouns are /, you, he, she, and it. Plural pronouns are we, you, and they. With I and you, use the plural form of the verb. (However, use the singular form I am when using the verb "to be.") EXAMPLE: We know a lot about the Vietnam War. In "Stop the Sun" a young boy searches for information that history books cannot teach. He tries to find out what soldiers experienced in Vietnam. As you read the story, you understand the horror of war. I think the story is very moving. When he, she, or it is the part of the subject closer to the verb in a compound subject containing or or nor, use a singular verb. When a pronoun is a part of a compound subject containing and, use a plural verb. EXAMPLE: Terry worries about his father. Neither his mother nor he understands what his father is going through. His mother and he want his father to be happy. Agreement with Indefinite Pronouns When the subject is a singular indefinite pronoun, use the singular form of the verb. The following are singular indefinite pronouns: another, either, nobody, anybody, everybody, somebody, no one, anyone, everyone, someone, one, nothing, anything, everything, something, each, and neither. EXAMPLE: My friends feel sorry for Terry's father. Nobody wants to experience that kind of pain. Someone knows a man who was a soldier in Vietnam. When the subject is a plural indefinite pronoun (both, few, many, or several), use the plural form of the verb. EXAMPLE: Few imagine that such a thing will ever happen to them. In fact, several hope to serve in the armed forces. The indefinite pronouns some, all, any, none, and most can be either singular or plural. When the pronoun refers to one thing, use a singular verb. When the pronoun refers to several things, use a plural verb. EXAMPLE: In class all the students discussed the story. Most think Terry did the right thing. None believes that Terry made his father's condition worse. R77 GRAMMAR PRACTICE Choose the correct verb form from each pair. 1. Among students of history, some (know, knows) a great deal about the Vietnam War. 2. All (understand, understands) the importance of this war in American history. 3. Everybody (agree, agrees) that the war had a very divisive effect on American society. 4. Few (understand, understands) the psychological effects that the war had on American soldiers. 5. Many (know, knows) someone like Terry's father. 6. In the story Terry and he (talk, talks) about the war. 7. Neither Terry nor he (enjoy, enjoys) the conversation; however, he and Terry (seem, seems) to have grown closer because of their talk. 8. I have read many accounts of the war; most (deal, deals) with military strategies. 9. None (convey, conveys) the impact that this war had on people's minds. 6.3 Common Agreement Problems Several other situations can cause problems in subject-verb agreement. Interrupting Words and Phrases Be sure the verb agrees with its subject when words or phrases come between them. Sometimes one or more words come between the subject and the verb. These interrupting words do not affect the number of the subject. The subject of a verb is never found in a prepositional phrase or in an appositive, which may follow the subject and come before the verb. EXAMPLE: This excerpt, which is full of vivid imagery, describes Lewis and Clark's expedition. Meriwether Lewis, President Thomas Jefferson's private secretary, leads the exploration of the Louisiana Territory. Phrases beginning with including, as well as, along with, such as, and in addition to are not part of the subject. EXAMPLE: This story, along with other articles I have read about the expedition, fascinates me. Adventures, such as the one described here, excite and intrigue me. Inverted Sentences When the subject comes after the verb, be sure the verb agrees with the subject in number. A sentence in which the subject follows the verb is called an inverted sentence. Questions are usually in inverted form, as are sentences beginning with here, there, and where. (For example, Where are the explorers? There is a storm coming.) EXAMPLE: Much has changed since Lewis and Clark's expedition. There were huge herds of bison that once roamed the Plains. Where, in a landscape that has changed out of recognition, are they now? Singular Nouns with Plural Forms Be sure to use a singular verb when the subject is a noun that is singular in meaning but appears to be plural. Words like mumps, news, and molasses appear to be plural because they end in -s. However, these words are singular in meaning. Words ending in -ics that refer to sciences or branches of study (physics, mathematics, genetics, politics) are also singular. EXAMPLE: In the early 19th century, news about Native Americans who lived out west was hard to come by. Likewise Native Americans who lived in the West were unaware of events back east in the United States. American politics was not a subject that interested them. Collective Nouns Use a singular verb when the subject is a collective noun—such as class, team, crowd, or flock—that refers to a group acting as a unit. Use a plural verb when the collective noun refers to members of the group acting individually. R78 EXAMPLE: The flock was preening itself on a sandbar. My class discusses whether Lewis should have fired his gun into its midst. Nouns of Time, Weight, or Measure Use a singular verb with a subject that identifies a period of time, a weight, a measure, or a number. EXAMPLE: It is amazing to think that 28 months was the total amount of time it took to travel from just above St. Louis to the Pacific Ocean and back. Some 8,000 miles was the total distance covered by the expedition. Titles Use a singular verb when the subject is the title of a work of art, literature, or music, even though the title may contain plural words. EXAMPLE: I wrote a poem about the expedition. My English teacher told me that "Lewis and Clark" is the best poem he has read all year. GRAMMAR PRACTICE Write the correct form of each verb given in parentheses. 1. The selection from Undaunted Courage (are, is) a fascinating account of Lewis and Clark's expedition. 2. The writer, Stephen Ambrose, (describe, describes) the strange sights that the travelers encounter. 3. There (are, is) many descriptions of animals and plants. 4. Lewis, along with Clark and other members of the expedition, (were, was) often astonished by new sights and sounds. 5. Lewis's objectives, as given to him by President Jefferson, (were, was) to explore the new territory and to interest the native tribes in trade. 6. The expedition (seems, seem) as if it were quite cut off from contact with people in the United States. 7. News of events in the United States (was, were) impossible to obtain. 8. How (does, do) you get news when you are so far from home? 9. I read that 55 feet (was, were) the length of the keelboat that they used on the trip. 10. Our class always (enjoy, enjoys) reading stories of exploration. 7 Using Nouns and Pronouns 7.1 Plural and Possessive Nouns Nouns refer to people, places, things, and ideas. A noun is plural when it refers to more than one person, place, thing, or idea. Possessive nouns show who or what owns something. Plural Nouns Follow these guidelines to form noun plurals. Nouns To Form Plural Examples Most nouns add -s tree—trees Most nouns that end in s, sh, ch, x, or z add -es dress—dresses brush—brushes Most nouns that end in ay, ey, oy, or uy add -s essay—essays monkey—monkeys Most nouns that end in a consonant and y change yto land story—stories duty—duties add -es Most nouns that end in o add -s photo—photos patio—patios cameo—cameos Some nouns that end in a consonant and o add -es echo--echoes hero—heroes veto—vetoes Most nouns that end in for fe change fto v, add -es or -s leaf—leaves wife—wives but belief—beliefs R79 WATCH OUT! The dictionary usually lists the plural form of a noun if the plural is formed irregularly or if the plural might be formed in more than one way. Dictionary listings are especially helpful for nouns that end in o, f, and fe. Some nouns have the same spelling in both singular and plural: series, trout, sheep. Some noun plurals are irregular forms that don't follow any rule: children, teeth. EXAMPLE: "The Lady, or the Tiger?" is one of those stories that one never forgets. Part of the story takes place in an ancient arena—a place filled with the echoes of cheering crowds; a place where destinies are decided and lives are cut short. Possessive Nouns Follow these guidelines to form possessive nouns. Nouns To Form Possessive Examples Singular nouns add apostrophe and -s girl—girl's Plural nouns ending in s add apostrophe fields—fields' plays—plays' Plural nouns not ending in s add apostrophe and -s men—men's oxen—oxen's EXAMPLE: This is a story about a woman's difficult choice between saving and sacrificing her beloved. In the arena, where men's and women's fate often hung in the balance, a young man must choose between two doors. WATCH OUT! Be careful when placing apostrophes in possessive nouns. A misplaced apostrophe changes the meaning. For example, girl's refers to possession by one girl, but girls' refers to possession by two or more girls. GRAMMAR PRACTICE Write the correct noun given in parentheses. (1) "The Lady, or the Tiger?" takes place in a (kings', king's) arena. (2) In many parts of the ancient world, (arena's, arenas) or (amphitheaters, amphitheaters') were places where violent games were held. (3) Usually circular or oval in shape, these structures, with their huge vaults and (gallerys, galleries), could seat thousands. (4) People came to watch their (heros, heroes) fight. (5) Often (animals', animals) were made to fight each other as well. (6) These arenas were sometimes frightening places that echoed with (gladiators', gladiator's) cries. (7) People enjoyed watching terrifying (brushes, brushs) with death. (8) Often (criminals', criminals) were punished in these arenas. (9) Sometimes people were sent to die in the arenas for their (believes, beliefs). 7.2 Pronoun Forms A personal pronoun is a pronoun that can be used in the first, second, or third person. A personal pronoun has three forms: the subject form, the object form, and the possessive form. Subject Pronouns Use the subject form of a pronoun when it is the subject of a sentence or the subject of a clause. /, you, he, she, it, we, and they are subject pronouns. Using the correct pronoun form is seldom a problem when there is just one pronoun in a sentence. Problems can arise, however, when a noun and a pronoun, or two pronouns, are used in a compound subject or compound object. To see if you are using the correct pronoun form, imagine the sentence with only one pronoun. EXAMPLE: "War Party" is about a boy on the verge of manhood. His mother and he are traveling west in a wagon train. Use the subject form of a pronoun when it is a predicate pronoun following a linking verb. You often hear the object form used as a predicate pronoun in casual conversation (It is her.) For this reason, the subject form may sound awkward to you, though it is preferred for more formal writing. R80 EXAMPLE: There can be no doubt about who took over Bud's upbringing after his father's death. It was she. WATCH OUT! To check the form of a predicate pronoun, see if the sentence still makes sense when the subject and the predicate pronoun are reversed. (It was she. She was it.) Object Pronouns Use the object form of a pronoun when it is the object of a verb or preposition. Me, you, him, her, it, us, and them are object pronouns. EXAMPLE: Bud's mother helped him assume more responsibility. Possessive Pronouns Each personal pronoun has its own possessive form. These forms are shown below. Subject Pronoun Possessive Form I my, mine you your, yours he his she her, hers it its we our, ours they their, theirs who whose Writers often confuse the possessive pronouns its, your, and their with the contractions it's, you're, and they're. The words it's, you're, and they're are called contractions because they are shortened forms of the words it is, you are, and they are. The apostrophe in each of these contractions stands for the missing letters. EXAMPLE: The long journey west took its toll. It's very sad, but when Bud's father dies, Bud, his mother, and his sister realize that they're on their own. Personal Pronouns as Subjects When using a personal pronoun as a subject, make sure to match it with the correct form of the verb to be. Present Tense Past Tense Singular Plural Singular Plural I am we are I was we were you are you are you were you were she, he, it is they are she, he, it was they were Note especially that the pronoun you takes the verbs are and were, regardless of whether it is referring to the singular you or to the plural you. WATCH OUT! You is and you was are nonstandard forms and should be avoided in writing and speaking. We was and they was are also forms to be avoided. INCORRECT: You was late this morning. They was very tired. CORRECT: You were late this morning. They were very tired. GRAMMAR PRACTICE Write the correct pronoun form given in parentheses. (1) When the story opens, four or five wagons are turning back, because (they're, their) drivers can't withstand the hardship of the journey. (2) They are startled by the sudden openness of the prairie and (it's, its) enormous vistas. (3) Bud's mother asks (he, him) if he wants to continue traveling. (4) Bud realizes that there is only one person who can make the decision. It is (him, he). (5) Bud's father did not know that death awaited (him, he) on the trail. (6) Bud's mother explains the meaning of the word home to Bud and his sister Jeanie. Jeanie and (him, he) realize that home is not the place they left but the place they are seeking. (7) After Bud's mother speaks to the Sioux in (they're their) own language, people in the wagon train grow suspicious of her. R81 (8) However, Bud and (she, her) stand up to the men who are bullying her. (9) She and (him, he) decide to head off on their own. (10) At the end of the story, many other families decide to take (they're, their) chances with Bud and his family. 7.3 Pronoun Antecedents An antecedent is the noun or pronoun to which a personal pronoun refers. The antecedent usually precedes the pronoun. Pronoun and Antecedent Agreement A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in NUMBER —singular or plural PERSON —first, second, or third GENDER —male or female Use a singular pronoun to refer to a singular antecedent; use a plural pronoun to refer to a plural antecedent. Do not allow interrupting words to determine the number of the personal pronoun. EXAMPLE: Because Squeaky in "Raymond's Run" realizes that the track meet is the last of the May Day events, she takes her time getting to it. If the antecedent is a noun that could be either male or female, use he or she (him or her, his or her) or reword the sentence to avoid the need for a singular pronoun. EXAMPLE: Every member of the class had something to say after he or she finished reading "Raymond's Run." Be sure that the antecedent of a pronoun is clear. In most cases, do not use a pronoun to refer to an entire idea or clause. Writing is much clearer if the exact reference is repeated. EXAMPLE: The narrator mentions Amsterdam Avenue, Broadway, and 34th Street when she is describing her life in New York City, but these streets are not described in detail. WATCH OUT! To avoid vague pronoun reference, do not use this or that alone to start a clause. Instead, include a word that clarifies what this or that refers to— this method, this grouping, that idea. Indefinite Pronouns as Antecedents When a singular indefinite pronoun is the antecedent, use he or she (him or her, his or her) or rewrite the sentence to avoid the need for a singular pronoun. EXAMPLE: Anybody can appreciate a sport that brings him or her so much pleasure. OR Anybody can appreciate a sport that brings so much pleasure. Indefinite Pronouns Singular another anybody anyone anything each either everybody everyone everything neither nobody no one nothing one somebody someone something Plural both few many several Singular or Plural all any most none some more enough plenty GRAMMAR PRACTICE Write the correct form given in parentheses. 1. For Squeaky, running was one of her talents, and (they were, it was) a talent that filled her with pride. 2. On the day of the track meet, parents, children, and Maypole dancers filled the park, but (they, all these people) seemed crazy to Squeaky. 3. Each person was there to watch an event that interested (them, him or her). 4. No one could celebrate (their, his or her, its) victory until the judges chose the winner. 5. Every judge had to express (their, his or her, its) opinion. 6. (This, Waiting for the judges' decision) did not bother Squeaky. R82 7. Every runner had to wait to see if (they, he or she, it) had won the race. 7.4 Pronoun Usage The form that a pronoun takes is always determined by its function within its own clause or sentence. Who and Whom Use who or whoever as the subject of a clause or sentence. EXAMPLE: If Mr. Misenheimer didn't have an heir, who would take care of his garden after his death? Whoever visited the garden often wondered what would happen to it. WATCH OUT! In the first sentence of the example, who is the subject of the clause who would take care of his garden after his death. In the second sentence, whoever is the subject of the sentence. Use whom as the direct or indirect object of a verb or verbal and as the object of a preposition. People often use who for whom when speaking informally. However, in written English the pronouns should be used correctly. EXAMPLE: Mr. Misenheimer might have wondered, "To whom should I leave my garden?" or "Whom should I choose to carry on my work?" or "I will give whom the garden?" WATCH OUT! Whom should be used instead of who in each sentence in the example: To whom—object of a preposition; Whom should—direct object of the verb should choose; Give whom—indirect object of will give. In determining the correct pronoun form, ignore interrupters that come between the subject and the verb. In the example that follows, who should replace whom because the pronoun is the subject of the clause "Who ... should inherit the garden?" EXAMPLE: Who do you think should inherit the garden? Whose and who's Do not confuse the contraction who's with the possessive pronoun whose. EXAMPLE: When you're planning garden layout and design, you must consider who's going to be seeing the garden. Whose plans are these? Pronouns with Nouns Determine the correct form of the pronoun in phrases such as we girls and us boys by saying the sentence without the noun. EXAMPLE: We gardeners like to think that other people appreciate our work. GRAMMAR PRACTICE Write the correct pronoun given in parentheses. 1. (Whomever, Whoever) enjoys gardening understands how relaxing it can be. 2. When (you're, your) gardening, your troubles become less important. 3. However, there are many for (whom, who) gardening is rather boring. 4. (Whom, Who) among you has ever planted flowers or seeds? 5. (Whom, Who) would like to learn the art of gardening? 6. (Whose, Who's) interested in learning a very ancient art? 7. (We, Us) humans have always enjoyed getting close to the earth. 8. (Whose, Who's) garden is this? 9. (Whomever, Whoever) knows the answer should contact me. 10. (Who, Whom) do you think knows the answer? R83 8 Using Verbs Correctly 8.1 Verb Tenses and Forms Verb tense shows the time of an action or a condition. Writers sometimes cause confusion when they use different verb tenses in describing actions that occur at the same time. Consistent Use of Tenses When two or more actions occur at the same time or in sequence, use the same verb tense to describe the actions. EXAMPLE: In "Pandora's Box," Pandora pulled the casket from under the bed, lifted the lid, and watched the horrible things escape. WATCH OUT! In telling a story, be careful not to shift tenses so often that the reader has difficulty keeping the sequence of events straight. A shift in tense is necessary when two events occur at different times or out of sequence. The tenses of the verbs should clearly indicate that one action precedes the other. EXAMPLE: Prometheus was punished because he had stolen fire from heaven. Although Zeus had punished him, the king of the gods decided to punish Prometheus's brother. as well. Tense Verb Form Present walk/walks Past walked Future will walk Present perfect have/has walked Past perfect had walked Future perfect will/shall have walked Past Tense and the Past Participle The simple past form of a verb can always stand alone. Always use the past participles of the following irregular verbs when these verbs follow helping verbs. Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle be (is/are) was/were (have, had) been begin began (have, had) begun break broke (have, had) broken bring brought (have, had) brought choose chose (have, had) chosen come came (have, had) come do did (have, had) done drink drank (have, had) drunk eat ate (have, had) eaten fall fell (have, had) fallen freeze froze (have, had) frozen give gave (have, had) given go went (have, had) gone grow grew (have, had) grown lose lost (have, had) lost ride rode (have, had) ridden sing sang (have, had) sung slay slew (have, had) slain swim swam (have, had) swum tear tore (have, had) torn think thought (have, had) thought write wrote (have, had) written EXAMPLE: Hera had given Pandora the gift of curiosity. Although Pandora only wanted to peek inside the box, when she lifted the lid, evil things broke loose and could not be brought under control. GRAMMAR PRACTICE Write the correct verb for each sentence. 1. Zeus did not punish Epimetheus as brutally as he (punishes, had punished) Epimetheus' brother. 2. Instead Zeus (had created, created) another plan and (got, had gotten) the goddesses to help him. 3. He (begins, began) by ordering Hephaestus to make a woman out of clay; then he R84 summoned the Four Winds to breathe life into the figure. 4. After Hephaestus (finishes, had finished), Zeus (had asked, asked) the goddesses to give the figure some interesting qualities. 5. Hermes (will present, presented) Pandora to Epimetheus, and they (had married, married). 6. When Pandora (had opened, opened) the box, the evil spirits (attacked, will attack) her and (had flown, flew) off to attack the rest of humankind. 8.2 Commonly Confused Verbs The following verb pairs are often confused. Let and Leave Let means "to allow or permit." Leave means "to depart" or "to allow something to remain where it is." EXAMPLE: Let me tell you the tale of Pecos Bill. First, though, you must leave behind your ideas of what is real. Lie and Lay Lie means "to rest in a flat position." Lay means "to put or to place." EXAMPLE: When baby Bill fell off the family wagon, he didn't just lie there and scream. He met a coyote who carried him off and laid him down in its den. Sit and Set Sit means "to be in a seated position." Set means "to put or place." EXAMPLE: Bill just sat in the dirt, not worrying. Bill always seemed to set his problems on a stump so they'd blow away. Rise and Raise Rise means "to move upward." Raise means "to move something upward." EXAMPLE: I was reading "Pecos Bill" when I saw smoke rise in the distance. I raised the window and tried to get a better view. WATCH OUT! If you're uncertain about which verb to use, check to see whether the verb has an object. The verbs lie, sit, and rise never have objects. Learn and Teach Learn means "to gain knowledge or skill." Teach means "to help someone learn." EXAMPLE: It was strange how quickly Bill learned what the coyotes had to teach him. Here are the principal parts of these troublesome verb pairs. Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle let let (have, had) let leave left (have, had) left lie lay (have, had) lain lay laid (have, had) laid sit sat (have, had) sat set set (have, had) set rise rose (have, had ) risen raise raised (have, had) raised learn learned (have, had) learned teach taught (have, had) taught GRAMMAR PRACTICE Choose the correct verb from each pair of words. 1. Tall tales like "Pecos Bill" (rise, raise) many questions about the real life of cowboys, those men and boys who herded cattle for a living. 2. The true life of cowboys (lies, lays) hidden from most Americans who have been misled by novels and movies. 3. However, it's important to (set, sit) people straight and to (learn, teach) them the truth about history. 4. For example, if you (let, leave) people to their storybook understanding of the Old West, they'll never know that almost one- fourth of all cowboys were African American. 5. People should be (learned, taught) that almost another fourth of all cowboys were Mexican. 6. Today, more than ever, we must (rise, raise) people's awareness about who helped settle the West. R85 9 Using ModifiersEffectively 9.1 Adjectives and Adverbs Use an adjective to modify a noun or a pronoun. Use an adverb to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. EXAMPLE: In Grand Mothers, Nikki Giovanni remembers her grandmother fondly. Because her grandmother was such an organized person, Giovanni is absolutely amazed that her grandmother used to forget her soap. WATCH OUT! Always determine first which word is being modified. For example, in the second sentence of the example, amazed is the word being modified; since amazed is an adjective, the modifier must be an adverb. Use an adjective after a linking verb to describe the subject. Remember that in addition to forms of the verb be, the following are linking verbs: become, seem, appear, look, sound, feel, taste, grow, smell. EXAMPLE: Giovanni felt sad when she left her grandmother's house after her grandfather's funeral. Her grandmother looked brave as Giovanni drove away. GRAMMAR PRACTICE Write the correct modifier given in each parentheses. 1. Nikki Giovanni recalls her grandmother's accomplishments (proud, proudly). 2. Her grandmother was a (bravely, brave) woman who fought against segregation. 3. To other people she appeared (courageous, courageously). 4. She seemed (highly, high) organized. 5. She was a (strongly, strong) and determined woman. 6. Giovanni sometimes grew (tiredly, tired) of her grandmother's advice. 7. However, now that her grandmother is gone, she misses her (terribly, terrible). 9.2 Comparisons and Negatives Comparative and Superlative Adjectives Use the comparative form of an adjective when comparing two things. Comparative adjectives are formed by adding -er to short adjectives (fierce— fiercer) or by using the word more with longer adjectives (unusual—more unusual). EXAMPLE: In the story "Otoonah" Otoonah's main challenges were finding food and shelter; she dealt with the easier one first. Shelter was more difficult to find. WATCH OUT! When comparing something with everything else of its kind, do not leave out the word other. (Ilga is taller than any other girl in the class.) Use the superlative form when comparing three or more things. Superlatives are formed by adding -est to short adjectives (great—greatest) or by using the word most with longer adjectives (remarkable—most remarkable). EXAMPLE: Otoonah proved she was the most successful hunter in her family. She found the greatest number of animals. The comparative and superlative forms of some adjectives are irregular. Adjective Comparative Superlative good better best bad worse worst ill worse worst little less or lesser least much more most many more most Comparative and Superlative Adverbs When comparing two actions, use a R86 comparative adverb, formed by adding -er or the word more. EXAMPLE: When attacking the young hunter, the polar bear moved faster and more forcefully than the man. WATCH OUT! Do not use both -er and more or -est and most: His car is faster than hers. It has the biggest tires I've ever seen. When comparing more than two actions, use the superlative form of an adverb, formed by adding -est or the word most. EXAMPLE: The songs Otoonah sang most enthusiastically were the boastful ones. Adverb Comparative Superlative hard harder hardest carefully more carefully most carefully Double Negatives To avoid double negatives, use only one negative word in a clause. Not, no, never, none, and nobody are negatives. Besides the compounds formed with not and no, the words barely, hardly, and scarcely also function as negative words. EXAMPLE: Returning home, Otoonah didn't have any hard feelings toward her parents. They could hardly believe Otoonah was alive. GRAMMAR PRACTICE Rewrite these sentences, correcting mistakes in modifiers. 1. One hundred years ago, the greater challenge facing Eskimos (or Inuits) like those in the story "Otoonah" was finding enough food to feed a family during the harsh winters. 2. Compared to Inuits today, a family like Otoonah's was worst off. 3. Hunting was more hard than it is today. 4. A handmade harpoon couldn't never match the rifle for ease of use and accuracy. 5. An Inuit using a rifle hunted efficiently, while an Inuit using a harpoon worked hardest. 6. Also, of the two methods of hunting, using a harpoon is most dangerous. 7. Of the two types of hunters, the one throwing the harpoon is likely to lose his or her balance and fall into the freezing waters. 9.3 Special Problems with Modifiers Although the following terms are frequently misused in spoken English, they should be used correctly in written English. Them and Those Them is always a pronoun and never a modifier of a noun. Those is a pronoun when it stands alone. It is an adjective when followed by a noun. EXAMPLE: In "The Other Pioneers" the poet honors those settlers who plowed the land. He admires them for their strength and courage. Bad and Badly Always use bad as an adjective, whether before a noun or after a linking verb. Badly should generally be used to modify an action verb. EXAMPLE: The settlers wanted so badly to be part of this country, but many times they felt bad about leaving their homeland. This, That, These, and Those Whether used as adjectives or pronouns, this and these refer to people and things that are nearby, and that and those refer to people and things that are farther away. EXAMPLE: Reading about the Spanish settlers of Texas, I could tell the poet admires these hardworking people more than those wealthy enough to live a life of ease. More people plowed the land in that long-ago time than do in this day. The Extra Here and There Avoid the use of here with this or these; also, do not use there with that and those. Notice the improvement when here and there are removed from the following sentence: INCORRECT: This here was a good movie. We hardly breathed as that there image appeared on the screen. R87 CORRECT: This was a good movie. We hardly breathed as that image appeared on the screen. Good and Well Good is always an adjective, never an adverb. Use well as either an adjective or an adverb, depending on the sentence. When used as an adjective, well usually refers to a person's health. As an adverb, well modifies an action verb. In the expression "feeling good," good refers to being happy or pleased. INCORRECT: When the weather was well the crops grew good. The immigrants felt well about settling in a land that held so much promise for their children. CORRECT: When the weather was good, the crops grew well. The immigrants felt good about settling in a land that held so much promise for their children. Few and Little, Fewer and Less Few refers to numbers of things that can be counted; little refers to amounts or quantities. Fewer is used when comparing numbers of things; less is used when comparing amounts or quantities. INCORRECT: Early settlers got few help from the government and little opportunities to rest. Who knows whether immigrants then had less problems than immigrants now? CORRECT: Early settlers got little help from the government and few opportunities to rest. Who knows whether immigrants then had fewer problems than immigrants now? Kind and Sort Kind and sort are singular. Use this or that with kind and sort. Kinds and sorts are plural. Use these or those with kinds and sorts. INCORRECT: These kind of things irritate me. This sorts of books fascinate me. CORRECT: This kind of thing irritates me These sorts of books fascinate me. GRAMMAR PRACTICE Write the modifier from each pair that fits the meaning of the sentence. 1. (This, This here) poem, "The Other Pioneers" acknowledges the important role played by the Spanish in the settlement of Texas. 2. The poem inspired me to do some research to learn more about (these, those) distant colonial days. 3. I realized that my knowledge of the history of Texas was quite (bad, badly), so I decided to check out some books at the library. 4. I learned that in the 16th century, the Spanish sent many expeditions north from Mexico. (Them, Those) expeditions were searching for legendary cities that were supposedly rich in gold. 5. Although the explorers searched thoroughly, they found (little, few) evidence of (this, these) kind of wealth. 6. In the 17th century, Spanish missionaries built the first two missions in what became Texas. Spain based its claim to Texas territory on (those, those there) missions and on the expeditions of exploration. 7. In 1685 a French explorer named RenéRobert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle, founded a French settlement on the coast of Texas. However, La Salle's expedition ended (bad, badly); La Salle was killed and the rest of the settlers died. 8. The Spanish continued to send expeditions of exploration into Texas. They also founded more missions and forts. However, (few, little) Spanish settlers moved into Texas. 9. Mexico broke away from Spain in 1821, and Texas became part of the new Empire of Mexico. In the 1820s and 30s, many American settlers began moving into Texas. (This sort, These sorts) of mass migration alarmed the Mexican government. 10. Now that I have done so much research, I believe that my knowledge of the history of Texas is quite (good, well). R88 10 Phrases and Clauses 10.1 Phrases A phrase is a group of related words that does not have a subject and a predicate and that functions in a sentence as a single part of speech. Phrases may appear anywhere in a sentence. If a phrase appears at the beginning of a sentence, it is called an introductory phrase. Because phrases can act as a single part of speech, they are classified as prepositional phrases, appositive phrases, infinitive phrases, participial phrases, and gerund phrases. Prepositional Phrases When a phrase consists of a preposition, its object, and any modifiers of the object, it is called a prepositional phrase. Prepositional phrases that modify nouns or pronouns are adjective phrases. Prepositional phrases that modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs are adverb phrases. ADJECTIVE PHRASE: In the excerpt from All But My Life, Gerda Weissmann Klein tells the story of her long ordeal. ADVERB PHRASE: She suffered in many Nazi work camps. Appositive Phrases An appositive phrase is a group of words that identifies or provides further information about a noun or pronoun that directly precedes the phrase. EXAMPLE: Gerda Weissmann Klein, a young Polish girl, lost all her family and friends in the Holocaust. Infinitive Phrases An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive (to + a verb) along with its modifiers and objects. Infinitive phrases can function as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. INFINITIVE PHRASE AS A NOUN (subject of a sentence): To survive became Klein's aim. INFINITIVE PHRASE AS A NOUN (object of a sentence): The Nazis tried to destroy the Jews of Europe. INFINITIVE PHRASE AS AN ADJECTIVE: The Nazis needed an enemy to persecute. INFINITIVE PHRASE AS AN ADVERB: Klein lived to see the destruction of the Nazis. Participial Phrases A participial phrase is a group of words that includes a participle. There are two kinds of participles: the past participle is usually formed by adding -d or -ed to the present tense; however, the past participles of irregular verbs do not follow this rule. The present participle is formed by adding -ing to the present tense of any verb. A participle with its objects and modifiers is called a participial phrase. Participial phrases act as adjectives, modifying nouns or pronouns. EXAMPLE: Having read her autobiography, I can better imagine what life was like under the Nazis. Here are examples of the infinitive and participial forms of some regular verbs. Regular Verbs Infinitive Present Participle Past Participle (to) call calling called (to) cook cooking cooked (to) jump jumping jumped (to) look looking looked (to) paint painting painted (to) rub rubbing rubbed (to) scrub scrubbing scrubbed (to) search searching searched (to) shout shouting shouted (to) talk talking talked (to) toss tossing tossed (to) walk walking walked (to) wash washing washed WATCH OUT! Errors in parallelism often occur with clauses and phrases as well as with individual words. Make sure the parts of the clause are parallel. R89 Here are examples of the infinitive and participial forms of some irregular verbs. Infinitive Present Participle Past Participle (to) eat eating eaten (to) fly flying flown (to) give giving given (to) grow growing grown (to) hide hiding hidden (to) ride riding ridden (to) sit sitting sat (to) swim swimming swum (to) tear tearing torn (to) think thinking thought (to) write writing written Gerund Phrases A gerund is a verb form ending in -ing that functions as a noun. A gerund phrase is a group of words that includes a gerund, its modifiers, and objects. Because a gerund phrase functions as a noun, it can act as the subject of a sentence, a direct object, a subject complement, or the object of a preposition. GERUND PHRASE AS SUBJECT: Reading about the Holocaust is difficult. GERUND PHRASE AS DIRECT OBJECT: Many people dislike thinking about the Holocaust. GERUND PHRASE AS SUBJECT COMPLEMENT: Our goal is preventing another Holocaust. GERUND PHRASE AS OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION: Many people feel uncomfortable about hearing stories like these. GRAMMAR PRACTICE Identify each underlined phrase as a prepositional phrase, an appositive phrase, an infinitive phrase, a participial phrase, or a gerund phrase. (1) After reading the selection by Gerda Weissmann Klein, I wanted to find out more about the Holocaust. (2) Searching through the library, I came across many books on the subject. (3) During the Holocaust, the 12-year period when the Nazis persecuted and murdered Jews and other minorities, millions of people died. (4) It is astonishing that people throughout Nazi-occupied territory allowed such crimes to happen. (5) People living near the death camps must have known that thousands were being murdered. (6) Reading about this period of history was sometimes a painful experience. (7) However, I wanted to learn the truth. 10.2 Clauses A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb. There are two kinds of clauses: independent clauses and subordinate clauses. Independent and Subordinate Clauses An independent clause can stand alone as a complete sentence. A subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be attached to an independent clause to form a complex sentence. If a subordinate clause is not attached to an independent clause, it is considered a sentence fragment. INDEPENDENT CLAUSE: I read "Racing the Great Bear." SUBORDINATE CLAUSE: After I had finished dinner COMPLEX SENTENCE: After I had finished dinner, I read "Racing the Great Bear." Adjective and Adverb Clauses An adjective clause is a subordinate clause used as an adjective. An adjective clause is usually introduced by the relative pronoun who, whom, whose, which, or that. An adverb clause is a subordinate clause that is used as an adverb to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. ADJECTIVE CLAUSE: Swift Runner was the name of the boy who saved his people. ADVERB CLAUSE: Swift Runner accepted the mission when the chief asked for a volunteer. R90 A subordinate clause acting as an adverb is usually introduced by one of the following subordinating conjunctions. Subordinating Conjunctions after although as because before if since so that than that though unless until when whenever where wherever while why Noun Clauses A noun clause is a subordinate clause that is used in a sentence as a noun. A noun clause may be used as a subject, a direct object, an indirect object, a predicate noun, or an object of a preposition. NOUN CLAUSE AS SUBJECT: What Swift Runner discovered was terrible. NOUN CLAUSE AS DIRECT OBJECT: Swift Runner discovered what was killing his people. NOUN CLAUSE AS INDIRECT OBJECT: The chief offered whoever would volunteer the task of investigating the disappearances. NOUN CLAUSE AS PREDICATE NOUN: Swift Runner is what we would call a hero. NOUN CLAUSE AS OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION: I read of how he had killed the monster. GRAMMAR PRACTICE Identify each underlined clause as an independent or a subordinate clause. If the clause is subordinate, identify it as an adjective, adverb, or noun clause. (1) Some young Seneca men tried to visit the Onondaga people. (2) The people in the Seneca village grew worried when the young people were never heard from again. (3) No one could imagine what has happened to them. (4) The chief, who was very old, called a council meeting. (5) Everyone knew that the chief was proposing a dangerous mission. (6) Swift Runner took the wampum when the chief offered it. (7) The Nyagwahe was the monster that had killed the villagers. (8) Swift Runner realized that the monster was afraid of him. (9) The boy killed the great bear that had caused so much suffering. (10) Everyone celebrated Swift Runner's victory. Parallelism Words or groups of words that have the same function in a sentence and the same form are said to be parallel. Paired items and items in a series require a parallel construction. EXAMPLE: At block parties, the neighbors ate ribs and corn, danced in the streets, and sang our favorite songs. In this series of items, each verb serves the same function in the sentence (to describe what the neighbors are doing) and has the same form, a verb in the past tense. When items in a sentence are not parallel, the sentence is awkward. In the following example, the verb forms are inconsistent. EXAMPLE: At block parties, the neighbors are eating home-cooked food, danced till dawn, and sing favorite songs. To create parallelism, balance nouns with nouns, infinitives with infinitives, and gerund phrases with gerund phrases. If the words are verbs, each must have the same tense. Make sure the words also serve the same function in the sentence. GRAMMAR PRACTICE Revise each sentence below to make the sentence parts parallel. (1) Jewell Parker Rhodes wrote "Block Party" about her old neighborhood and to publish a memoir of it. (2) In the story, she mentions many colorful characters, riding her bike with her sister, and watching the world from her front stoop. (3) With her friends, Rhodes played hide and seek in the laundry hanging out to dry, would slide down the banisters in the house, and rode a red tricycle through the kitchen. (4) A block party is when the street is closed off to traffic, hydrants were turned on by the fire department, and the neighbors gather for a picnic. (5) The author went on to R91 earn degrees in drama criticism, English, and a third degree in creative writing. (6) Rhodes now writes novels, nonfiction, and for magazines. 11 The Structure of Sentences The structure of a sentence is determined by the number and kind of clauses it contains. Sentences are classified as simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex. 11.1 Simple Sentences A simple sentence is made up of one independent clause and no dependent (or subordinate) clauses. The stone tool was ancient. INDEPENDENT CLAUSE We did not know its use. INDEPENDENT CLAUSE A simple sentence may contain a compound subject or a compound verb. SIMPLE SENTENCE WITH A COMPOUND SUBJECT: Rita and Julie investigated the stone tool. SIMPLE SENTENCE WITH A COMPOUND VERB: They read and studied about ancient people. 11.2 Compound Sentences A compound sentence is made up of two or more independent clauses joined together. A compound sentence does not contain any dependent clauses. INDEPENDENT CLAUSES Rita studied the tool, and her assistant took notes. Independent clauses can be joined with a comma and a coordinating conjunction, a semicolon, or a conjunctive adverb preceded by a semicolon and followed by a comma. COMPOUND SENTENCE WITH A COMMA AND A COORDINATING CONJUNCTION: Prehistoric people built forts,and they also created burial mounds. COMPOUND SENTENCE WITH A SEMICOLON: Prehistoric people built forts, and they created burial mounds. COMPOUND SENTENCE WITH A CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB: Prehistoric people built forts; however, they collapsed over time. WATCH OUT ! Do not confuse a compound sentence with a simple sentence that has compound parts. GRAMMAR PRACTICE Identify the subject and verb in each part of the compound sentence; identify the conjunction or semicolon. (1) You can pass an ancient mound, and you may not even notice it. (2) Mounds look natural; they often seem like enormous hills. (3) Once thousands of mounds existed, but now many are gone. (4) Some of these earthworks were built thousands of years ago, but others were constructed less than three hundred years ago. (5) Ancient people built them for burial purposes, or they used them as fortresses. 11.3 Complex Sentences A complex sentence is made up of one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. INDEPENDENT CLAUSE I would like to be an archaeologist, although I have never been on an expedition. DEPENDENT CLAUSE An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent clause also has a subject and a predicate, but it cannot stand alone. It is often introduced by a subordinating conjunction, such as when, if, because, or until. GRAMMAR PRACTICE In each of the following complex sentences, identify the independent clause and the dependent clause. Then identify the subordinating conjunction. (1) Before you know it, your flat television picture may be gone. (2) The image looks flat R92 because it is two-dimensional. (3) The image would look more realistic if it were three- dimensional. (4) That 3-D image is not far off, since technology is changing. (5) Televisions will use holograms so that the images look real. (6) Holograms are available today, although they are not very common. (7) If you have ever seen a bank card, perhaps you have seen a hologram. (8) You can see a 3-D picture on the card when you look closely. (9) Unless problems develop, holographic television should be available in the near future. (10) Until it is, we will have to depend on today's technology. 11.4 Compound-Complex Sentences A compound-complex sentence is made up of two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. If you start with a compound sentence, all you need to do to form a compoundcomplex sentence is add a dependent clause. COMPOUND SENTENCE: INDEPENDENT CLAUSES I would like to be an archaeologist, but I have never visited an ancient site. COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE: INDEPENDENT CLAUSES I would like to be an archaeologist, but I have never visited an ancient site, although I have had a couple of opportunities. DEPENDENT CLAUSE GRAMMAR PRACTICE In each of the following compound-complex sentences, identify the independent and the dependent clauses. (1) Rain had been falling for an hour, and the home football team, which was losing badly, welcomed the half-time break. (2) Despite the downpour, the band marched onto the field, and the half-time show began. (3) While the band played the school anthem, the wind slapped rain in their faces, and the flag bearers were nearly blown over. (4) Still, the band played on, and the rain poured down, while the field turned into mud. (5) Finally, the show ended, and as the band marched off, a tuba player's foot sank into the sloppy field, and he fell face first into the mud. GRAMMAR PRACTICE: MIXED REVIEW Identify each sentence with S for simple, CD for compound, CX for complex, or CC for compound-complex. (1) The horse first existed in North America, but it became extinct here about ten thousand years ago. (2) Then Christopher Columbus brought horses to the New World in his second voyage. (3) The population of horses increased when Spanish conquerors brought them to Mexico in the 1500s. (4) In 1519, Hernán Cortés brought sixteen horses from Cuba and used them in his invasion of the Aztec Empire. (5) Later Spanish explorers brought more horses to America, where they were useful in battle and on long expeditions. (6) Because Native Americans did not have horses, the Spanish had a great advantage in war, and they defeated the Indians. (7) Without land, many Native Americans had no means of livelihood, and they were forced to work for the Spanish. (8) Although these workers cared for the horses, they were not to ride them; however, over the years the workers learned to train and ride the horses. (9) Some of the native peoples stole horses from the Spanish and then traded the horses among their different groups. (10) Before many years had passed, Native Americans were riding and breeding horses throughout the West. R93 12 Correcting Capitalization 12.1 Proper Nouns and Adjectives A common noun names a whole class of persons, places, things, or ideas. A proper noun names a particular person, place, thing, or idea. A proper adjective is an adjective formed from a proper noun. All proper nouns and proper adjectives are capitalized. Names and Personal Titles Capitalize the name and title of a person. Also capitalize the initials and abbreviations of titles. Clarissa Harlowe Barton, C H. Barton, Senator Charles Sumner, and Mr. Dred Scott are capitalized correctly. EXAMPLE: Russell Freedman's Lincoln: A Photobiography is about the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln. WATCH OUT! Do not capitalize personal titles used as common nouns. Do capitalize a title when it is part of the name. (Did Senator Stephens call you? The senator spoke to us.) Capitalize a word referring to a family relationship when it is used as someone's name (Uncle Al) but not when it is used to identify a person (Jill's uncle). EXAMPLE: Robert Lincoln was summoned to join the crowd around his father's bedside. Languages, Nationalities, Religious Terms Capitalize the names of languages and nationalities as well as religious names and terms. Capitalize words referring to languages and nationalities, such as Hindi, Sanskrit, Afrikaans, Korean, German, and Nigerian. Capitalize religious names and terms, such as God, Buddha, Bible, and Koran. EXAMPLE: One newspaper clipping found in Lincoln's wallet quotes the British reformer John Bright. Bright praised Lincoln. Many others must have prayed for God to protect Lincoln, whose life was always in danger. School Subjects Capitalize the name of a specific school course (Biology 1, World History). Do not capitalize a general reference to a school subject (mathematics, history, music). EXAMPLE: After reading Lincoln: A Photobiography, I became very interested in history. Then I studied the Civil War in U.S. History Organizations, Institutions Capitalize the important words in the official names of organizations and institutions (Congress, Duke University). Do not capitalize words that refer to kinds of organizations or institutions (school, church, university) or words that refer to specific organizations but are not their official names (at the university). EXAMPLE: I've learned that decisions made in the House of Representatives cost many young soldiers their lives. The government ran the war, but soldiers had to fight it. WATCH OUT! Do not capitalize minor words in a proper noun that is made up of several words. (University of Illinois) Geographical Names, Events, Time Periods Capitalize geographical names, as well as the names of events, historical periods and documents, holidays, and months and days, but not the names of seasons or directions. WATCH OUT! Do not capitalize a reference that does not use the full name of a place, event, or a period of history. (We went to Fort McHenry, but the fort was closed.) EXAMPLE: The Civil War began at Ft. Sumter in the South on April 12, 1861. By the time the war ended in the spring of 1865, it had raged across the United States from Pennsylvania south to the Gulf of Mexico. R94 Names Examples Continents North America, Asia Bodies of water Atlantic Ocean, Ohio River, Political units China, Kentucky, Moscow Regions New England, the Midwest Public areas Central Park, Civic Plaza Roads and structures Main Street, Aswam Dam Historical events Battle of Shiloh Documents the Constitution Periods of history the Renaissance Holidays Christmas, Presidents Day Months and days June, Tuesday GRAMMAR PRACTICE Write the correct forms of the words given in parentheses. 1. Lincoln: A Photobiography is about the (president, President) who saved the nation during the Civil (War, war). 2. Both sides in the (War, war) lost twice as many men to disease as on the (Battlefield, battlefield). 3. Women served as nurses, set up hospitals, and organized relief for both (Union, union) and (Confederate, confederate) armies. 4. One such woman, (Clara, Clara) Barton, went on to found the (American Red Cross, american red cross). 5. Barton also formed a (Bureau, bureau) that marked soldiers' graves at Andersonville (Cemetery, cemetery) in (Georgia, georgia). 6. Mary Rice Livermore led much work by the (United States Sanitary Commission, united states sanitary commission). 12.2 Titles of Created Works Titles follow certain capitalization rules. Books, Plays, Magazines, Newspapers, Films Capitalize the first word, the last word, and all other important words in the title of a book, play or musical, magazine, newspaper, or film. Underline or italicize the title to set it off. (In printed text, titles are italicized if the surrounding text is set in Roman type. If the surrounding type is italicized, set the title in Roman.) Within a title, don't capitalize articles, conjunctions, and prepositions of fewer than five letters. EXAMPLE: In "The Bet" a voluntary prisoner reads the works of Shakespeare. I'm sure that he read The Merchant of Venice while in prison. Poems, Stories, Articles Capitalize the first word, the last word, and all other important words in the title of a poem, a story, or an article. Enclose the title in quotation marks. EXAMPLE: He also read the works of Lord Byron. Do you think that he came across the poem "She Walks in Beauty"? Perhaps he read the article called "Lord Byron and His Poetry." GRAMMAR PRACTICE Rewrite this paragraph, correcting the punctuation and capitalization of titles. 1. How would you pass the time if you were a prisoner like the lawyer in the story the bet? 2. I would spend my time reading horror stories and watching videos of monster movies such as The Monster from the Ocean Floor. 3. If I were the prisoner, I would read old movie magazines such as famous Monsters of Filmland. 4. Stephen King, author of the horror novels it, pet sematary, and the stand, supposedly read the magazine as a child. 5. However, I find it hard to believe that someone who wrote a story as scary as the langoliers was inspired by the movie i was a teenage werewolf. 6. For me, Edgar Allan Poe's poem the raven is much scarier than the movie destroy all monsters, but the movie is more fun. R95 13 Correcting Punctuation 13.1 Compound Sentences Punctuation helps organize longer sentences that have several clauses. Commas in Compound Sentences Use a comma before the conjunction that joins the clauses of a compound sentence. EXAMPLE: In "The Tell-Tale Heart" the narrator describes his crime, and he also shows how he gave himself away to the police. Semicolons in Compound Sentences Use a semicolon between the clauses of a compound sentence when no conjunction is used. Use a semicolon before, and a comma after, a conjunctive adverb that joins the clauses of a compound sentence. EXAMPLE: The narrator tries to conceal the evidence of his crime; however, he gives himself away. GRAMMAR PRACTICE Rewrite these sentences, adding commas and semicolons where necessary. 1. Edgar Allan Poe wrote "The Tell-Tale Heart" he also wrote many other stories. 2. In "The Tell-Tale Heart" Poe examined the criminal mind and he also showed the power of conscience to reveal the truth. 3. The narrator loved the old man however, the old man's eye filled him with horror. 13.2 Elements Set Off in a Sentence Most elements that are not essential to a sentence are set off by commas. Introductory Words Use a comma to separate an introductory word from the rest of the sentence. A single introductory prepositional phrase need not be set off with a comma. EXAMPLE: In class we read Harriet Tubman: Conductor on the Underground Railroad. Clearly, she was an extraordinary woman. In a complex sentence, a comma follows the introductory subordinate clause. EXAMPLE: Although they were afraid, Harriet Tubman and the fugitives struggled toward freedom. Whenever they felt discouraged, Tubman kept them going. Nouns of Address Use commas to set off a name or noun in direct address. EXAMPLE: "Believe me, Thomas, we all thank you for the food and lodging." Appositives Use commas to set off an appositive except when the appositive is necessary for the meaning of the sentence. EXAMPLE: That famous guide Harriet Tubman told her exhausted travelers that Frederick Douglass, a famous escaped slave, had achieved great things once he gained freedom. Interrupters Use commas to set off a word that interrupts the flow of a sentence. EXAMPLE: Harriet Tubman, fortunately, never lost confidence in herself. When a subordinate clause interrupts the main clause, set it off with commas. EXAMPLE: Thomas Garrett, because he wanted to help, gave shelter to the fugitives. GRAMMAR PRACTICE Rewrite these sentences. Add commas where necessary. 1. Tell me Susan who was nicknamed Moses in Harriet Tubman: Conductor on the Underground Railroad? 2. Jim it was Harriet Tubman the one who led a group of escaping slaves. 3. Born a slave on a plantation in Maryland Tubman became very strong from her hard work. 4. She avoided capture and finally reached Pennsylvania a free state. R96 13.3 Elements in a Series Commas should be used to separate three or more items in a series and to separate adjectives preceding a noun. Use a comma after every item except the last in a series of three or more items. EXAMPLE: In the excerpt from High Tide in Tucson, Barbara Kingsolver shows how insects, plants, and animals have been attracted to her pond. GRAMMAR PRACTICE Rewrite each sentence, inserting commas where they are needed. 1. Barbara Kingsolver describes the dry dusty, empty landscape around her house. 2. When she builds a pond, she attracts tadpoles water beetles, and dragonflies. 3. Dragonflies hovered dipped their tails and laid eggs. 4. Owls nighthawks, and bats hunt at night. 13.4 Dates and Addresses Punctuation in dates and addresses makes information easy to understand. Dates Use a comma between the day of the month and the year. If the date falls in the middle of a sentence, use another comma after the year. EXAMPLE: Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, who was born on August 8, 1896, wrote 'A Mother in Mannville." Addresses Use a comma between the city and the state in an address. If the city and state fall in the middle of a sentence, use a comma after the state too. EXAMPLE: If the narrator had written to Jerry, the return address on her letters might have been Anchorage, Alaska. GRAMMAR PRACTICE Rewrite the following sentences, correcting the comma errors. 1. The author Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings died on December 14 1953 after having lived in Florida for 25 years. 2. Previously, she had worked for the Courier- Journal in Louisville Kentucky. 3. Her first Florida residence was in Cross Creek Florida. 13.5 Quotations Quotation marks let readers know exactly who said what. Incorrectly placed or missing quotation marks lead to misunderstanding. Quotation Marks Use quotation marks at the beginning and the end of direct quotations and to set off titles of short works. EXAMPLE: In class our group chose to analyze Daniel P. Mannix's 'A Running Brook of Horror." Diego said, "Let's check out the author's use of dialogue." End Punctuation Place periods inside quotation marks. Place question marks and exclamation points inside quotation marks if they belong to the quotation; place them outside if they do not belong to the quotation. EXAMPLE: Ira asked, "What do you suggest, now Mieko?" Mieko said, "Let's discuss punctuation." Divided Quotations Capitalize the first word of the second part of a direct quotation if it begins a new sentence. EXAMPLE: "Let's vote on it," said Diego. "There are five of us, so majority rules." GRAMMAR PRACTICE Rewrite these sentences, correcting the use of quotation marks and correcting capitalization and punctuation. 1. "There are many different kinds of snakes, my sister said. They're not all the same." 2. "What are you talking about"? I replied. "I never said they were." 3. "I'm not going to talk to you," she hissed "If you're going to argue with me." R97 Grammar Glossary This glossary contains various terms you need to understand when you use the Grammar Handbook Used as a reference source, this glossary will help you explore grammar concepts and how they relate to one another. Grammar Glossary This glossary contains various terms you need to understand when you use the Grammar Handbook. Used as a reference source, this glossary will help you explore grammar concepts and the ways they relate to one another. A Abbreviation An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or word group; it is often made up of initials. (B.C, A.M., Maj.) Active voice. See Voice. Adjective An adjective modifies, or describes, a noun or pronoun. (fine day, poor me) An adjective answers the questions "How many?" "What kind?" and "Which one(s)?" A predicate adjective follows a linking verb and describes the subject. (I am happy.) A proper adjective is formed from a proper noun. (Spanish rice) The comparative form of an adjective compares two things. (more elegant, stronger) The superlative form of an adjective compares more than two things. (most alert,strongest) Adjective Clause An adjective clause is a subordinate clause that acts as an adjective. (The man told a story that was very long.) Adjective phrase. See Phrase. Adverb An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. (Meiko jumped quickly.) The comparative form of an adverb compares two actions. (more slowly, sooner) The superlative form of an adverb compares more than two actions. (most slowly, soonest) Adverb Clause An adverb clause is a subordinate clause used as an adverb. (We waited until the sun went down.) Adverb, conjunctive. See Conjunctive adverb. Adverb phrase. See Phrase. Agreement Sentence parts that correspond with one another are said to be in agreement. In pronoun-antecedent agreement, a pronoun and the word it refers to are the same in number, gender, and person. (Bill mailed his application. The students ate their lunches.) In subject-verb agreement the subject and verb in a sentence are the same in number. (I fly home. He flies to Rio.) Ambiguous reference An ambiguous reference occurs when a pronoun may refer to more than one word. (Bud asked his brother if he had any mail.) Antecedent An antecedent is the noun or pronoun to which a pronoun refers. (Because Juan practiced his backstroke, he improved.) Appositive An appositive is a noun or phrase that explains one or more words in a sentence. (Julie, a good student, found algebra simple.) An essential appositive is needed to make the sense of a sentence complete. (A comic strip inspired the musical Annie.) A nonessential appositive is one that adds information to a sentence but is not necessary to its sense. (O. Henry, a short-story writer, spent time in prison.) Article Articles are the special adjectives a, an, and the. (the car, a bug, an apple) The definite article (the) is used when a noun refers to a specific thing. (the boat) An indefinite article indicates that a noun is not unique but one of many of its kind. (a plate, an apple) R98 C Case A word's form or position in a sentence that indicates its relationship to other words in the sentence. Clause A clause is a group of words that contains a verb and its subject. (I wondered) An adjective clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a noun or pronoun. (Hugh bought the sweater that he had admired.) An adverb clause is a subordinate clause used to modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. (Ring the bell when it is time for class to begin.) A noun clause is a subordinate clause that is used as a noun. (Whatever you say interests me.) An elliptical clause is a clause from which a word or words have been omitted. (We are not as lucky as they.) A main (independent) clause can stand by itself as a sentence. A subordinate (dependent) clause does not express a complete thought and cannot stand by itself as a sentence. Collective noun. See Noun. Comma splice A comma splice is an error caused when two sentences are separated with a comma instead of an end mark. (The band played a medley of show tunes, everyone enjoyed the show) Common noun. See Noun. Comparative. See Adjective; Adverb. Complement A complement is a word or group of words that completes the meaning of a verb. (The kitten finished the milk.) See also Direct object; Indirect object. An objective complement is a word or a group of words that follows a direct object and renames or describes that object. (The parents of the rescued child declared Gus a hero.) A subject complement follows a linking verb and renames or describes the subject. (The coach seemed anxious.) See also Noun (predicate noun); Adjective (predicate adjective). Complete predicate The complete predicate of a sentence consists of the main verb and any words that modify or complete the verb's meaning. (The sun shimmered in the heat.) Complete subject The complete subject of a sentence consists of the simple subject and any words that modify or describe the simple subject. (The vast canyon lay before us.) Complex Sentence. See Sentence. Compound predicate A sentence with two or more predicates is said to have a compound predicate. (Di buys and sells rings.) Compound Sentence A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses. (Sue will play, and the rest of us will cheer.) Compound sentence part A sentence element that consists of two or more subjects, verbs, objects, or other parts is compound. (Lou and Jay helped. Laura makes and models scarves. Jill sings opera and popular music.) Compound subject A sentence with two or more subjects is said to have a compound subject. (Jim and Bob moved.) Conjunction A conjunction is a word that links other words or groups of words. A coordinating conjunction connects related words, groups of words, or sentences. (and, but, or) A correlative conjunction is one of a pair of conjunctions that work together to connect sentence parts. (either . . . or, neither . . . nor) A subordinating conjunction introduces a subordinate clause. (unless, while, if ) Conjunctive adverb A conjunctive adverb joins the clauses of a compound sentence. (however, therefore, besides) Contraction A contraction is formed by joining two words and substituting an apostrophe for a letter or letters left out of one of the words. (hasn't) Coordinating conjunction. See Conjunction. Correlative conjunction. See Conjunction. D Dangling modifier A dangling modifier is one that does not clearly modify any word in the sentence. (Dashing for the train, the barriers got in the way.) Demonstrative pronoun. See Pronoun. Dependent clause. See Clause. R99 Direct object A direct object receives the action of a verb. (Sarasak hit the ball.) Direct quotation. See Quotation. Divided quotation. See Quotation. Double negative A double negative is the incorrect use of two negative words when only one is needed. (Incorrect: I can't hardly see you.) E End mark An end mark is one of several punctuation marks that can end a sentence. See the punctuation chart on page R72. F Fragment. See Sentence fragment. Future tense. See Verb tense. G Gender The gender of a personal pronoun indicates whether the person or thing referred to is male, female, or neuter. (My cousin plays the tuba; he often performs in school concerts.) Gerund A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun. (Hitting a home run is easy.) H Helping verb. See Verb I Illogical comparison An illogical comparison is a comparison that does not make sense because words are missing or illogical. (My computer is newer than Kay) Indefinite pronoun. See Pronoun. Indefinite reference Indefinite reference occurs when a pronoun is used without a clear antecedent. (My aunt hugged me in front of my friends, and it was embarrassing.) Independent clause. See Clause. Indirect object An indirect object tells to whom or for whom (sometimes to what or for what) something is done. (She told Marika a joke.) Indirect question An indirect question tells what someone asked without using the person's exact words. (My friend asked me if I could go with her to the dentist.) Indirect quotation. See Quotation. Infinitive An infinitive is a verbal that begins with the word to; the two words create a phrase (to see) Intensive pronoun. See Pronoun. Interjection An interjection is a word or phrase used to express strong feeling. (Oh!) Interrogative pronoun. See Pronoun. Inverted sentence An inverted sentence is one in which the subject comes after the verb. (Where are my shoes? Here is the prize.) Irregular verb. See Verb. l Linking verb. See Verb. M Main clause. See Clause. Modifier A modifier makes another word more precise; modifiers most often are adjectives or adverbs; they may also be phrases, verbals, or clauses that function as adjectives or adverbs. (sunny day, scowled grimly) An essential modifier is one that is necessary to the meaning of a sentence. (Everybody who has a free pass should enter now.) A nonessential modifier merely adds more information to a sentence that is clear without the addition. (We will use the new dishes, which are stored in the closet) Mood Every verb in English is in one of three moods. The indicative mood is used for opinions, facts, and questions. (He washed the window.) The imperative mood is used for orders or advice. (Wash the window!) The subjunctive mood is used to express a wish, a requirement, a suggestion or a condition contrary to fact. (If I had the right tools, I could wash the window.) N Noun A noun names a person, a place, a thing, or an idea. (Don, home, book, goodness) An abstract noun names an idea, a quality, or a feeling. (truth) A collective noun names a group of things. (herd) A common noun is a general name of a person, a place, a thing, or an idea. (girl, mountain, snow, logic) A compound noun contains two or more words. (folklore, sidewalk, son-in-law) A noun of direct address is the name of a person being directly spoken to. (Sam will you do the dishes?) A possessive noun shows who or what owns or is associated with something. (Yuri's jacket, the sun's light) A predicate noun follows a linking verb and renames the subject. (She is a good friend.) A proper noun names a particular person, place, or R100 thing. (Rashid Hamdi, Maine, Eiffel Tower) Noun Clause A noun clause is a clause used as a noun. (He understands that he must work very hard.) Number A word is singular in number if it refers to just one person, place, thing, idea, or action and plural in number if it refers to more than one person, place, thing, idea, or action. (The words she, hat, and eats are singular. The words they, hats, and eat are plural.) O Object of a preposition The object of a preposition is the noun or pronoun that follows a preposition. (We climbed over the fence.) Object of a verb The object of a verb receives the action of the verb. (They moved mountains.) P Participial Phrase. See Phrase. Participle A participle is a verb form. It is often used as part of a verb phrase (had danced). It can also be used as a verbal that functions as an adjective (the shining star). The present participle is formed by adding -ing to the present form of a verb. (Skating rapidly, we circled the rink.) The past participle of a regular verb is formed by adding -d or -ed to the present form. (Astonished, they opened the gift.)The past participles of irregular verbs do not follow this pattern. Passive voice. See Voice. Past tense. See Verb tense. Perfect tenses. See Verb tense. Person The person of a pronoun depends on the noun to which it refers. A first-person pronoun refers to the person speaking. (I jumped.) A second-person pronoun refers to the person spoken to. (You sat.) A third-person pronoun refers to some other person(s) or thing(s) being spoken of. (They sang.) Personal pronoun. See Pronoun. Phrase A phrase is a group of related words that lacks both a subject and a verb. (gracefully leaping) An adjective phrase modifies a noun or a pronoun. (The label on the bottle has faded.) An adverb phrase modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. (Come to the fair.) An appositive phrase identifies or provides further information about a noun or pronoun that directly precedes the phrase. (Leili Moghtader, a retired teacher, looked after the lighthouse.) A gerund phrase consists of a gerund with its objects and modifiers. (Capturing the king was the object of the game.) An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive along with its modifiers and objects. (I hope to see him again.) A participial phrase consists of a participle and its objects and modifiers. (Turning the corner, they headed home.) A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, its object, and any modifiers, or words that describe the object. (The woman with the large hat watched the race.) A verb phrase consists of a main verb and one or more helping verbs. (might have ordered) Possessive A noun or pronoun that is possessive shows ownership or relationship. (Aisha's job, her sister) Possessive noun. See Noun. Possessive pronoun. See Pronoun. Predicate The predicate of a sentence tells what the subject is or does. (The deer ran away quickly.) See also Complete predicate; Simple predicate. Predicate adjective. See Adjective. Predicate nominative A predicate nominative is a noun or pronoun that follows a linking verb and renames or explains the subject. (Joan is a computer operator. The winner of the prize was he.) Predicate pronoun. See Noun. Preposition A preposition is a word that relates its object to another part of the sentence or to the sentence as a whole. (Blanca read about the book.) Prepositional phrase. See Phrase. Present tense. See Verb tense. Pronoun A pronoun replaces a noun or another pronoun. Some pronouns allow a writer or speaker to avoid repeating a proper noun. Other pronouns let a writer show a situation in which some information is not known. A demonstrative pronoun singles out one or more persons or things. (this boat) An indefinite pronoun refers to an unknown or unidentified person or thing. (Someone called.) An intensive pronoun emphasizes a noun or pronoun. (She herself performed the surgery.) R101 An interrogative pronoun asks a question. (Who took my wrench?) A personal pronoun shows a distinction of person. (I spoke. You heard. He won.) A possessive pronoun shows ownership. (Your story is in the folder. Are these notes his?) A predicate pronoun follows a linking verb and renames the subject (The owners of the store were they.) A reflexive pronoun reflects an action back on the subject of the sentence. (Ashley treated herself to a soda.) A relative pronoun relates a subordinate clause to the word it modifies in the main clause. (We gave our reasons, which were very strong.) Pronoun-antecedent agreement. See Agreement. Pronoun forms The subject form of a pronoun is used when the pronoun is the subject of a sentence or follows a linking verb as a predicate pronoun. (He subtracted. It is she.) The object form of a pronoun is used when the pronoun is the direct or indirect object of a verb or verbal or the object of a preposition. (I gave her a clue. She sat with them.) Proper adjective. See Adjective. Proper noun. See Noun. Punctuation Punctuation clarifies the structure of sentences. Q Quotation A quotation consists of words from another speaker or writer. A direct quotation is the exact words of a speaker or writer. (Martin said, "The homecoming game has been postponed") A divided quotation is a quotation separated by words that identify the speaker. ("The homecoming game," said Martin, "has been postponed.") An indirect quotation reports what a person said without giving the exact words. (Martin said that the homecoming game had been postponed) R Reflexive pronoun. See Pronoun. Regular verb. See Verb. Relative pronoun. See Pronoun. Run-on sentence A run-on sentence consists of two or more sentences written incorrectly as one. (I talked he listened.) S Sentence A sentence expresses a complete thought. A compound-complex sentence contains two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. (I would like to be an archaeologist, but I have never visited an ancient site, although I have had opportunities.) A complex sentence contains one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses. (Open the windows before you go to bed. If she falls, I'll help her up.) A compound sentence is made up of two or more independent clauses joined by a conjunction, a colon, or a semicolon. (The ship finally docked, and the passengers quickly left.) A simple sentence consists of only one main clause. (My friend volunteers at a nursing home.) Sentence fragment A sentence fragment is a group of words that is only part of a sentence. (As I walked; Was coming to the door) Simple predicate A simple predicate is the key word in the predicate of a sentence. (The boat sailed off into the sunset.) Simple subject A simple subject is the key noun or pronoun in the subject. (The huge animal attacked.) Split infinitive A split infinitive occurs when a modifier is placed between the word to and the verb in an infinitive. (to quickly speak) Subject The subject is the part of a sentence that tells whom or what the sentence is about. (Gena drove.) Subject-verb agreement. See Agreement. Subjunctive mood. See Mood. Subordinate clause. See Clause. Subordinating conjunction. See Conjunction. T Transitive verb. See Verb. U Unidentified reference An unidentified reference usually occurs when the word it they, this, which, or that is used. (In California they have good weather most of the time.) R102 V Verb A verb expresses an action, a condition, or a state of being. (swim, is, seems) The subject of an active verb performs the action of a sentence. (Ricardo soared.) The subject of a passive verb receives the verb's action or expresses the result of an action. (The story was told.) A helping verb is used with the main verb; together they make up a verb phrase. (has gone) A linking verb expresses a state of being or connects the subject with a word or words that describe the subject. (The ice feels cold.) Linking verbs: be, become, feel, grow, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, taste. A main verb expresses action or state of being; it appears with one or more auxiliary verbs. (will be staying) The progressive form of a verb shows continuing action. (She is knitting.) The past tense and past participle of a regular verb are formed by adding -d or -ed. (sail, sailed) Irregular verbs do not follow this pattern. (grow, grew, grown) The action of a transitive verb is directed toward someone or something, called the object of a verb. (Leo washed the windows.) An intransitive verb has no object. (The leaves scattered) The action of a transitive verb is directed toward someone or something, called the object of a verb. (Leo washed the windows.) An intransitive verb has no object. (The leaves scattered.) Verbal A verbal is formed from a verb and acts as another part of speech, such as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. Verb phrase. A verb phrase cosnists of a main verb and one or more helping verbs. (should have been working) Verb tense Verb tense shows the time of an action or the time of a state of being. (go, went, am, seemed) The present tense places an action or condition in the present. (We walk down the street.) The past tense places anaction or condition in the past. (They left.) The future tense places an action or condition in the future. (They will go.) The present perfect tense describes an action in an indefinite past time or an action that began in the past and continues in the present. (has observed, have danced) The past perfect tense describes one action that happened before another action in the past (had wondered, had analyzed) The future perfect tense describes an event that will be finished before another future action begins. (will have fallen) Voice The voice of a verb depends on whether the subject performs or receives the action of the verb. In the active voice the subject of the sentence performs the verb's action. (We knew the answer.) In the passive voice the subject of the sentence receives the action of the verb. (The team has been eliminated.) R103 Speaking and Listening Handbook Good communicators do more than just talk. They use specific techniques to present their ideas effectively, and they are attentive and critical listeners. 1 Organization and Delivery In school, in business, and in any community, one of the best ways to present information is to deliver it in person— speaking directly to a live audience. Audience and Purpose When preparing and presenting a speech, your goal is to deliver a focused, coherent presentation that both conveys your ideas clearly and also relates to the background and interests of your audience. By understanding your audience, you can tailor your speech to them appropriately and effectively. Know your audience What kind of group are you presenting to—fellow classmates? an entire school assembly? a group of teachers? What are their interests and backgrounds? Understanding their different points of view can help you address each group in the most appropriate way. Understand your purpose Keep in mind your purpose for speaking. Are you trying to persuade the audience to do something? Are you presenting the audience with some latest research? Perhaps you simply want to entertain them by sharing a story or experience. Organize effectively As you prepare your presentation, it's important to arrange the information—details, reasons, descriptions, and examples— effectively and persuasively. Think about your audience and the best way to organize the information so that they understand, absorb, and are interested by it. Writing Your Speech If you are writing your speech beforehand, rather than working from notes or memory, use the following guidelines to help you: Prepare an outline Try to base your speech on a chosen pattern of organization. A standard outline would include a compelling introduction, a concise preview or summary, clear transitions between paragraphs, a logically developed and well-supported body, and an effective conclusion. The organization of the speech—whether it was persuasive, comparison-contrast, or process description, for example—would be most obvious in the body of the speech. SAMPLE OUTLINE #1 Process Description I. Introduction (Get audience interested and state thesis.) (Use transition to link to body.) II. Body A. Step 1 of process (Use transition.) B. Step 2 of process (Use transition.) C. Step 3 of process (Use transition to link to conclusion.) III. Conclusion (Summarize process and suggest reasons to follow process.) R104 SAMPLE OUTLINE #2 Persuasive Speech I. Introduction (Get audience interested and state thesis.) (Use transition to link to body.) II. Body A. First argument (Use transition.) B. Second argument (Use transition.) C. Third argument (Use transition.) III. Conclusion (Restate thesis and suggest further action.) Create a unified speech Do this first by organizing your speech into paragraphs, each of which develops a single main idea. Then make sure that just as all the sentences in a paragraph support the main idea of the paragraph, so all the paragraphs in your speech support the main idea of the speech. Use effective language Make your presentation interesting and lively by using precise, vivid language; action verbs; sensory details; and colorful modifiers. Avoid the passive voice. Use appropriate language The subject of your speech—and the way you choose to present it—should match both your audience and the occasion. For example, if you were telling a funny story to a group of friends, your speech might be informal and lighthearted. However, for formal presentations it is important to use appropriate grammar, word choice, enunciation, and pacing. Provide evidence Include relevant facts, statistics, and incidents; quote experts to support both your ideas and your opinions. Elaborate—or provide specific details, perhaps with visual or media displays—to clarify what you are saying. Emphasize points To help your audience in following the main ideas and concepts of your speech, be sure to draw attention to important points. You can do this with your voice, using effective rate, volume, pitch, and tone. You can also do this with nonverbal elements, such as eye contact, facial expressions, hand gestures, and props—all of which can help engage your audience's interest and hold their attention. Use audience feedback Pay attention to how your audience responds to your presentation. Do they look confused? Rearrange words and sentences to clarify meaning. Are they yawning? Liven it up with more effective voice and gesture. Rehearsing in front of a practice audience is a great opportunity for feedback, after which you can reconsider and modify your final presentation to be more effective. Prepare/Practice/Present Confidence is the key to a successful presentation. Use these techniques to help you prepare and present your speech to your class. Prepare Review your information Reread your written report and review your background research—you'll feel much more confident during your speech. Organize your notes Jot down a minimum of key points or prepare an entire script. Consider using numbered index cards for each main point or paragraph of your speech. Be sure to include your most important evidence and examples. Plan your visual aids If you are planning on using visual aids, such as slides, posters, charts, graphs, video clips, overhead transparencies, or computer projections, now is the time to design them and decide how to work them into your speech. R106 Practice Rehearse Rehearse your speech several times, possibly in front of a practice audience. If you are using visual aids, practice handling them. Adapt your rate of speaking, pitch, and tone of voice to your audience and setting. Time yourself to ensure that your speech does not run too long. Evaluate your performance When you have finished each rehearsal, evaluate your performance. How did you do? Did you slow down for emphasis, pause to let an important point sink in, or use gestures for emphasis? Make a list of aspects of your presentation that you will try to perfect for your next rehearsal. Present Begin your speech In order to break the tension of the opening moments, try to look relaxed and remember to smile! Make eye contact Eye contact with audience members will help you establish the feeling of personal contact, and it will also help you determine if the audience understands your speech. Remember to pause A slight pause after important points will provide emphasis and give your audience time to think about what you are saying. Maintain good posture Stand up straight and avoid nervous movements that may distract the audience's attention from what you are saying. Use expressive body language Capture the attention of your audience through body language as well as through speech. Lean forward when you make an important point; move your hands and arms for emphasis. Your body language will show that you really believe in what you are saying. 2 Oral Interpretation An oral interpretation is a way to show an audience what a piece of written work means to you—whether it's yours or someone else's. The piece you interpret may be a story, poem, speech, or soliloquy. If you choose to read a scene from a play with several other speakers, your oral interpretation is called a dramatic reading. Oral Reading When you perform an oral reading, you use appropriate voice, facial expressions, and gestures to create a special world for your audience and bring the literature to life. There are many different types of pieces to choose from: Story This may be a brief selection from a short story or novel. You may present a monologue, a long speech offered by a single character or narrator in the piece. You may also present a dialogue, in which you take on the roles of two or more characters. Use voice and gesture to help your audience experience and understand the scene. Soliloquy This is a dramatic monologue from a story or play. It represents the unspoken thoughts of a single character, heard only by the audience and not by other characters in the scene. Use an expressive voice to help an audience understand a character's inner thoughts, emotions, and feelings. R106 Poem Unless the poem is very long, you are likely to present the piece in its entirety (4-6 stanzas). As with a story, you may assume the voice of the poem's narrator if there is one. Recite the words of a poem effectively, using your voice to create mood and evoke emotion from your audience. Speech Unless the speech is short, you are likely to select a brief passage from it. Choose the most powerful and dramatic part of the speech. Put yourself in the position of the speech's original orator, using voice and gesture to deliver the words passionately and persuasively. Dramatic Reading When several speakers participate in the reading of a play or other work divided into parts, it is called a dramatic reading. Use the following techniques in your dramatic reading: Prepare Rehearse your material several times. Become familiar with the humorous and most dramatic parts of your script. Come up with a special voice that fits the personality of your character. Project As you read your lines, aim your voice toward the very back of the room. This will allow everyone to hear you. Perform React to the other characters as if you were hearing their lines for the first time. Deliver your own lines with the appropriate emotion. Use your whole body, as well as your hands and face, to express your emotions. GUIDELINES HOW TO ANALYZE YOUR ORAL INTERPRETATION Did you speak clearly, enunciating each word carefully? Did you control your volume, projecting without shouting? Did you pace yourself, varying your rate of speech appropriately to express emotion, mood, and action? Did you use different voices for each character? Did you stress important words or phrases? Did you use voice, tone, and gesture to enhance meaning? 3 Narrative Presentations When you make a narrative presentation, you tell a story or present a subject using a story-type format. A good narrative keeps an audience both informed and entertained. It also allows you to deliver a message in a unique and creative way. Establish a setting Think about a definite context and setting for your story. Where does the action take place? Is the narrative biographical or autobiographical? Choose a clear, coherent incident, event, or situation that the audience can relate to. Create a plot What happens in your story? Is it funny? tragic? suspenseful? How do you want the events to unfold? Over what period of time? A standard plot line includes exposition (to draw the audience in), a central conflict (the reason the story is told), rising action (to create tension), a climax (the height of action), and a denouement (to show the final outcome). Determine a point of view Is a narrator telling the story? Who is the main R107 character of the story? What is his or her point of view or attitude? Show how the incident, event, or situation of your narrative specifically affects the character. Use effective language Include well- chosen sensory details and concrete language to develop the plot and the character. Let your audience touch, taste, hear, and smell what's happening in the story. Employ narrative devices Use a range of descriptive strategies to keep your narrative interesting: relevant, believable dialogue; specific action that forwards the plot; language that builds up tension or suspense in a scene; appropriate physical and background description; comparison or contrast of characters. Focus on the delivery Once you've created your narrative, your next responsibility is to make the story come alive in presentation. Remember, it's not just what you say but how you say it. Speak clearly and confidently. Pace yourself and pause for emphasis. Use a range of voices, movements, gestures, and expressions to convey different emotions and moods. GUIDELINES HOW TO ANALYZE YOUR NARRATIVE PRESENTATION Did you choose a context that makes sense and contributes to a believable narrative? Does your plot flow well and create the right mood for your audience? Is your character—and his or her point of view—realistic and memorable? Did you use sensory language that allows your audience to experience the story? Did you use a range of narrative devices to keep your audience interested? Did you deliver your speech effectively and persuasively? 4 Oral Responses to Literature An oral response to literature is a personal, analytic interpretation of a writer's story, poem, or drama. It demonstrates to an audience a solid and comprehensive understanding of what that piece means to you. Select carefully In choosing a piece for your oral response, think about the assignment, your interest, and the audience. Choose something that affects you deeply and about which you feel strongly. Exhibit understanding Develop an interpretation exhibiting careful reading, understanding, and insight. Direct your reader to specific words, sentences, or paragraphs that are rich with meaning. Explore how they make you feel, what they make you think about, and why they are particularly important to the piece. Organize clearly Organize the selected interpretation around several clear ideas, premises, or images. How do they relate to the piece as a whole? What insight and meaning do they provide? Use examples and textual evidence to give weight to your interpretation. Draw relationships Show how the writer's words and techniques specifically affect you. Then draw supported inferences about how and why a literary work can affect an audience in general. Support your judgments through references to the text, other works and authors, and personal knowledge. R108 GUIDELINES HOW TO ANALYZE YOUR ORAL RESPONSE Did you choose an interesting piece that you enjoy, understand, and feel strongly about? Did you engage in in-depth analysis and demonstrate an understanding of what the piece means to you? Did you direct your audience to specific parts of the piece that support your interpretation? Did you present your ideas in a clear, well- organized manner? Did you discuss how literature and its audience affect each other? Did your enthusiasm for the piece come through in your delivery? 5 Research Presentations A research presentation is an informative, investigative presentation based on your own research work. After you pose relevant questions to guide your research, you will organize your information and attempt to explain, teach, and enlighten an audience about a particular subject. Target your audience Think about what your audience may already know about the subject. Taking their background into consideration, develop a focused, organized presentation. Introduce the topic Grab your audience's attention by posing an interesting, relevant question or stating a fascinating fact. Propose a definite thesis and framework Concisely explain to your audience the purpose of your presentation, the argument you are proposing, and how you went about collecting the information to support it. Present your research Share all important pieces of information gained from your research that support your thesis: evidence, statistics, ideas, concepts, and direct quotations. Paraphrase and summarize all relevant perspectives on the topic, as appropriate. Cite your sources Use a variety of primary and secondary sources during your research. Distinguish the nature and value of each. Use visual aids Enliven your presentation by organizing and recording your information on charts, maps, and graphs. GUIDELINES HOW TO ANALYZE YOUR RESEARCH PRESENTATION Did you think about your audience's previous knowledge on the subject? Did you hook your audience with an interesting question or fact? Did you propose a definite thesis and framework for your presentation? Did you present your research clearly and concisely? Did you cite a variety of sources and use effective presentation aids? 6 Persuasive Presentations When you deliver a persuasive presentation, you offer a thesis or clear statement on a subject, provide relevant evidence to support your position, and attempt to convince the audience to accept your point of view. Do your research In order to develop a well-defined thesis on a subject—one that makes a clear and knowledgeable judgment—you need to know enough about the subject in the first place. Learn R109 about all perspectives on the topic so that you can make an informed and intelligent decision. State your position Present your position on the subject clearly, confidently, and enthusiastically. Support your position Distinguish between fact and opinion. Demonstrate that your thesis is well-supported by fact. Use strong, supportive evidence to back up your position. Arm yourself with detailed evidence, examples, and reasoning. Provide a strong defense Consider your audience's own biases and opinions on the subject. What kind of questions or doubts might they have? Prepare effective counterarguments and address them before they are even raised. Deliver effectively Engage your audience. Give them something to think about by posing challenging questions. Make them aware of a problem and how it might affect them or someone they know. Maintain a convincing yet reasonable tone that demonstrates that you really believe in what you are saying. GUIDELINES HOW TO ANALYZE YOUR PERSUASIVE PRESENTATION Did you present a clear statement or argument? Did you support your thesis with convincing, well-articulated facts? Did you use sound logic in developing the argument? Did you anticipate and answer audience concerns? Did you hold the audience's interest with effective voice, facial expressions, and gesture? 7 Active Listening for Information Active listeners listen carefully and with purpose. They think about what they hear— before, during, and after any presentation— whether it's a speech, a class lecture, or even a television program. Before Listening Keep an open mind Don't prejudge the speaker. Listen to what he or she has to say, and then evaluate it critically but fairly. Prepare yourself Review what you know about the speaker's topic. Then think of questions you'd like to ask or information you'd like to learn more about. Listen with purpose Try to match how you listen with why you are listening. Situation Reason for Listening How to Listen Your friend tells a funny For enjoyment, to provide story about her pet gerbil. your friend with an audience Maintain eye contact; show you understand; react to the story. You're listening to a speech, "Wolves of the Tundra." For enjoyment; to learn some- thing new Think about what you already know; listen for ideas that add to your knowledge. Your mother explains why you can't keep an alligator as a pet. To understand her point of view; to find opportu- nities to share your own ideas Listen carefully; respond positively to valid points; listen for opportunities to state your own reasons. You and your friends are trying to arrange a trip to a concert. To solve a problem Identify goals and problems; listen closely to one another's ideas and build on them. You are watch- ing a television program about cooking or carpentry. To follow directions Listen for words such as first, second, next, and finally; take notes that you can refer to later. R110 While Listening Block out distractions Keep your eyes on the speaker, focus your mind, and ignore outside interference. Look for signals of main ideas See the Guidelines box below. Take notes, if appropriate Jot down phrases, main ideas, or questions that occur to you. Look for relationships between ideas Note comparisons and contrasts, causes and effects, and problems and solutions. Identify tone, mood, and gestures To aid in your comprehension, note how the speaker uses word choice, voice pitch, posture, and gestures to convey meaning. TIP If you are listening to an oral interpretation, be sure to analyze both the speaker's language choice and delivery. Recognize how and why a speaker's personal interpretation can influence or affect your own understanding of a subject. GUIDELINES HOW TO RECOGNIZE MAIN IDEAS Did you listen for ideas presented first or last? Did you listen for ideas repeated several times for emphasis? Did you note statements that begin with phrases such as "My point is ..." or "The important thing is .. "? Did you pay attention to ideas presented in a loud voice or with forceful gestures? In a multimedia presentation, did you note points the speaker had reproduced on a chart or on any other visual aid? After Listening Review notes taken Make sure you understand what was said. Ask questions Ask the speaker probing questions to elicit more information. Demand additional evidence to support claims and conclusions made. Clarify anything that was unclear or confusing. Summarize, paraphrase, and evaluate Restate the speaker's ideas in your own words. Clarify your reasons for agreeing or disagreeing. Respond to the speaker Respond to persuasive statements with questions, challenges, or affirmations. Ask relevant questions concerning the speaker's content, delivery, and purpose. GUIDELINES HOW TO EVALUATE WHAT YOU HEAR What is the purpose of the talk, and does the speaker achieve it? In an oral interpretation of literature, how effective was the speaker's language choice? delivery? Does the information make sense? Does it contradict anything you already know? Are ideas presented in an interesting and logical way? Are points supported with facts and details? Do you still have any questions after hearing the talk? Do you agree with what the speaker said? Why or why not? R111 8 Critical Listening As you listen to a speaker's ideas, you will want to analyze, evaluate, and critique those ideas. Use the following critical listening strategies as you listen to a public speaker: Determine the speaker's purpose Identify the speaker's purpose in giving the speech. Is the speaker trying to inform? to persuade? to express thoughts or feelings? to entertain? Learn to evaluate a speaker's credibility. His or her speech may be slanted by hidden agendas or personal biases. Listen for the main idea Figure out the speaker's main message before allowing yourself to be distracted by seemingly convincing facts and details. Distinguish between fact and opinion Know the difference between opinion statements, such as "I think/I believe," and factual statements, such as "Statistics show" or "It has been proved!' Recognize the use of rhetorical devices Some speakers use special techniques to accomplish different purposes when they express their ideas. Noting these techniques as you listen will enable you to identify these purposes. For example, a speaker may use repetition of certain words or phrases, which allows him or her to emphasize ideas and draw your attention to something important. The speaker may also pose rhetorical questions, questions that you are not expected to respond to, to involve you in the topic. The speaker may use a third device such as an allusion, an indirect reference to something, for the purpose of pleasing and making a connection to a listener who recognizes the reference. Recognize the use of persuasive devices Beware of techniques used to persuade you to accept a particular opinion. Persuasive devices—such as inaccurate generalizations, either/or reasoning, and bandwagon or snob appeal—may represent faulty reasoning and provide misleading information. Interpret the effect of visuals Image makers—such as graphic artists, illustrators, and photojournalists—are skilled at communicating information through visuals. How do visuals combined with speech alter or affect your impressions and opinions on a subject? Are you aware of their influence? GUIDELINES HOW TO LISTEN CRITICALLY Are you aware of the speaker's purpose in addressing you? Does the speaker seem confident in his or her knowledge of the subject? Does the speaker convince with concrete evidence rather than creative rhetoric? Are you able to distinguish between personal opinions and verifiable facts? Does the speaker use faulty or misleading persuasive devices? Do you recognize how the use of visuals can alter your understanding or impressions of a speech? R112 9 Recognizing Persuasive Devices An important part of critical listening is the ability to recognize persuasive devices— techniques used to persuade you to accept a particular opinion. Persuasive devices may represent faulty reasoning and provide misleading information. They are often used in advertising and in propaganda. Some persuasive devices that you should learn to recognize: Inaccurate generalization A generalization is a broad statement about a number of people or things, such as "Maps are hard to read." Although some generalizations are true, others are too broad to be true. The statement "All teenagers like junk food" is an example of an inaccurate generalization. Either/or A writer may try to convince an audience that there are only two choices or ways of looking at something, when in fact there may be many. The statement "If you don't join the glee club, you have no school spirit" is an example of either/or reasoning. Bandwagon A bandwagon statement appeals to people's desire to belong to a group. For example, a statement like "Everyone at your school already has this hot new watch" is a bandwagon device. Snob appeal This technique appeals to people's need to feel superior to other people. A statement like "You deserve the best, so buy this jacket" relies on snob appeal. 10 Conducting Interviews Conducting a personal interview can be an effective way to get information. Select your interviewee carefully. Identify who has the kind of knowledge and experience you are looking for. Research any information by or about the person you will interview. The background details will help you focus. Prepare a list of questions. Create open- ended questions that can't be answered simply with a "yes" or "no." Arrange your questions in order of significance, from most important to least important. Ask your questions clearly and listen carefully. Give the person that you are interviewing plenty of time to answer. Listen interactively and flexibly. Be prepared to follow up on a response you find interesting, even if it was not on your initial list of questions. Avoid arguments. Be tactful and polite. Take notes to help in your write-up of the interview. Jot down main ideas or important statements that you can quote. Summarize your notes while they are still fresh in your mind. Send a thank-you note to the interviewee afterward. R113 1 Getting Information Electronically Electronic resources provide you with a convenient and efficient way to gather information. 1.1 Online Resources When you use your computer to communicate with another computer or with another person using a computer, you are working "online" Online resources include commercial information services and information available on the Internet. Commercial Information Services You can subscribe to various services that offer information, such as the following: up-to-date news, weather, and sports reports access to encyclopedias, magazines, newspapers, dictionaries, almanacs, and databases (collections of information) forums, or ongoing electronic conversations among people interested in a particular topic Internet The Internet is a vast network of computers. News services, libraries, universities, researchers, organizations, and government agencies use the Internet to communicate and to distribute information. The Internet includes two key features: World Wide Web, which provides information on specific subjects and links you to related topics and resources (such as the linked Web pages shown below) Electronic mail (e-mail), which makes possible communication among e-mail users worldwide What You'll Need To access online resources, you need a computer with a modem to link you to the Internet. Your school computer lab or resource center may be linked to the Internet or to a commercial information service. To use CD-ROMs, you need a computer system with a CD-ROM drive. R114 1.2 Navigating the Web With access to the World Wide Web, you can find virtually any piece of information once you know how to look for it. Here are some tips to get you started and keep you going. Choose a Search Engine or a Directory A search engine combs through Web sites looking for your topic. A directory allows you to search within a collection of sites that are grouped by subject, such as Reference, Sports, or Entertainment. Enter Key Words Once you've chosen a starting point, enter the key word or words that describe your topic. By using more than one word, you can narrow your search. For example, using the key word "baseball" will find a variety of sites with information on baseball, whereas the key words "Dodgers baseball" will help you find sites with information on a specific team. Investigate Your Options Once you receive the results of your search, scan the site listings and their summaries to see which ones look promising. If you click on a site and it's not useful, you can always back up and try again. The sites at the top of the list usually will be more relevant to your search than those found farther down. Tips for Getting the Most from Your Searching Note the source Because anyone can put information on the Web, it's wise to check where the information comes from. For example, sites produced by government agencies or educational institutions tend to be more reliable than the personal Web pages of individuals. Refine your search If you're not getting the results you want, search again, using more or different key words. Explore other avenues Different search engines may produce different results, and the same goes for directories. Link around Many Web sites have links to other sites with related content that you might not find by searching on your own. 1.3 CD-ROM A CD-ROM (compact disc—read-only memory) stores data that may include text, sound, photographs, and video. Almost any kind of information can be found on CD-ROMs, which you can purchase or use at the library, including encyclopedias, almanacs, and indexes other reference books on a variety of subjects news reports from newspapers, magazines, television, or radio museum art collections back issues of magazines literature collections R115 1.4 Library Computer Services Many libraries offer computerized catalogs and a variety of other electronic resources. Computerized Catalogs You may search for a book in a library by typing the title, author, subject, or key words into a computer terminal. When you find the book you're looking for, the screen will display the kind of information shown here, including the book's call number and whether it is on the shelf or checked out of the library. You may also be able to search the catalogs of other libraries. Other Electronic Resources In addition to computerized catalogs, many libraries offer electronic versions of books or other reference materials. They may also have a variety of indexes on CD-ROM, which allow you to search for magazine or newspaper articles on any topic you choose. Ask your librarian for assistance in using these resources. 1.5 Evaluating Sources Be a discriminating consumer of information by evaluating the credibility of a source, the reliability of its information, and its value in answering your research needs. Credibility of Sources You must determine the credibility and appropriateness of each source in order to write an effective report or speech. Use these criteria to evaluate print and electronic sources. (For more information on evaluating sources, see page R52 in the Writing Handbook.) CRITERIA HOW TO EVALUATE A SOURCE Is the writer an authority? Is the source reliable and unbiased? Is the source up-to-date? Is the source appropriate? Distinguishing Fact from Opinion As you gather information, it is important to recognize facts and opinions. A fact can be proved true or false. You could verify the statement "Congress rejected the bill" by checking the Congressional Record. An opinion is a judgment based on facts, such as the statement "Congress should not have rejected the bills' To evaluate an opinion, check for evidence presented logically to support it. Recognizing Bias A bias does not automatically make a writer's point of view unreliable. However, recognizing bias can help you evaluate a source. Recognizing that the author of an article about immigration is an immigrant himself will help you understand that author's bias. To avoid relying on information that may be biased, check an author's background and gather a variety of viewpoints. R116 2 Word Processing Many word-processing programs allow you to draft, revise, edit, and format your writing and to produce neat, professional-looking papers. They also allow you to share your writing with others. 2.1 Prewriting and Drafting A computer makes it easy to experiment with different ways of expressing and organizing your ideas. You can use it to keep an electronic journal or portfolio, to organize your notes in files, or to access templates for special writing formats. It allows you to store multiple drafts of a paper and even to add graphics to clarify and enhance your message. You may want to create a separate file to use as a writing notebook. Keep all of your story starters, ideas to research, and other writing ideas in this file. 2.2 Revising and Editing Improving the quality of your writing becomes easier when you use a wordprocessing program to revise and edit. Revising a Document Most word-processing programs allow you to make the following kinds of changes: add or delete words move text from one location in your document to another undo a change you have made in the text save a document with a new name, allowing you to keep old drafts for reference view more than one document at a time, so that you can copy text from one document and add it to another Editing a Document Many word-processing programs have the following features to help you catch errors and polish your writing: The spell checker automatically finds misspelled words and suggests possible corrections. Even if you use a spell checker, you should still proofread your draft carefully to make sure you've used the right words. For example, you may have used there or they're when you meant to use their. The grammar checker spots possible grammatical errors and suggests ways you might correct them. The thesaurus suggests synonyms for a word you want to replace. The dictionary will give you the definitions of words so that you can be sure you have used words correctly. The search and replace feature searches your whole document and corrects every occurrence of something you want to change, such as a misspelled name. 2.3 Formatting Your Work Format is the layout and appearance of your writing on the page. You may choose your formatting options before or after you write. Formatting Type You may want to make changes in the typeface, type size, and type style of the words in your document. For each of these, your word-processing program will most likely have several options to choose from. R117 These options allow you to change the typeface to create a different look for the words in your document change the type size of section headings in the paper or the entire document change the type style when necessary; for example, use italics or underlining for the titles of books and magazines Formatting Pages Not only can you change the way individual words look; you can also change the way they are arranged on the page. Some of the formatting decisions you make will depend on how you plan to use a printout of a draft or on the guidelines of an assignment. Set the line spacing, or the amount of space you need between lines of text. Double-spacing is commonly used for final drafts. Set the margins, or the amount of white space around the edges of your text. A one-inch margin on all sides is commonly used for final drafts. Create a header for the top of the page or a footer for the bottom if you want to include such information as your name, the date, or the page number on every page. Determine the alignment of your text. The screen on this page shows your options. WRITING TIP Keep your format simple. Your goal is to create not only an attractive document but also one that is easy to read. Your readers will have difficulty if you change the type formatting frequently. TECHNOLOGY TIP Some word-processing programs or other software packages provide preset templates, or patterns, for writing outlines, memos, letters, newsletters, or invitations. If you use one of these templates, you will not need to adjust the formatting. Other software programs will help you set up spreadsheets for applications such as budgeting or tracking expenses. R118 2.4 Working Collaboratively Computers allow you to share your writing electronically. Send a copy of your work via e-mail or put it in someone's drop box if your computer is linked to other computers on a network. Then use the feedback of your peers to help you improve the quality of your writing. Peer Editing on a Computer The writer and the reader can both benefit from the convenience of peer editing "on screen," or at the computer. Be sure to save your current draft and then make a copy of it for each of your peer readers. You might have your peer readers enter their comments in a different typeface or type style from the one you used for your text. Ask each of your readers to include his or her initials in the file name. If your computer allows you to open more than one file at a time, open each reviewer's file and refer to the files as you revise your draft. TECHNOLOGY TIP Some word-processing programs allow you to leave notes for your peer readers in the side column or in a separate text box. If you wish, leave those areas blank so that your readers can write comments or questions. Peer Editing on a Printout Some peer readers prefer to respond to a draft on paper rather than on the computer. Double- or triple-space your document so that your peer editor can make suggestions and changes between the lines. Leave extra-wide margins to give your readers room to note their reactions and questions as they read. Print out and photocopy your draft if you want to share it with more than one reader. R119 3 Using Visuals Tables, graphs, diagrams, and pictures often communicate information more effectively than words alone do. Many word-processing and publishing programs allow you to create visuals to use with written text. 3.1 When to Use Visuals Use visuals in your work to illustrate complex concepts and processes or to make a page look more interesting. Although you should not expect a visual to do all the work of written text, combining words and pictures or graphics can increase the understanding and enjoyment of your writing. Many word- processing and publishing programs allow you to create and insert graphs, tables, time lines, diagrams, pictures, and flow charts into your document. An art program allows you to create border designs or to draw an unusual character or setting for narrative or descriptive writing. You may also be able to add clip art, or premade pictures, to your document. Clip art can be used to illustrate an idea or concept in your writing or to enliven a page. What You'll Need A graphics program to create visuals Access to clip-art files from a CD-ROM, a computer disk, or an online service 3.2 Kinds of Visuals The visuals you choose will depend on the type of information you want to present. Tables Tables allow you to arrange facts or numbers into rows and columns so that your reader can compare information more easily. In many word-processing programs, you can create a table or database by choosing the number of vertical columns and horizontal rows you need and then entering information in each box, as the illustration shows. TECHNOLOGY TIP A spreadsheet program provides you with a preset table for your statistics and performs any necessary calculations. It can also present tabular information in graphs and charts. Graphs and Charts You can sometimes use a graph or chart to help communicate complex information in a clear visual image. For example, you could use a line graph to show how a trend changes over time, a bar graph like the one at the right to compare statistics from different years, or a pie chart to compare percentages. You might want to explore displaying data in several formats before deciding which will work best for you. R120 Other Visuals Art and design programs allow you to create visuals for your writing. Many programs include the following features: drawing tools that allow you to draw, color, and shade pictures clip art that you can copy or change with drawing tools page borders that you can use to decorate title pages, invitations, or brochures text options that allow you to combine words with your illustrations tools for making geometric shapes in flow charts, time lines, and diagrams that show a process or sequence of events 3.2 Evaluating Visual Messages When you view images, whether they are cartoons, advertising art, photographs, or paintings, there are certain elements you should look for. CRITERIA HOW TO ANALYZE IMAGES Is color used realistically? Is it used to emphasize certain objects? To evoke a specific response? What tone is created by color and by light and dark in the picture? Do the background images intentionally evoke a positive or negative response? What is noticeable about the picture's composition—that is, the arrangement of lines, colors, and forms? Does the composition emphasize certain objects or elements in the picture? For graphs and charts, does the visual accurately represent the data? R121 4 Creating a Multimedia Presentation A multimedia presentation is a combination of text, sound, and visuals such as photographs, videos, and animation. Your audience reads, hears, and sees your presentation at a computer, following different "paths" you create to lead the user through the information you have gathered. 4.1 Features of Multimedia Programs To start planning your multimedia presentation, you need to know what options are available to you. You can combine sound, photos, videos, and animation to enhance any text you write about your topic. Sound Including sound in your presentation can help your audience understand information in your written text. For example, the user may be able to listen and learn from the pronunciation of an unfamiliar or foreign word a speech a recorded news interview a music selection a dramatic reading of a work of literature Photos and Videos Photographs and live-action videos can make your subject come alive for the user. Here are some examples: videotaped news coverage of a historical event videos of music, dance, or theater performances charts and diagrams photos of an artist's work photos or video of a geographical setting that is important to the written text TECHNOLOGY TIP You can download photos, sound, and video from Internet sources to your computer. This process allows you to add elements to your multimedia presentation that would usually require complex editing equipment. Animation Many graphics programs allow you to add animation, or movement, to the visuals in your presentation. Animated figures add to the user's enjoyment and understanding of what you present. You can use animation to illustrate what happens in a story the steps in a process changes in a chart, graph, or diagram how your user can explore information in your presentation R122 4.2 Planning Your Presentation To create a multimedia presentation, first choose your topic and decide what you want to include. Then plan how you want your user to move through your presentation. Imagine that you are creating a multimedia presentation about the great jazz musician Duke Ellington. You know you want to include the following items: text about his influence on jazz a portrait of him a recording of him playing a song a photograph of him leading his band a videotape of his band in concert, audio included a recording of a radio interview with him text of interesting anecdotes from his concert tours You can choose one of the following ways to organize your presentation: a step-by-step method with only one path, or order, in which the user can see and hear the information a branching path that allows users to make some choices about what they will see and hear, and in what order A flow chart can help you figure out the path a user can take through your presentation. Each box in the flow chart shown here represents something about Ellington for the user to read, see, or hear. The arrows on the flow chart show a branching path the user can follow. When boxes branch in more than one direction, it means that the user can choose which item to see or hear first. 4.3 Guiding Your User Your user will need directions to follow the path of your multimedia presentation. Most multimedia authoring programs allow you to create screens that include text or audio directions that guide the user from one part of your presentation to the next. In the example here, the user can choose between several paths, and directions on the screen explain how to make the choice. If you need help creating your multimedia presentation, ask your school's technology adviser or your classmates, or consult your software manual. WRITING TIP You usually need permission from the person or organization that owns the copyright on materials if you want to copy them. You do not need permission, however, if you are not making money from your presentation, if you use it only for educational purposes, and if you use only a small percentage of the original material. R123 Analyzing Text Features Reading a Magazine Article A magazine article is designed to catch and hold your interest. Learning how to recognize the items on a magazine page will help you read even the most complicated articles. Look at the sample magazine article as you read each strategy below. Strategies for Reading A Read the title and other headings to get an idea of what the article is about. Frequently, the title presents the article's main topic. The smaller headings introduce subtopics related to the main topic. B Note text that is set off in some way, such as an indented paragraph or a passage in a different typeface. This text often summarizes the article. C Study visuals—photos, pictures, maps. Visuals help bring the topic to life and enrich the text. D Look for special features, such as charts, tables, or graphs, that provide more detailed information on the topic or on a subtopic. E Pay attention to terms in italics or boldface. Look for definitions or explanations before or after these terms. PRACTICE AND APPLY Use the sample magazine page and the tips above to help you answer the following questions. 1. What is the article's main topic? What two subtopics does the article cover? 2. Which paragraph summarizes the article? 3. What is the subject of the chart? 4. How many boldfaced terms are explained in the chart? 5. What is steer wrestling? R124 MODERN COWBOYS If you think cowboys rode off into the sunset in the 1890s, think again. American cowboys are alive and well and living in the western United States and Canada. Although life has changed greatly for cowboys—long cattle drives are a thing of the past, for instance—roping and riding still go with the territory. At Work Many cowboys today work on cattle ranches. Like the cowboys of the Wild West, modern cowhands work long hours in all kinds of weather. However, unlike old-time cowboys, today's ranchers use machines for many of their jobs. Cowboys still use their horses to rope calves and do other work. But the livestock are often carried in trucks across the large, fenced-in ranches. And when a cow wanders far from the herd, cowboys sometimes use a helicopter to round up the stray. At Play Rodeos are rooted in the Old West. After working on a cattle drive, cowboys competed and showed off their skills in roping and riding. Today, the rodeo recalls the spirit of these cowboys. The events at a rodeo are divided into two main groups: rough stock events and timed events. Rough stock events include riding bucking horses or bulls. Timed events include calf roping and steer wrestling. TYPICAL RODEO EVENTS Bareback Bronc Riding For 8 seconds, the rider spurs the horse as it bucks. Saddle Bronc Riding The rider uses a saddle and must stay on the horse for 0" or 10 seconds. Bull Riding The rider tries to stay on the bull for 8 seconds (no spurring needed). Calf Roping The rider chases the calf on horseback, ropes it, and then gets off the horse to tie up the calf. Steer Wrestling The cowboy grabs the steer's horns and wrestles the animal to the ground. Team Roping A team of two rope and tie a steer. R125 Reading a Textbook The first page of a textbook lesson introduces you to a particular topic. The page also provides important information that will guide you through the rest of the lesson. Look at the sample textbook page as you read each strategy below. Strategies for Reading A Preview the title and other headings to find out the lesson's main topic and related subtopics. B Look for a list of vocabulary terms. These words will be identified and defined throughout the lesson. C Read the main idea or objectives. These items summarize the lesson and establish a purpose for your reading. D Notice text on the page that is set off in some way. For example, text placed in a tinted, or colored, box may be from a primary source that gives firsthand knowledge about the topic. E Examine visuals, such as photos and drawings, and their captions. Visuals can help the topic come alive. F Find words set in special type, such as italics or boldface. Also look for material in parentheses. Boldface is often used to identify the vocabulary terms in the lesson. Material in parentheses may refer you to another page or visual in the lesson. PRACTICE AND APPLY Use the sample textbook page and the tips above to help you answer the following questions. 1. On what part of the country does the lesson focus? 2. What vocabulary terms are defined in the lesson? 3. What is the main idea that is developed in the lesson? 4. Review the excerpt from the primary source. Who wrote the excerpt? 5. Who was Nat Love? 6. Which vocabulary term refers to the area from the Missouri River to the Rocky Mountains? R126 ---see sample R127 Understanding Visuals Reading Graphs Graphs are used to present facts and statistics. Bar graphs and circle graphs are useful for making comparisons. Use the following strategies along with the examples below to help you read graphs. Strategies for Reading A Read the title to help you understand what the graph is about. B In bar graphs, look at the data on the horizontal line and the data on the vertical line to find a value or estimate. C In circle graphs, read the headings to learn what each percent number stands for. D Compare the information from circle graphs and bar graphs to see how they relate. Sometimes they will give the same information. Other times one will give additional information. E Check the credit to see if the information is up to date and from a respected source. The following graphs show the results of a survey conducted by Zillions, the consumer magazine for children. More than half the participants ages 8 to 14 said they do not get an allowance although some do get spending money. What other observations can you make? PRACTICE AND APPLY Answer the following questions using the graphs and tips. 1. Which graph shows data on the amount of allowance kids get? 2. How many kids do not get an allowance? 3. According to the bar graph, how much more allowance does a 13 year-old get than a 10 year-old? R128 Reading a Transit Map It's important to know how to read a map so you can find your way around without becoming lost. Look at the example below as you read each strategy in this list. Strategies for Reading A Scan the title to know the main idea of the map. B Interpret the key, or legend, to find out what the symbols on the map stand for. C Study geographic labels to understand specific places on the map. D Notice the scale and pointer, or compass rose, to determine distance and direction. PRACTICE AND APPLY Use the map to answer the following questions. 1. What is the purpose of this map? 2. What do the symbols mean together? 3. Which three stations are between 40th and 25th on the Purple Line? 4. Are any of these three stations accessible to commuters who use wheelchairs? If so, which station(s)? 5. Does the Red Line run north and south or east and west? Name another train line that runs in the same direction as the Red Line. R129 Reading a Diagram Diagrams combine pictures with a few words to provide a lot of information. Look at the example on the opposite page as you read each of the following strategies. Strategies for Reading A Look at the the title to get a quick idea of what the diagram is about. B Study the images closely to understand each part of the diagram. C Look at the captions and the labels for more information. PRACTICE AND APPLY The diagram on the following page shows balanced and unbalanced forces. Study the diagram, then answer the following questions using the strategies above. 1. What is this diagram about? 2. What do the black arrows represent in these pictures? 3. What are the two forces in the picture showing unbalanced forces? 4. In the second picture, why does the car rise up from the ground? 5. Which two pictures show the same set of forces? R130 Balanced and Unbalanced Forces Newton's First Law of Motion: As long as the forces on an object balance each other, the object's motion will not change. The force of gravity pulling down on the car is balanced by the force of the ground pushing up on the car. The car remains at rest. Newton's Second Law of Motion: When an unbalanced force acts on an object, the object will accelerate in the direction that the unbalanced force points. The force of the crane pulling up on the car is greater than the force of gravity pulling down on it. The car begins to rise. Once again, the force of gravity pulling down on the car is balanced by the force of the ground pushing up on it. The car is again at rest. R131 Recognizing Text Structures Main Idea and Supporting Details The main idea in a paragraph is its most important point. Details in the paragraph support the main idea. Identifying the main idea will help you focus on the main message the writer wants to communicate. Use the following strategies to help you identify a paragraph's main idea and supporting details. Strategies for Reading Look for the main idea, which is often the first sentence in a paragraph. Use the main idea to help you summarize the point of the paragraph. Identify specific details, including facts and examples, that support the main idea. Searching for E.T. Scientists on Project Phoenix search for extraterrestrials—beings from another planet. The scientists use radio telescopes to track radio signals from outer space. The telescopes are pointed at nearby, sun-like stars that are thought to be orbited by planets. So far, no clear signals have been received. However, scientists hope that the telescopes will finally help answer the question: Is anyone out there? PRACTICE AND APPLY Read the following paragraph. Then copy the diagram below, and add the paragraph's main idea as well as three supporting details. Nothing can escape the gravity of a black hole. A meteor passing near the hole is sucked in and crushed. Gases from a dying star are drawn toward the hole. Even light cannot resist its pull. R132 Problem and Solution Does the proposed solution to a problem make sense? In order to decide, you need to look at each part of the text. Use the following strategies to read the text below. Strategies for Reading Look at the beginning or middle of a paragraph to find the problem. Find out why the problem is important. Look for the proposed solution. Identify the details that support the proposed solution. Think about whether the solution is a good one. A Garden for Market Street? Anyone who has walked along Market Street has seen the big empty lot next to the public library. This lot has been empty for two years now, and it is ugly and dangerous. Paper trash and broken bottles cover the ground, and nothing grows there but tough nasty weeds. And who knows what kind of rodents might be crawling around in the dirt? According to the mayor, the owner has long since deserted the property, and no one has any plans to build on it. This is valuable land, and it's right in the middle of town! The citizens should do something with it. A community nature garden would be a great thing for the city. Teachers and students could share what they've learned about local plant wildlife. Other residents could volunteer to help plant the trees, grasses, and wildflowers. When finished, the garden would be both educational and lovely—a great improvement over the weedy lot! PRACTICE AND APPLY Read the text above and answer the questions. 1. What is the proposed solution to the problem? 2. Give at least one detail that supports the solution. 3. Do you agree with the solution? Explain why or why not. R133 Sequence It's important to understand the sequence, or order of events, in what you read. It helps you know what happens and why. Read the tips below to make sure a sequence is clear to you. Then look at the example on the opposite page. Strategies for Reading Read through the passage and think about what its main steps, or stages, are. Look for words and phrases that signal time: today, Saturday, later, or 9:30. Look for words and phrases that signal order: first, next, then, before, at last, after, or finally. The article on the next page describes how a sixteen-year-old spent her day as a movie extra. Use the information from the passage and the tips above to answer the questions. PRACTICE AND APPLY 1. List some words and phrases that signal time. 2. List some phrases in the article that signal order. 3. Use the information from the article to copy and complete this timeline. Make sure to include signal words in your sentences. R134 I Was a Movie Extra On a recent Saturday, Nicole M., 16, . . . spent the day as a movie extra. . . . She found out that life as an extra isn't exactly glamorous, but she did have fun. Here is her story . . . I was one of nearly 600 extras who appeared in a fire-drill scene for the movie "Newport South.".. . At 6:45 A.M. the day of filming, I reported to the set, an abandoned school building. . . . My day started off with registration and wardrobe check. . . . I was assigned to one of four sections: A, B, C or D (I landed in D, along with some of my friends). . . . After that, I was told to find my section and to sit there. My friends and I waited and waited. At 7:45 A.M., caterers arrived with doughnuts, lemonade, coffee, and hot chocolate. After munching down chocolate doughnuts, we waited again—till 9:30 A.M. Finally, it was time for our big scene. A guy wearing a headset explained to us what we had to do, then directed us to one of four stairwells. We were smooshed: About 75 people stood shoulder to shoulder. It was 20 minutes before we got the signal to move, and we poured out of the school and headed for the football field. . . . Before the scene was shot, it was stressed upon us not to look at the cameras. But it was stressed so much it was hard NOT to look. . . . So, after that first take, we shot the scene two more times, then we got a snack. We had five minutes to use the washroom, eat, and do anything else we needed to. Then it was back to our stairwells. . . . By 1:30 P.M., the shooting was done, and we all gathered in the gym. . . . I reported to wardrobe and returned my jacket. After standing in line to get paid, my friends and I left—feeling tired, cold, wet, hungry and a bit grouchy. from The Chicago Tribune R135 Cause and Effect A cause is an event that brings about another event. An effect is something that happens as a result of the first event. Identifying causes and effects helps you understand how the events are related. The strategies below can help you find causes and effects in any reading. Strategies for Reading Look for an action or event that answers the question "What happened?" This is the effect. Look for an action or event that answers the question "Why did it happen?" This is the cause. Identify words that signal causes and effects, such as because, as a result, therefore, cause, and since. PRACTICE AND APPLY Use the cause-and-effect passage on the next page to help you answer the following questions. Notice that the first cause and effect in the passage are highlighted. 1. What phrase explains what happened because the Sultana was carrying so many people. Is this a cause or an effect? 2. List some words in the passage that signal causes and effects. The first one is highlighted for you. 3. Use the causes and effects in the last two paragraphs to copy and complete the following diagram. R136 The Sinking of the Sultana On April 25, 1865, about two weeks after the end of the Civil War, a steamboat called the Sultana was traveling up the Mississippi River. The ship had set out from Vicksburg, Mississippi, and was going to Cairo, Illinois. Many passengers, including hundreds of ex-prisoners of war, had boarded the ship. Since no one had taken a roll call, the exact number is not known. However, historians guess that there were about 2,300 people on board. That number is about six times as many people as the ship was built to carry. Because the Sultana was carrying so many people, it was going slowly. The load also caused the ship's steam boilers to leak several times over the next two days. The boilers were repaired, but the strain was too much. Early on April 27, the boilers exploded after the ship had sailed just a few miles north of Memphis, Tennessee. As a result of the explosion, hundreds of passengers were killed instantly. Many others drowned or died in the fire that started when hot coals burst from the boiler. Some of the victims who died in the fire were trapped below deck. Others, especially those who had been prisoners of war, were too weak to try to swim in the icy river. In all, about 1,700 people died. That number is about 200 more than died aboard the Titanic 47 years later. The sinking of the Sultana was—and still is—the greatest seafaring disaster in American history. However, the newspapers at that time were still covering the death of Abraham Lincoln and his funeral train. Therefore, the tragedy was barely reported. R137 Comparison and Contrast Comparing two things means showing how they are the same. Contrasting two things means showing how they are different. Comparisons and contrasts are often used in science and history books to make a subject clearer. Use these tips to help you understand comparison and contrast in reading assignments, such as the article on the opposite page. Strategies for Reading Look for direct statements of comparison and contrast: "These things are similar because... " or "One major difference is... Pay attention to words and phrases that signal comparisons, such as also, both, is the same as, and in the same way. Notice words and phrases that signal contrasts. Some of these are however, still, but, and on the other hand. PRACTICE AND APPLY Read the essay on the opposite page. Then use the information from the essay and the tips above to answer the questions. 1. List some words and phrases that signal comparisons. The first one is highlighted for you. 2. List some words and phrases that signal contrasts. The first one is highlighted for you. 3. A Venn diagram shows how two subjects are similar and how they are different. Copy this diagram, which uses information from the essay to compare and contrast the United States and Bosnia. Add at least two similarities and two differences. R138 My Two Homes: Bosnia and the U.S. by Elvisa Pandzic My family and I came to America because of the war in Bosnia. . . . I had to catch my breath when I first set eyes on Chicago. It was spectacular— like a dream, with its tall buildings and shiny cars. Everything was moving so fast! Still, I often thought of Cazin, where I was born. I missed the slow pace of small- town life. That and the lack of cars. Most people had no need to travel to a place they couldn't walk to. I especially missed the mountains and hills. Nothing can replace those big beautiful meadows and the forests that took your breath away with their wonderful green smells. . . . Another big difference is the school system. When I started school in Chicago I was very confused—all the rules were different. In Bosnia, schools are strict and students give their teachers a lot of respect. We used to stand up when a teacher entered the classroom and when we had to answer a question. In American schools, students may talk without even being called on. This is not entirely bad, in my opinion. I like how students can express themselves freely. Another thing that has taken some time getting used to is the grading system. In Bosnia, all the grades are given in numbers, not letters. In Bosnia a grade of A is equal to 5, B to 4, C to 3, D to 2, and F to 1. At least the dress code in my new school is almost the same as in Bosnia. In both places you can wear blue jeans to school. . . . I have been living in Chicago for about two years and I am adjusting well, but I still miss Bosnia, my first home. I look forward to a time of peace when I can return. I know I will never return to my "old" life, but there is one thing I do know. Wherever I end up, I will celebrate the best of both worlds. R139 Argument An argument is an opinion backed up with reasons and facts. Understanding an argument will help you make informed decisions about an issue. Use the following strategies to help you understand an argument. Strategies for Reading Look for words that signal an opinion: I think; I feel; they claim, argue, or disagree. Look for reasons, facts, or expert opinions that support the argument. Ask yourself if the argument and reasons make sense. PRACTICE AND APPLY Read the argument on the next page, and then answer the questions below. 1. List some words that signal an opinion. 2. List the two opinions in this argument. 3. Give an example of a statement that is not supported by reason. 4. The writer gives reasons for and against television. Copy and complete the chart below using the argument. One answer has been given for you. R140 Television: Good or Bad? Many people believe that life before television was happier than life today. In those days, people read books and newspapers for information. Families spent more time together. They talked, ate meals together, and shared chores. Many children used their imaginations to write and tell stories, and they participated in outdoor activities instead of spending hours in front of the television. People were not violent because they did not watch violent programs. Others disagree. They claim that television has many advantages as an educational tool. It keeps people informed about important current events and issues. Television programs can help children learn valuable social skills such as cooperation and kindness. It can teach children how people live, work, and deal with misfortune. Some public television programs also promote activities such as visits to museums, libraries, bookstores, and zoos. Both arguments are endless. The only thing we can say for sure is that we need more studies to show whether television is good or bad, or a little bit of both. R141 Reading in the Content Areas Social Studies Your social studies textbook uses words and graphics to help you learn about people and places today and throughout history. As you read the tips below, look at the sample page on the right. Strategies for Reading A First, look at any headlines or subheads on the page. These give you an idea of what each section covers. B Carefully read the text and think about ways the information is organized. Social studies books are full of sequence, comparison and contrast, and cause and effect. C Make sure you know the meaning of any boldfaced or underlined vocabulary terms. These terms often appear on tests. D Next, look closely at any sidebar articles or graphics. Think about how they relate to the main text. E Read any study tips in the margins or at the bottom of the page. These let you check your understanding as you read. PRACTICE AND APPLY The textbook page at right describes some of the effects of the Civil War on Northerners and Southerners. Use information from that page and from the tips above to answer the questions. 1. What two subjects does the page cover? 2. Name the two vocabulary terms and define them. 3. What was a Confederate soldier's monthly pay in 1864? 4. What does it mean to subjugate someone? 5. Copy and complete the diagram. R142 Economic Effects of the War Many people suffered economic hardship during the war. The suffering was severe in the South, where most battles were fought, but the North also experienced difficulties. Food shortages were very common in the South, partly because so many farmers were fighting in the Confederate army. Moreover, food sometimes could not get to market because trains were now being used to carry war materials. The Confederate army also seized food and other supplies for its own needs. Another problem, especially in the South, was inflation—an increase in price and decrease in the value of money. The average family food bill in the South increased from $6.65 a month in 1861 to $68 by mid-1863. Over the course of the war, prices rose 9,000 percent in the South. Inflation in the North was much lower, but prices still rose faster than wages, making life harder for working people. Some people took advantage of wartime demand and sold goods for high prices. Overall, though, war production boosted Northern industry and fueled the economy. In the short term, this gave the North an economic advantage over the South. In the long term, industry would begin to replace farming as the basis of the national economy. During the war, the federal government passed two important economic measures. In 1861, it established the first income tax—a tax on earnings. The following year, the government issued a new paper currency, known as greenbacks because of their color. The new currency helped the Northern economy by ensuring that people had money to spend. It also helped the Union to pay for the war. Some Southerners in the border states took advantage of the stronger Union economy by selling cotton to Northern traders, in violation of Confederate law. "Yankee gold," wrote one Confederate officer, "is fast accomplishing what Yankee arms could never achieve—the subjugation of our people." Resistance by Slaves Another factor that affected the South was the growing resistance from slaves. To hurt the Southern economy, slaves slowed their pace of work or stopped working altogether. Some carried out sabotage, destroying crops and farm equipment to hurt the plantation economy. R143 Science Reading in science will be easier when you understand how the explanations, drawings, and special terms work together. Use the strategies below to help you better understand your science textbook. Look at the examples on the opposite page as you read each strategy in this list. Strategies for Reading A Preview the title and headings on the page to see what science concepts will be covered. B Look for boldfaced and italicized words that appear in the text. Look for definitions of those words. C Many science textbooks discuss scientific concepts in terms of everyday events or experiences. Look for these places and consider how they improve your understanding. D Look for references to numbered figures in the text. E Then look in the margin for these figures, which are diagrams or pictures with captions. See how they illustrate and explain the text. PRACTICE AND APPLY Use the sample science page to help you answer the following questions. 1. What science concept will be covered in this lesson? Where on the page did you find this information? 2. Define the term light year. 3. How old is the light from Polaris when it reaches the Earth? 4. What is the everyday experience used to help explain parallax? 5. Read the discussion of parallax in the text and look at Figure 6-9. What appears to happen to the close star's position between July and January? What actually happens to the star's position during that time? R144 Star Distances All of the stars that you see at night are part of the Milky Way galaxy. The Milky Way contains about 200 billion stars. On a clear night, you might think that you can see millions of stars. Actually, you see only about 3000 stars with your unaided eye. To understand why so few stars are visible, think about how you see a flashlight from a distance. At 1 meter, the flashlight is bright. At 50 meters, it appears dimmer. If the flashlight were far enough away, it would be too faint to see. For the same reason, you cannot see most of the stars in the Milky Way because they are too far away. Astronomers measure distances to stars using the speed of light. Light travels at 300 000 kilometers per second. At this rate, sunlight takes 8 minutes to reach your eyes. Thus, the distance to the sun is 8 light-minutes. Distances to stars are measured in light-years. A light-year is the distance that light travels in one year, about 9.5 trillion kilometers. The nearest star, Proxima Centauri, is 4.2 light-years from Earth. 0 The distance to Polaris is 680 light-years. When you look into space, you look into the past. The light you see from Polaris left the star long before Columbus set sail for America. Figure 6-9 shows how to measure distance to a star by 0 measuring its parallax. Parallax is the apparent shift in an object's position that is caused by the motion of the observer. You can see the parallax of your finger if you look at it only with your left eye and then only with your right eye. Your finger seems to move compared to the background. Try observing the parallax again with your finger closer to your eyes. How does the parallax change? You can observe the parallax of nearby stars with a telescope. The closer a star is, the greater is its parallax. R145 Mathematics Reading a mathematics textbook requires different skills than reading history, literature, or science. The tips below can help you learn these skills. As you read the tips, look at the sample mathematics page on the right. Strategies for Reading A First, look at the lesson title and any subheads on the page, so you know what topics will be covered. B Find the goals or objectives for the lesson. These will tell you the most important points to know. C Read explanations carefully. Sometimes the same concept is explained in more than one way to make sure you understand it. D Look for special features such as study or vocabulary tips. These provide more help or information. E Study any worked-out solutions to sample problems. These are the key to understanding how to do the homework assignment. PRACTICE AND APPLY Use the sample mathematics page and the tips above to help you answer the following questions. 1. How is a multi-step equation solved? 2. What are the vocabulary words that will be studied in this lesson? 3. Where will the question "How hot is Earth's crust?" be answered? 4. How many steps are required to solve and check a linear equation? 5. In Example 1, how do you isolate the variable? R146 --- see samples R147 Reading Beyond the Classroom Reading an Application Reading and understanding an application will help you fill it out correctly and avoid mistakes. Use the following strategies to help you understand any application. Look at the example on the next page as you read each strategy. Strategies for Reading A Begin at the top. Scan the application to see what the different sections are. B Look for special instructions for how to fill out the application. C Notice any request for materials that must be attached to the application. D Watch for sections you don't have to fill in or questions you don't have to answer. E Look for difficult or confusing words or abbreviations. Look them up in a dictionary or ask someone what they mean. PRACTICE AND APPLY Imagine that you want to participate in the student science fair. Read the application on the next page. Then answer the following questions. 1. On the application, how many different sections are there? 2. What grade levels must students be in to participate in the science fair? 3. What are all of the materials that must be submitted along with the application? 4. In the last section, which category number would you write if you had a botany project? 5. What name should be written in the Team Member Information section? R148 --- see sample R149 Reading a Web Page If you need information for a report, project, or hobby, the World Wide Web can probably help you. The tips below will help you understand the Web pages you read. As you look at the tips, notice where they match up to the sample Web pages on the right. Strategies for Reading A Notice the page's Web address, or URL. You may want to write it down in case you need to access the same page at another time. B The title of the page is usually at or near the top. It will give you an idea of what the page covers. C Look for menu bars along the top, bottom, or side of the page. These guide you to other parts of the site that may be useful. D Most pages have links to related pages. Links are often underlined words. E Many sites have interactive areas, such as a guest book, where you can tell the site's creators what you think of their work. PRACTICE AND APPLY Read the two Web pages on the right-hand page. The top one is a search engine that shows responses to a student's question. The bottom one is a site linked to one of those responses. Then use the information from the sites and the tips above to answer the questions. 1. List the Web address of both pages. 2. On the "LookQuick" page, what three terms did the student ask the search engine to find? 3. On the "Gold Rush" site, which link you would click on if you wanted to learn about people who immigrated to California to take part in the gold rush? 4. Which link you would click on to tell the creators of "Gold Rush!" your opinion of their site? R150 --- see sample R151 Glossary of Literary and Reading Terms Act An act is a major unit of action in a drama or a play. Each act can be further divided into smaller sections called scenes. The Diary of Anne Frank has two acts. See page 260. See also Scene. Alliteration Alliteration is a repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words. Writers use alliteration for emphasis and to give their writing a musical quality. Note the repetition of the s and f sounds in the following lines: And beneath, from the pebbles, in passing a spark Struck out by a steed flying fearless and fleet . . . —Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, "Paul Revere's Ride" See pages 189, 647. Allusion An allusion is a reference to a famous person, place, event, or work of literature. In "The Bet," writer Anton Chekhov alludes to Byron and Shakespeare when he describes the lawyer's reading material during the last two years of confinement. Analogy An analogy is a point-by-point comparison between two dissimilar things in order to clarify the less familiar of the two. For example, an author might draw an analogy between an unfamiliar setting and one with which readers are familiar. See also Extended metaphor, Metaphor, Simile. Analysis Analysis is the process of breaking something down into its elements so that they can be examined individually. In analyzing a poem, for example, one might consider such elements as form, rhyme, rhythm, figurative language, imagery, mood, and theme. Anecdote An anecdote is a brief account of an interesting incident or event that usually is intended to entertain or to make a point. In "Flying," Reeve Lindbergh tells several anecdotes about her flying experiences as a young girl. See pages 118, 208. Antagonist In a story, an antagonist is a force working against the protagonist, or main character; an antagonist can be another character, society, a force of nature, or even a force within the main character. In "The King of Mazy May," the claim- jumpers are antagonists. See page 148. See also Protagonist. Audience The audience of a piece of writing is the particular group of readers that the writer is addressing. A writer considers his or her audience when deciding on a subject, a purpose for writing, and the tone and style in which to write. Author An author is the writer of a literary work. Author's perspective An author's perspective is an author's beliefs and attitudes as expressed in his or her writing. These beliefs may be influenced by the author's political views, ethnic background, education, or religion. In Something to Declare, Julia Alvarez writes from the perspective of a woman who was born in R152 the Dominican Republic and who emigrated as a young child to the United States. Author's purpose An author's purpose is his or her reason for creating a particular work. The purpose can be to entertain, to explain or inform, to express an opinion, or to persuade. An author may have more than one purpose for writing, but usually one is most important. See pages 118, 417, 622, 779, 851. Autobiography An autobiography is a form of nonfiction in which a person tells the story of his or her life. All But My Life is an example of an autobiography. An autobiography is usually book length because it covers a long span of time. Forms of autobiographical writing include personal narratives, journals, memoirs, diaries, letters, and oral histories. See pages 102, 522. See also Memoir, Oral history. Ballad A ballad is a poem that tells a story and is meant to be sung or recited. Folk ballads, written by unknown authors and handed down orally, usually depict ordinary people in the midst of tragic events or adventures of love and bravery. "John Henry" is an example of a folk ballad. See page 647. Bias In a piece of writing, an author's preference for one side of an issue over another is called bias. Biographer See Biography, Biography A biography is the story of a person's life that is written by someone else. The subjects of biographies are often famous people, as in Lincoln: A Photobiography and Harriet Tubman: Conductor on the Underground Railroad. A biographer is one who writes, composes, or produces a biography. See pages 102, 756, 776. Cast of characters In the script of a play, a cast of characters is a list of all the characters in the play, often in order of appearance. The list is usually found at the beginning of the script. There is a cast of characters at the beginning of The Diary of Anne Frank. Cause and effect Two events are related as cause and effect when one event brings about, or causes, the other. The event that happens first is the cause; the one that follows is the effect. In "The Dinner Party," the placing of a bowl of milk on the verandah causes a desired effect—removing the snake from the dining room. See pages 32, 262, 263. Character A character is a person, an animal, or an imaginary creature in a literary work. In general, a work focuses on one or more main characters. Minor characters are less important characters who interact with the main characters and with one another while moving the plot along and providing background for the story. In "Raymond's Run," Squeaky is the main character. Gretchen, Rosie, and Mary Louise are minor characters. See pages 19, 102, 148, 261, 329, 330, 652, 839. Character development Characters that grow or change during a story are said to undergo character development. A character that changes significantly is called a dynamic character; one that changes only a little or not at all is said to be a static character. Main characters often develop the most. In "The Treasure of Lemon Brown," for example, Greg is a dynamic character who changes during the course of the story. See pages 19, 330, 334, 441. Characterization Characterization consists of all the techniques writers use to create characters. There are four basic methods of developing a character: R153 1. The writer may describe a character's physical appearance. In "Stop the Sun," the writer describes the main character: "Terry Erickson was a tall boy, 13, starting to fill out with muscle but still a little awkward!' 2. A character's nature may be revealed through his or her own speech, thoughts, or actions. In "The Moustache," Mike feels a sense of dread when he approaches the nursing home where his grandmother lives, and he tells the reader how this makes him feel: "... I felt guilty about it. I'm loaded with guilt complexes!' 3. A character's nature may be revealed by what other characters think or say about the character. The narrator's feelings about the orphan boy in "A Mother in Mannville" help the reader to understand the type of person the boy is: "His name was Jerry ... I could picture him at four, with the same grave gray-blue eyes and the same— independence? No, the word that comes to me is 'integrity." 4. The writer can make direct comments about a character's nature. In "Checkouts," the author explains why the main character likes to shop for groceries: "She loved it in the way some people love to drive long country roads, because doing it she could think and relax and wander." See pages 220, 331. Chronological order Chronological order is the order in which events happen in time. In some stories, events are related in chronological order. In other stories, events are presented out of sequence. See page 159. Clarifying The reader's process of pausing occasionally while reading to quickly review what he or she understands is called clarifying. By clarifying as they read, good readers are able to draw conclusions about what is suggested but not stated directly. See pages 443, 715, 829, 879. Classic A classic is an enduring work of literature that continues to be read long after it was written. A classic deals with emotions, behaviors, and truths shared by human beings of every age, ethnicity, and culture. "The Bet" is considered a classic. Climax In the plot of a story or a play, the climax, or turning point, is the point of maximum interest. The climax usually occurs toward the end of a story, after the reader has understood the conflict and become emotionally involved with the characters. At the climax, the conflict is resolved and the outcome of the plot becomes clear. The climax of "Raymond's Run," for example, occurs when Squeaky wins the race. See pages 18, 260, 293, 439, 447. See also Plot. Comedy A comedy is a dramatic work that is light and often humorous in tone and usually ends happily with a peaceful resolution of the main conflict. The MillionPound Bank Note is an example of a comedy. Comic relief Comic relief is a humorous scene that is inserted into a serious work of fiction or drama to provide relief from the seriousness felt by the audience. A scene introduced for comic relief, because of the contrast it provides, can also add to the seriousness of the action. In Still Me, Christopher Reeve provides comic relief when he breaks the intense silence that greets his first public appearance with a funny anecdote about his English teacher. Comparison The process of identifying similarities is called comparison. Writers use comparisons to make ideas and details clearer to the reader. In "Stop the Sun," for example, the father's terrified breathing is R154 compared with the panting of "some kind of hurt animal." See page 296. See also Metaphor, Simile. Conclusion See Drawing conclusions. Conflict Conflict is a struggle between opposing forces. In an external conflict, a character struggles against another person or some outside force. Gerda Weissmann Klein's struggle for survival in the excerpt from All But My Life is an example of an external conflict. An internal conflict, on the other hand, involves a struggle within a character. In "Flowers for Algernon," Charlie experiences inner conflict about his disability. See pages 18, 260, 348, 439-441, 447, 488, 551, 753. See also Plot. Connecting A reader's process of relating the content of a literary work to his or her own knowledge and experience is called connecting. In "The Moustache," for example, readers might connect with Mike's feelings as he interacts with his grandmother. See pages 4, 21, 48, 333, 334, 553, 623, 839. Connotation A word's connotation is the idea and feeling associated with the word, as opposed to its dictionary definition. For example, the word mother, in addition to its basic meaning ("a female parent"), has connotations of love, warmth, and security. See page 669. See also Denotation. Context clues Context clues are hints or suggestions that may surround unfamiliar words or phrases and clarify their meaning. A context clue can be a definition, a synonym, an example, a comparison or contrast, or any other expression that enables readers to infer the word's meaning. See page 301. Contrast The process of pointing out differences between things is called contrast. In "Flying," Reeve Lindbergh contrasts her flying experiences with those of her sister and brothers. See page 296. Couplet A couplet is a rhymed pair of lines in a poem. Listen, my children, and you shall hear Of the midnight ride of Paul Revere, . . . —Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, "Paul Revere's Ride" Deductive order In nonfiction, the structure of a text may be organized using deductive order. A text that is organized deductively begins with a generalization and advances with facts and evidence to a conclusion. See also Inductive order, Structure. Denotation A word's denotation is its dictionary meaning. See page 669. See also Connotation. Description Description is writing that helps a reader to picture scenes, events, and characters. To create descriptions, writers often use imagery—words and phrases that appeal to the reader's senses—and figurative language. We lived in the dark green hills of Pittsburgh where the smoke from J. L. Steel dusted our clothes gray and blanketed the sky, causing sunsets to streak bright pink and orange. —Jewell Parker Rhodes, "Block Party" See pages 574, 622. See also Figurative language, Imagery, Sensory details. R155 Dialect A dialect is a form of language that is spoken in a particular place or by a particular group of people. Dialects may feature unique pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. Some of the dialogue in The Million-Pound Bank Note features the dialect of working-class Londoners. Pardon me, Guv'ner, but aren't you the gentleman what owns the million-pound bank note? —Mark Twain, dramatized by Walter Hackett, The Million-Pound Bank Note Dialogue The words that characters speak aloud are called dialogue. Writers use dialogue to bring characters to life and to give readers insights into the characters' qualities, personality traits, and reactions to other characters. In most literary works, dialogue is set off with quotation marks. See pages 261, 331. Drama A drama, or play, is a form of literature meant to be performed by actors before an audience. In a drama, the characters' dialogue and actions tell the story. The written form of a play is known as a script. A script usually includes dialogue, a cast of characters, and stage directions that give specific instructions about performing the play. The person who writes the play is known as the playwright, or dramatist. See page 259. See also Act, Cast of characters, Comedy, Dialogue, Prop, Scene, Stage, Scenery, Tragedy. Drawing conclusions Combining several pieces of information to make an inference is called drawing a conclusion. A reader's conclusions may be based on the details presented in a literary work, on his or her previous inferences, or on a combination of these. See pages 131, 348, 553, 554, 592. Dynamic character see Character development Epic An epic is a long narrative poem about the adventures of a hero whose actions reflect the ideals and values of a nation or a group. Epics address universal concerns, such as good and evil, life and death, and other serious subjects. Essay An essay is a short work of nonfiction that deals with a single subject. A formal essay is highly organized, thoroughly researched, and serious in tone. An informal essay is lighter in tone and usually reflects the writer's feelings and personality. The excerpt from High Tide in Tucson is an example of an informal essay. See pages 103, 134. Evaluating Evaluating is the process of judging the worth of something or someone. A work of literature—or any of its elements—can be evaluated in terms of such criteria as entertainment, believability, originality, and emotional power. Exaggeration An extreme overstatement of an idea is called exaggeration and is often used for purposes of emphasis or humor. For example, in "The Tell-Tale Heart," the narrator exaggerates when he says, "I heard all things in the heaven and in the earth." See page 794. See also Hyperbole. Exposition In fiction, the structure of the plot normally begins with exposition. In the early part of the story, the exposition sets the tone, establishes the setting, introduces the characters, and gives the reader important background information. In "The Treasure of Lemon Brown," the exposition leads up to the time when Greg meets Lemon Brown in the abandoned building. See pages 18, 260, 439. See also Plot. R156 Extended metaphor An extended metaphor is a figure of speech that compares two essentially unlike things at some length. An extended metaphor may introduce a series of metaphors representing different aspects of a situation. For example, the poem "0 Captain! My Captain!" begins with a metaphor in which President Abraham Lincoln is compared to the captain of a ship. The ship is a metaphor for the United States. What other metaphors can you find in the first two lines of the poem? O Captain! my Captain! our fearful trip is done, The ship has weather'd every rack, the prize we sought is won... —Walt Whitman, "0 Captain! My Captain!" See also Metaphor. External conflict See Conflict Fable A fable is a brief tale that teaches a lesson about human nature. Many fables feature animals. See page 904. See also Moral. Fact and opinion A fact is a statement that can be proved, such as "Mars is the fourth planet from the sun" An opinion, in contrast, is a statement that reflects a writer's belief, but which cannot be supported by proof or evidence; for example, "Mars is the most beautiful planet' Much nonfiction contains both facts and opinions, and it is important for readers to distinguish between the two. See pages 723, 829, 830. Falling action Falling action is the part of the plot of a story that occurs after the climax. During the falling action, sometimes called the resolution, conflicts are resolved and loose ends are tied up. See pages 18, 41, 260, 439. See also Plot. Fantasy A work of literature that contains at least one fantastic or unreal element is called fantasy. The setting of a work of fantasy might be a totally imaginary world, or it might be a realistic place where very unusual or impossible things happen. See page 562. Fiction Fiction is prose writing that tells an imaginary story. The writer of a fictional work might invent all the events and characters in it or might base parts of the story on real people or events. Fiction includes both short stories and novels. A short story can usually be read in one sitting. Novels are longer and more complex. See also Historical fiction, Horror fiction, Novel, Short story. Figurative language Writers use figurative language—expressions that are not literally true—to create original descriptions. In Undaunted Courage, Stephen Ambrose uses the words blanket and sea to describe a large flock of pelicans: The captain looked up to see a blanket of white coming down the river. . . . On close examination it turned out to be a sea of white feathers, over three miles long and seventy yards wide. See pages 190, 215, 249. See also Metaphor, Personification, Simile. First-person point of view see Point of view. Flashback In a literary work, a flashback is an interruption of the action to present events that took place at an earlier time. A flashback can provide information that helps readers understand a character's current situation. In "The Bet," for example, a flashback is used to present the banker's recollection of a party he gave 15 years earlier. See pages 285, 440, 475. R157 Folklore The traditions, customs, and stories that are passed down within a culture are known as its folklore. Folklore contains various types of literature, such as legends, folk tales, myths, and fables. See page 904. Folk tale A folk tale is a simple story that has been passed from generation to generation by word of mouth. The characters in folk tales might be animals, people, or superhuman beings. Folk tales are told primarily to entertain rather than to explain or teach a lesson. "The Souls in Purgatory" is a folk tale from Mexico. See page 904. Foreshadowing Foreshadowing occurs when a writer provides hints that suggest future events in a story. Foreshadowing creates suspense while preparing the reader for what is to come. In The Hitchhiker, the mother's fears about her son's trip foreshadow the trouble the son will have on his journey. But you'll be careful, won't you? Promise me you'll be careful. Don't fall asleep—or drive fast—or pick up any strangers on the road. See pages 440, 552, 654. Form A literary work's form is its structure or organization. The form of a poem includes the arrangement of words and lines on the page. Some poems follow predictable patterns, with the same number of syllables in each line and the same number of lines in each stanza. Others, like "Southbound on the Freeway," have irregular forms. See pages 188, 390, 422. Free verse Poetry without regular patterns of rhyme and rhythm is called free verse. Some poets use free verse to capture the sounds and rhythms of ordinary speech. The poem "the drum" is written in free verse. daddy says the world is a drum tight and hard and i told him I'm gonna beat out my rhythm —Nikki Giovanni, the drum" See pages 188, 587. Generalization A generalization is a broad statement about an entire group, such as "Whales are larger than salmon." Not all generalizations are true. Some are too broad or are not supported by sufficient evidence, like the statement "All eighth graders like yogurt!' See pages 202, 875. Genre A type or category of literature is called a genre. There are four main literary genres: fiction, nonfiction, poetry, and drama. Haiku Haiku is a traditional form of Japanese poetry. A haiku normally has three lines and describes a single moment, feeling, or thing. In a traditional haiku, the first and third lines contain five syllables, and the second line contains seven syllables. Historical fiction Historical fiction is contemporary fiction that is set in the past. Historical fiction may contain references to actual people and events of the past. "War Party" is an example of historical fiction. See page 737. Horror fiction Horror fiction contains mysterious and often supernatural events that create terror. "The Tell-Tale Heart" is an example of horror fiction. Humor Humor is the quality that provokes laughter or amusement. Writers create humor through exaggeration, sarcasm, amusing descriptions, irony, and witty and insightful dialogue. "The Ransom of Red Chief" is an example of a humorous work. See page 794. R158 Hyperbole Hyperbole is a figure of speech in which the truth is exaggerated for emphasis or for humorous effect. With his gang's help, he [Bill] put together the biggest ranch in the Southwest. He used New Mexico as a corral and Arizona as a pasture. He invented tarantulas and scorpions as practical jokes. He also invented roping. Some say his rope was exactly as long as the equator; others argue it was two feet shorter. —Mary Pope Osborne, "Pecos Bill" Idiom An idiom is an expression whose meaning is different from the sum of the meanings of its individual words. The expression "break her date" in "The Moustache" is an example of an idiom. Imagery Imagery consists of words and phrases that appeal to readers' five senses. Writers use sensory details to help readers imagine how things look, feel, smell, sound, and taste. After two days of gentle winter rains, the small pond behind my house is lapping at its banks, content as a well-fed kitten. —Barbara Kingsolver, High Tide in Tucson See pages 190, 215, 296, 367, 622. Inductive order In nonfiction, the structure of a text may be organized using inductive order. A text that is organized inductively begins with specific evidence that leads to a general conclusion. See also Deductive order, Structure. Inference An inference is a logical guess based on evidence. Readers, by combining the information a writer provides with what they know from their own experience, can figure out more than the words say. For example, readers of "Checkouts" can make inferences about what motivates the red- haired girl to behave as she does. See pages 191, 192, 220, 422, 794. Informative nonfiction Informative nonfiction is writing that provides factual information about real people, places, and events. Informative nonfiction includes newspaper and magazine articles, textbooks, and encyclopedias. See pages 104, 159, 638. See also Nonfiction. Internal conflict See Conflict.. Interview An interview is a meeting in which one person asks another about personal matters, professional matters, or both. The excerpt from The Last Seven Months of Anne Frank is based on an interview with Anne Frank's friend Hannah Elisabeth Pick-Goslar. See pages 104, 515. Irony Irony is a contrast between what is expected and what actually exists or happens. In "The Ransom of Red Chief," for example, it is ironic that Red Chief enjoys being kidnapped. See page 69. Legend A legend is a story handed down from the past about a specific person— usually someone of heroic accomplishments. "Otoonah" is an Eskimo legend. See page 904. Limerick A limerick is a short, humorous poem composed of five lines. It usually has the rhyme scheme aabba, created by two rhyming couplets followed by a fifth line that rhymes with the first couplet. A limerick typically has a sing-song rhythm. There was an Old Man who supposed That the street door was partially closed; But some very large rats Ate his coats and his hats, While that futile Old Gentleman dozed. —Edward Lear See also Couplet. R159 Literary nonfiction See Nonfiction. Lyric poetry Lyric poetry is poetry that presents the thoughts and feelings of a single speaker. Most poems, other than narrative poems, are lyric poems. Lyric poetry can be in a variety of forms and cover many subjects, from love and death to everyday experiences. "Knoxville, Tennessee" by Nikki Giovanni is a lyric poem. See page 417. Main character See Character. Main idea A main idea is the most important point that a writer wishes to express. It can be the central idea of an entire work or a thought expressed in the topic sentence of a paragraph. See pages 105, 106, 408, 528. Memoir A memoir is a specific type of autobiography. Like autobiography, a memoir is about the author's personal experiences. However, a memoir does not necessarily cover the author's entire life. "Block Party" is a memoir. See pages 102, 106, 127. See also Autobiography. Metaphor A metaphor is a comparison of two things that have some quality in common. Unlike a simile, a metaphor does not contain an explicit word of comparison, such as like or as. To what is the moon - being compared in the following lines? who knows if the moon's a balloon,coming out of a keen city in the sky—filled with pretty people? —E. E. Cummings, "who knows if the moon's" See pages 190, 215, 249, 779. See also Extended metaphor, Figurative language. Meter In poetry, meter is the regular pattern of accented (') and unaccented (‘') syllables. Although all poems have rhythm, not all poems have regular meter. Each unit of meter is known as a foot. The feet and the meter are marked in these lines. cannon to I right of them cannon to I left of them —Alfred, Lord Tennyson, "The Charge of The Light Brigade" See page 189. See also Rhythm. Minor character See Character. Monitoring Monitoring is the attention readers pay to their comprehension as they are reading. Monitoring helps readers to understand more clearly the meaning of what they are reading. See pages 21, 148, 443, 587. Mood A mood, or atmosphere, is a feeling that a literary work conveys to readers. In "The Woman in the Snow," for example, the description of the ghostly figure and her baby in the snow creates an ominous and heart-wrenching mood. What kind of mood is created in the following passage? They sat down by the fire again. Outside, the wind was higher than ever, and the old man started nervously at the sound of a door banging upstairs. A silence unusual and depressing settled upon all three, which lasted until the old couple rose to retire for the night. —W. W. Jacobs, "The Monkey's Paw" See pages 332, 621, 622, 624. Moral A moral is a lesson that a story teaches. A moral is often stated directly at the end of a fable. The following moral appears at the end of "A Fable" by Mark Twain. R160 MORAL, BY THE CAT You can find in a text whatever you bring, if you will stand between it and the mirror of your imagination. You may not see your ears, but they will be there. See also Fable. Motivation A character's motivation is the reason why he or she acts, feels, or thinks in a certain way. For example, young Laurence Yep in "The Great Rat Hunt" is motivated by a desire to please his father. See pages 19, 22, 331. Myth A myth is a traditional story, usually of unknown authorship, that answers basic questions about the world. Myths attempt to explain such things as human nature, the origin of the world, mysteries of nature, and social customs. See page 904. Narrative Writing that tells a story is called a narrative. The events in a narrative can be real or imagined. Narratives dealing with real events include biographies and autobiographies. Fictional narratives include myths, short stories, and novels. See also Autobiography, Biography, Myth, Novel, Short story. Narrative poetry Poetry that tells a story is called narrative poetry. Like fiction, narrative poetry contains characters, settings, and plots. It might also contain such elements of poetry as rhyme, rhythm, imagery, and figurative language. "Paul Revere's Ride" is an example of narrative poetry. See pages 197, 714, 716. Narrator A narrator is the teller of a story. Sometimes a story's narrator is a character who takes part in the action, such as Charlie in "Flowers for Algernon." Other times, as in "The Treasure of Lemon Brown," the story is narrated by an outside voice. See also Point of view. Nonfiction Writing that tells about real people, places, and events is called nonfiction. Literary nonfiction is written to be read in much the same way as fiction. Informative nonfiction is written mainly to provide factual information. See page 101. See also Autobiography, Biography, Essay, Informative nonfiction. Novel A novel is a work of fiction that is longer and more complex than a short story. In a novel, setting, plot, and characters are usually developed in great detail. See page 17. See also Fiction. Onomatopoeia Onomatopoeia is the use of words whose sounds suggest their meaning. The words bang and hiss are examples of onomatopoeia. In the following lines, the word sweep is an example of onomatopoeia. The only other sound's the sweep Of easy wind and downy flake. —Robert Frost, "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening" Opinion See Fact and opinion. Oral history Oral histories are stories of people's lives related by word of mouth. These histories usually include both factual material and personal reactions. Paradox A paradox is a statement that seems to contradict itself but is, nevertheless, true. All forms of irony involve paradox. For example, in "The Ransom of Red Chief," it is both ironic and a paradox that Red Chief enjoys being kidnapped. R161 Parallelism Parallelism is the use of similar grammatical constructions to express ideas that are related or equal in importance. Paraphrasing Paraphrasing is the restatement of a text by readers in their own words or in another form. See page 715, 716. Personification The giving of human qualities to an animal, object, or idea is known as personification. In "Racing the Great Bear," the great bear is personified when it takes on a human shape. See pages 190, 804. See also Figurative language. Perspective See Author's perspective, Point of view. Persuasion Persuasive writing is meant to sway readers' feelings, beliefs, or actions. Persuasion normally appeals to both the mind and the emotions of readers. See page 103. Play See Drama. Playwright See Drama. Plot A plot is the sequence of related events that make up a story. It is typical for a plot to begin with an exposition that introduces the characters and the conflict they face. Complications arise during the rising action as the characters struggle with the conflict. Eventually, the plot reaches a climax, the turning point of the story. In the falling action, or resolution, that follows, loose ends are tied up, and the story is brought to a close. See pages 18, 32, 80, 102, 260, 439, 447, 672, 680. See also Character, Climax, Conflict, Exposition, Subplot. Poetic Form See Form. Poetry Poetry is a type of literature in which ideas and feelings are expressed in compact, imaginative, and often musical language. Poets arrange words in ways designed to touch readers' senses, emotions, and minds. Most poems are written in lines, which may contain patterns of rhyme and rhythm. These lines may, in turn, be grouped in stanzas. See page 187. See also Alliteration, Ballad, Free verse, Lyric poetry, Meter, Narrative poetry, Rhyme, Rhythm, Stanza. Point of view The perspective from which a story is told is called its point of view. When a story is told from the first-person point of view, the narrator is a character in the story and uses first-person pronouns, such as I, me, and we. "War Party" is told from the first-person point of view. When a writer uses a third-person point of view, the story is told by a narrative voice outside the action, not by one of the characters. Third- person point of view uses thirdperson pronouns, such as he, she, it, and they. "The Treasure of Lemon Brown" is told from the third-person point of view. See pages 102, 106, 374. Predicting Using what you know to guess what might happen is called predicting. Good readers gather information and combine it with their own knowledge to predict events. See pages 4, 21, 22, 69, 105, 654, 737. Primary source A primary source is a firsthand account of an event. Primary sources include diaries, journals, letters, speeches, news stories, photographs, and pieces of art. The journals of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, which form the basis of Undaunted Courage, are examples of primary sources. See pages 168, 723, 766. Propaganda Text that uses false or misleading information to present a point of view is called propaganda. Name-calling, R162 snob appeal, and bandwagon appeal are three techniques of propaganda. Prose Prose is the ordinary form of spoken and written language—that is, it is language that lacks the special features of poetry. Protagonist A protagonist is the central character or hero in a narrative or a drama, usually the one with whom the audience tends to identify. Anne Frank is the protagonist in The Diary of Anne Frank. See page 148. See also Antagonist. Purpose See Author's purpose, Setting a purpose. Questioning The process of raising questions while reading is called questioning. Good readers ask themselves questions in an effort to understand characters and events; they look for the answers as they read. See pages 4, 21, 333, 390, 715, 756. Radio play A drama written specifically to be heard on the radio is called a radio play. Because the audience is not meant to see a radio play, sound effects are often used to help listeners imagine the setting and the action. The Hitchhiker is an example of a radio play. Notice how the stage directions in the following lines from the script indicate the sound effects. sound: automobile wheels humming over concrete road See page 263. Realistic fiction Realistic fiction is imaginative writing set in the real, modern world. The characters act like real people who use ordinary human abilities to cope with problems and conflicts typical of modern life. "The Treasure of Lemon Brown" is an example of realistic fiction. Repetition Repetition is a technique in which a sound, word, phrase, or line is repeated for effect or emphasis. Note how the use of repetition in the following lines emphasizes the speaker's faith: Sing a song full of the faith that the dark past has taught us, Sing a song full of the hope that the present has brought us . . . —James Weldon Johnson, "Lift Every Voice and Sing" See pages 189, 197. See also Alliteration, Rhyme. Resolution See Falling action, Plot. Rhyme Rhyme is a repetition of sounds at the ends of words. Words rhyme when their accented vowels and all letters that follow have identical sounds. Cat and bat rhyme, as do weather and feather. The most common form of rhyme in poetry is end rhyme, in which the rhyming words are at the end of lines. Rhyme that occurs within a line is called internal rhyme. The following lines show both end and internal rhyme: The ship is anchor'd safe and sound, its voyage closed and done, From fearful trip the victor ship comes in with object won .. . —Walt Whitman, "0 Captain! My Captain!" See pages 189, 197. Rhyme scheme The pattern of end rhyme in a poem is called rhyme scheme. The pattern is charted by assigning a letter of the alphabet, beginning with the letter a, to each line. Lines that rhyme are given the same letter. He'd have given me rolling lands, Houses of marble, and billowing farms, Pearls, to trickle between my hands, Smoldering rubies, to circle my arms. —Dorothy Parker, "The Choice" R163 Rhythm Rhythm refers to the pattern or flow of sound created by the arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of poetry. The accented, or stressed, syllables are marked with while unaccented, or unstressed, syllables are marked with ". A regular pattern of rhythm is called meter. Note the stressed and unstressed syllables in the following lines: See pages 189, 197. See also Meter. Rising action Rising action refers to the events in a story that move the plot forward. Rising action involves conflicts and complications and usually builds toward a climax, or turning point. See pages 18, 41, 260, 439. See also Plot. Satire Satire is a literary technique in which ideas or customs are ridiculed for the purpose of improving society. Satire can be gently witty, mildly abrasive, or bitterly critical. "A Fable" by Mark Twain is an example of satire. See page 804. Scanning Scanning is the process of searching through writing for a particular fact or piece of information. When readers scan, their eyes sweep across a page looking for key words that could lead to the information they want. Scene In a play, a scene is a section presenting events that occur in one place at one time. Act One of The Diary of Anne Frank has five scenes. See page 260. Scenery The painted backdrop or other structures used to create the setting for a play is called scenery. See page 260. Science fiction Science fiction is prose writing in which a writer explores unexpected possibilities of the past or the future by using scientific data and theories as well as his or her imagination. Most science fiction creates a believable world, although some works create a fantasy world that has familiar elements. "Rain, Rain, Go Away" is an example of science fiction. See pages 549, 554. Script See Drama. Secondary source A secondary source presents information compiled from or based on other sources. Undaunted Courage is an example of a secondary source because it is based on other sources, such as the journals of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. See pages 723, 766. Sensory details Words and phrases that help readers see, hear, taste, feel, or smell what an author is describing are called sensory details. Note the sensory details in these lines: The rhododendron was in bloom, a carpet of color, across the mountainsides, soft as the May winds that stirred the hemlocks. —Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, "A Mother in Mannville" See page 215. Sequence The order in which events occur or in which ideas are presented is called sequence. In a narrative, events are usually presented in chronological order—the order in which they happen. A writer might use clue words and phrases, such as then, until, R164 and finally, to help readers understand the sequence of events. See pages 285, 440. See also Chronological order. Setting A setting of a story, poem, or play is the time and place of the action. Sometimes the setting is clear and well defined; at other times, it is left to readers' imaginations. Elements of setting can include geographic location, historical period (past, present, or future), season, time of day, and the customs and manners of a society. See pages 17, 20, 59, 102, 280, 329, 332, 861. Setting a purpose The process of establishing specific reasons to read a work is called setting a purpose. Readers can look at a work's title, headings, and illustrations to guess what the work might be about. Then they can use these guesses to guide their reading and discover whether their ideas match the actual content of the work. See pages 565, 672, 680. Short story A short story is a brief work of fiction that can generally be read in one sitting. A short story usually focuses on one or two main characters who face a single problem or conflict. See page 17. See also Fiction. Simile A simile is a comparison of two things that have some quality in common. In a simile, the comparison is expressed by means of a word such as like, as, or resembles. The willow is like an etching, Fine-lined against the sky. The ginkgo is like a crude sketch, Hardly worthy to be signed. —Eve Merriam, "Simile: Willow and Ginkgo" See pages 190, 215, 249. Skimming Skimming is the process of reading quickly to find a main idea or to get an overview of a work or a passage. It involves reading the title, the headings, the words in special type, and the first sentence of each paragraph, along with charts, graphs, and time lines. Sound devices See Alliteration, Onomatopoeia, Repetition, Rhyme, Rhythm. Spatial alignment The arrangement of ideas and images in a graphic pattern to indicate their relationships is called spatial alignment. Speaker The speaker is the voice that talks to the reader in a poem, like the narrator in a work of fiction; the speaker in a poem is not necessarily the poet, however. In "Child on Top of a Greenhouse" by Theodore Roethke, the experiences related might or might not have happened to the poet. In "I Stepped from Plank to Plank" by Emily Dickinson, since the poet uses the pronoun I, the poem may well be autobiographical. See pages 192, 422. Specialized vocabulary The words unique to a specific subject or profession make up a specialized vocabulary. The excerpt from Wait Till Next Year, for example, contains terms related to baseball. See page 861. Speech A speech is a talk given in public. "One Million Volumes" by Rudolfo Anaya is an example of a speech. SQ3R SQ3R is a method of text reading that combines reading and studying in five steps: S—Survey Q—Question R-1—Read R-2—Recite R-3—Review See page 574. R165 Stage A stage is the level and raised platform on which entertainers usually perform. Stage directions In the script of a play, the instructions to the actors, director, and stage crew are called stage directions. Stage directions might suggest scenery, lighting, music, sound effects, and ways for actors to move and speak. In The Diary of Anne Frank, stage directions appear within parentheses and in italic type. (Dussel hurriedly takes off the raincoat, giving it to Mr. Kraler. Underneath is his white dentist's jacket, with a yellow Star of David on it.) See pages 260, 263. Stanza A stanza is a grouping of two or more lines. A stanza is comparable to a paragraph in prose. Each stanza may have the same number of lines or the number of lines may vary. "The Other Pioneers" contains three stanzas. See pages 188, 390. Static character See Character development. Stereotype A stereotype is a broad generalization or an oversimplified view that disregards individual differences. Stereotypes can lead to unfair judgments of people on the basis of ethnic background or physical appearance. Story mapping A story map is a visual organizer that helps a reader understand a work of literature. A story map helps a reader to keep track of setting, characters, events, and conflicts. See pages 443, 447. Structure In nonfiction, the structure of a piece may be chronological or spatial order, cause and effect, or comparison and contrast. Also, ideas may be presented using inductive or deductive reasoning. Recognizing a text's structure can help in finding the most important ideas as well as the supporting facts and details. Style A style is a manner of writing; it involves how something is said rather than what is said. The style of the poem "Mother to Son," for example, might be described as conversational—it reflects the speaker's usual informal way of talking. Many elements contribute to style, including word choice, sentence length, tone, and figurative language. See page 202. Subject The subject of a literary work is its focus or topic. In a biography, for example, the subject is the person whose life story is being told. Subject differs from theme in that theme is a deeper meaning, usually inferred by the reader, whereas the subject is the main situation or set of facts described by the text. Subplot A subplot is an additional, minor plot that involves a secondary conflict in the story. The subplot may or may not affect the main plot. See page 440. See also plot. Summarizing Summarizing is the process of briefly recounting the main ideas of a piece of writing in a person's own words, while omitting unimportant details. See pages 283, 769. Surprise ending An unexpected twist in the plot at the end of a story is called a surprise ending. "The Ransom of Red Chief" is an example of a story with a surprise ending. See page 592. Suspense Suspense is a feeling of growing tension and excitement. Writers create R166 suspense by raising questions in readers' minds about what might happen. See pages 552, 565. Symbol A symbol is a person, a place, an object, or an action that stands for something beyond itself. A flag, for example, can symbolize a state or country. In "The Moustache," Mike's moustache symbolizes his desire to be an adult. See pages 190, 367, 622. Table of contents In most nonfiction books or in books arranged by chapter or section, the contents of the book are shown in a table of contents. The table of contents usually appears at the beginning of the book and lists chapter and section titles and the page where each begins. Besides helping you to find specific parts of the book, the table of contents can give you an overview of the material covered by the book. Tall tale A tall tale is a humorously exaggerated story about impossible events. Often the main character in a tall tale has extraordinary abilities. "Pecos Bill" is a tall tale. Text organizers Text organizers include headings, tables of contents, and graphic elements such as charts, tables, time lines, boxes, bullets, and captions. See page 211. Theme A theme is the meaning, moral, or message about life or human nature that is communicated by a literary work. In many cases, readers must infer what the theme is. One way of figuring out a theme is to examine the lesson learned by the main character and to apply it to all people. For example, a theme of "The Treasure of Lemon Brown" might be that every person has a treasure. See pages 20, 48, 551, 827, 830. Third-person point of view See Point of view. Tone The tone of a work expresses the writer's attitude toward his or her subject. Words such as angry, sad, and humorous can be used to describe different tones. The poem "I'm Making a List," for example, can be said to have a humorous tone. See pages 332, 552, 621, 622, 769, 879. Topic sentence See Main idea. Tragedy A tragedy is a dramatic work that presents the downfall of a dignified character or characters who are involved in historically or socially significant events. The events in a tragic plot are set in motion by a decision that is often an error in judgment. Succeeding events are linked in a causeand-effect relationship and lead inevitably to a disastrous conclusion, usually death. The play Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare is an example of a tragedy. Turning point See Climax. Urban legend A contemporary story that is told in many versions around the world is called an urban legend. "The Girl in the Lavender Dress" is an urban legend. See page 943. Visualizing The process of forming a mental picture based on a written description is called visualizing. Good readers use the details supplied by writers to picture characters, settings, and events. See pages 4, 21, 59, 134, 333, 367, 623, 624, 804. Voice An author's or a narrator's voice is his or her distinctive style or manner of expression. Voice can reveal much about the author's or the narrator's personality—as does the voice of Squeaky, the narrator of "Raymond's Run." See page 408. R167 Glossary of Words to Know In English and Spanish A abduction (ăb-dŭk'shən) n. kidnapping rapto n. secuestro abomination (ə-bŏm'ə-nā'shən) n. a hateful or disgusting thing abominación n. cosa desagradable abstracted (ăb-străk'tĭd) adj. lost in thought so as to be unaware of one's surroundings; absent-minded, preoccupied abstraido(a) adj. ensimismado(a) absurd (əb-sûrd') adj. ridiculously unreasonable absurdo(a) adj. opuesto(a) a la razón accelerator (ăk-sĕl'ə-rā'tər) n. a device, especially the gas pedal of a motor vehicle, for increasing speed acelerador n. pedal de los automóviles que controla la velocidad access (ăk'sĕs) n. the power to reach; to make use of; to get past barriers acceso n. action de Ilegar o acercarse accommodation (ə-kŏm'ə-dā'shən) n. a favor or convenience favor n. ayuda, beneficio acute (ə-kyoot') adj. sharp; keen filoso(a) adj. cortante ad-libbing (ăd-lĭb'ĭng) adj. speaking spontaneously, without preparation ad-lib v. improvisado(a) adj. que habla espontaneannente, sin preparación admonish (ăd-mŏn'ĭsh) v. to caution; warn prevenir v. avisar, advertir adversary (ăd'vər-sĕr'ē) n. an opponent adversario n. oponente affectation (ăfĕk-tā'shən) n. unnatural behavior, especially behavior intended to impress others afectación n. falta de naturalidad en la manera de hablar y de comportarse affliction (ə-flĭk'shən) n. a condition of pain or suffering aflicción n. tristeza affluent (ăf'loo-ənt) adj. abundant; rich rico(a) adj. con dinero y riquezas ail (āl) v. to feel ill or be in pain sentirse mal v. sentir dolor o aflicción ajar (ə-jär') adj. partially open entreabierto(a) adj. abierto(a) a medias antic (ă'nt'ĭc) n. an odd or extravagant act or gesture; a prank payasada n. action riclicula appalled (ə-pôld') adj. horrified; shocked appall v. asombrado(a) adj. asustado(a), impactado(a) asombrar v. armada (är-mä'da) n. a fleet of warships; a large group of moving things armada n. conjunto de fuerzas navales arresting (ə-rĕs'tĭng) adj. capturing attention; striking Ilamativo(a) adj. cautivante, que llama la atención assailant (ə-sā'lənt) n. a person who attacks another agresor(a) n. persona que ataca a otra assert (ə-sûrt') v. to put forward in a forceful or insistent way aseverar v. afirmar, hacer valer assurance (ə-shoor'əns) n. a guarantee or pledge garantia n. prenda, cosa que asegura y protege contra algün riesgo audacity (ô-dăs'ĭ-tē) n. shameless daring or boldness osadia n. atrevimiento B bade (bād) v. invited; directed; present tense—bid dejó v. permitió; presente—dejar banter (băn'tər) n. good-natured, playful talk chanza n. dicho o conversation burlona barren (băr'ən) adj. empty yermo(a) adj. vacio(a), que no contiene nada barricade (băr-kād') v. a structure set up to block a passage barricada n. obstáculo hecho de varios materiales para bloquear el avance del enemigo battalion (bə-tăl'yən) n. a large body of organized people, especially troops; a great number batalkin n. grupo numeroso de gente; tropas militares beckon (bĕk'ən) v. to signal to come by nodding or waving hacer seiias v. Ilamar a alguien por medio de gestos bellow (bĕ1'ō) v. to shout in a deep, loud voice bramar v. gritar fuertemente benefactor (bĕn'ə-făk'tər) n. a person who gives monetary or other aid benefactor(a) n. persona que da ayuda, generalmente monetaria benevolence (bə-nĕv'ə-ləns) n. kindness; goodwill benevolencia v. simpatia, buena voluntad benevolently (bə-nĕv'ə-lənt-1ē) adv. characterized by doing good; kindly benevolentemente adv. de manera simpática y bondadosa betrayal (bĭ-trā' ŭl) n. the act of being disloyal traición n. acto de ser desleal blunt (blŭnt) adj. abrupt; rudely straightforward or honest contundente adj. directo(a), que da su parecer espontaneannente board (bôrd) n. food or meals comida n. alimentos que se ofrecen como parte del alojamiento borne (bôrn) adj. carried bear v. sufrido(a) adj. aguantar sufrir v. boycott (boi' kŏt) v. to act together in refusing to use, buy, or deal with, especially as an expression of protest boicot n. dejar de negociar con una compaffla o persona a manera de protests brandishing (brăn'dĭsh-ĭng) adj. waving something (such as a weapon) in a threatening manner brandish v. amenazante adj. que se muestra para amenazar a alguien amenazar v. brazen (brā'zən) adj. marked by exaggerated fearlessness or boldness desvergonzado(a) adj. descarado(a), desfachatado(a) brusquely (brŭsk'lē) adv. in an abrupt, sudden manner bruscamente adv. de golpe, de manera repentina C cajoling (kə-jō'lĭng) adj. urging gently; coaxing cajole v. persuadido(a) adj. convencido(a) por otra persona a hacer algo persuadir V. capricious (kə-prĭsh'əs) capricious (ke-prish'es) adj. unpredictable caprichoso(a) adj. que actiia con capricho; capricho deseo egoista n. capsize (kăp'sīz) v. to overturn or cause to overturn volcar v. hacer que una cosa taiga censorship (sen' sər-shĭp') n. the practice of banning writing, music, or visual material that is considered improper or harmful censura n. prohibiciOn de material escrito, visual o musical, considerado impropio chant (chant) n. something sung or spoken in a rhythmic monotone salmo n. cãntico o recitado de ritmo monOtono circumstance (sûr'kəm-stăns) n. a condition; a financial situation circunstancia n. condiciOn, situation final clan (klăn) n. a group of families claiming a common ancestor; a group of relatives, friends, or others having a common background or interest clan n. grupo de familias que tienen un antepasado en comiin; grupo de familiares o amigos que tienen antecedentes en comtln clarity (klăr'ĭ-tē) n. the quality of being easily seen; clearness claridad n. cualidad de ser visto fãcilmente; luminosidad cliché (k1ē-shā') n. an overused expression that has lost its original quality or effect cliché n. expresiOn repetida que ha perdido su significado original clutch (klŭch) v. to grasp and hold tightly agarrar v. tomar firmemente coax (kōks) v. to persuade or try to persuade by gentle, persistent urging or flattery engatusar v. persuadir de manera insistente y con halagos collaborate (kə-lăb'ə-rāt) v. to work together on a project colaborar v. trabajar juntos en un proyecto commence (kə-mĕns') v. to begin; start comenzar V. empezar commend (kə-mĕnd') v. to speak highly of; to praise recomendar v. hablar bien de alguien, alabar commissioner (kə-mĭsh'ə-ner) n. a person authorized by a commission or special group to perform certain duties comisionado n. persona autorizada por una comisiOn o grupo especial para realizar ciertas actividades communion (kə-myoon'yən) n. close relationship in which deep feelings are shared; intimacy comuniOn n. relaciOn cercana en la que se comparten sentimientos; intimidad compel (kərn-pĕl') v. to force or drive compeler v. forzar, obligar, exigir competent (kŏm'pĭ-tənt) adj. qualified; capable competente adj. calificado(a); capaz comply (kəm-plī') v. to act according to a command, request, or order cumplir v. actuar de acuerdo a una orden o requerimiento conceived (kən-sēvd') adj. thought of conceive v. concebido(a) adj. pensado(a) conflagration (kŏn'flə-grā'shən) n. a large, destructive fire conflagraciOn n. incendio destructivo consent (kən-sĕnt') n. agreement, acceptance, or approval consentimiento n. acuerdo, aceptación, aprobación consequence (kŏn' sĭ-kwĕns') n. importance consecuencia n. importancia console (kən-sōl) v. to comfort consolar V. confortar conspicuous (kən-spĭk' yoo-əs) adj. easy to notice; obvious conspicuo(a) adj. sobresaliente, llamativo(a) conspiracy (kən-spîrə-sē) n. a secret plan by a group to perform an illegal, wrongful, or rebellious act conspiración n. plan secreto para Ilevar a cabo un acto ilegal o rebelde contemplate (kŏn'təm-plāt') v. to look at something thoughtfully, carefully, and thoroughly; to think about something at length contemplar v. observar algo cuidadosamente, pensar profundamente contempt (kən-tĕmpt') n. an attitude of despising; scorn desdén n. actitud de desprecio contrivance (kən-trī'vəns) n. something, as a machine, created to do a specific thing invention n. algo creado, como una nnáquina, para hater algo especifico contrive (kən-trīv') v. to invent inventar V. crear converge (kən-vûrj') v. to come together from different directions converger v. unirse al Ilegar de distintas direcciones credulity (krĭ-doo'lĭ-tē) n. a tendency to believe too easily; gullibility credulidad n. tendencia a creer de manera fácil crevice (krĕv'ĭs) n. a crack ranura n. rendija cultivation (kŭl' tə-vā' shən) n. the act of preparing and improving the land; the growing of crops cultivo n. acto de preparar la tierra para cosechar D dear (dîr) adj. greatly valued; precious estimado(a) adj. valioso(a), precioso(a) decree (dĭ-krē') n. an official order decreto n. orden official deftly (dĕft'1ē) adv. move in a quick and skillful manner hábilmente adv. con destreza delegation (dĕl'ĭ-gā'shən) n. a group of people selected as representatives delegación n. grupo de personas seleccionadas como representantes demise (dĭ-mīz') n. an ending of existence fallecimiento n. final de la existencia derision (dĭ-rĭzh'ən) n. ridicule burla n. desprecio descendant (dĭ-sĕn'dənt) n. an offspring descendiente n. el hijo, nieto o bisnieto de una familia desolate (dĕs'ə-lĭt) adj. having few or no inhabitants; lifeless desolado(a) adj. lugar con pocos o ningün habitante; sin vida destiny (dĕs'tə-nē) n. an unavoidable lot in life; fate destino n. lo que sucede inevitablemente en la vida, suerte dexterity (dĕk-stĕr'ĭ-tē) n. skill or grace in using the hands destreza n. habilidad en el use de las manos diatribe (dī'ə-trīb') n. condemnation; bitter, abusive criticism diatriba n. condena, discurso violento contra algo o alguien diminish (dĭ-mĭn'ĭsh) v. to make smaller or less reducir v. hacer algo más pequefio o en menor cantidad discreet (dĭ-skrēt) adj. showing caution in speech and behavior discreto(a) adj. que muestra cautela en el habla y el comportamiento disgruntled (dĭs-grŭn' tld) adj. displeased and irritated disgruntle v. malhumorado(a) adj. descontento(a), irritado(a) malhumorarse v. disheveled (dĭ-shĕv'əld) adj. messy; untidy desalitiado(a) adj. desarreglado(a), desprolijo(a) disparagingly (dĭ-spăr'ĭ-jĭng-lē) adv. in a manner that shows a lack of respect despectivamente adv. con falta de respeto dispel (dĭ-spĕl') v. to drive away desvanecer v. disipar, dispersar diversion (dĭ-vûr'zhən) n. a distraction, entertainment, or relaxation diversion n. distracción, entretenimiento doleful (dōl'fəl) adj. sad; mournful afligido(a) adj. triste, dolorido(a) dry (drī) adj. direct and without emotion; matter-of-fact seco(a) adj. sin emoción, frfo(a); directo(a) dumbfounded (dŭm'foun'dəd) adj. speechless with shock or amazement atónito(a) adj. sin habla, sorprendido(a) E eccentric (ĭk-sĕn'trĭk) adj. very unusual in behavior; odd excentrico(a) adj. de comportamiento inusual; raro(a) ecstasy (ĕk'stə-sē) n. intense joy or delight; bliss éxtasis n. diversiOn y placer intensos eloquence (ĕ1"ə-kwəns) n. an ability to speak forcefully and persuasively elocuencia n. habilidad de hablar enérgica y persuasivamente emigrant (ĕm'ĭ-grənt) n. a person who leaves one country or region to settle in another emigrante n. persona que deja un pais o regi6n para it a otra encroach (ĕn-krōch') v. to intrude; trespass usurpar v. traspasar los limites; inmiscuirse endow (ĕn-dou') v. to supply; provide dotar v. proveer, suministrar enumeration (i-noo'mə-rā'shen) n. a list enumeración n. lista existence (ĭg-zĭs'təns) n. the fact or state of being real existencia n. el hecho o el estado de ser real expedition (ĕk'spĭ-dĭsh'ən) n. a group of people making a journey with a specific purpose expedición n. grupo de personas que realiza un viaje con un prop6sito especifico exquisite (ĕk'skwĭ-zĭt) adj. excellent, flawless; having an intricate and beautiful design or outcome exquisito(a) adj. excelente, impecable; que tiene bello diseno o presencia extricate (ĕk'strĭ-kāt') v. to free from a tangle or difficulty desenredar v. liberar de un enredo o dificultad exuberant (ĭg-zoo'bər-ənt) adj. vigorous and unrestrained exuberante adj. vigoroso(a), abundante F falter (fôl'tər) v. to become unsteady or lose confidence; waver tropezar v. perder el equilibrio, tambalear Fastidious (fă-stĭd'ē-əs) adj. difficult to please quisquilloso(a) adj. dificil de complacer fate (fāt) n. a power that is supposed to determine the course of events destino n. poder que determina el curso de los sucesos fauna (fô'nə) n. animals, especially those characteristic of a particular region fauna n. animates, especialmente aquellos caracteristicos de una regiOn en particular fetish (fĕt'ĭsh) n. an abnormal attention or attachment fetichismo n. atención o apego anormal a un objeto; fetiche n. objeto al que se le atribuyen poderes sobrenaturales flank (flăngk) v. to attack the sides of something flanquear v. atacar los lados del adversario flora (flôr'ə) n. plants, especially those characteristic of a particular region flora n. plantas, especialmente aquellas caracteristicas de una regi6n en particular flotsam (flŏt'səm) n. floating wreckage or cargo after a shipwreck pecio n. restos flotantes que quedan después de un naufragio flounder (floun'dər) v. to make clumsy attempts to move or regain one's balance caminar torpemente v. hacer intentos bruscos pars avanzar sin perder el equilibrio flourishing (flûr'ĭ-shĭng) adj. thriving; prosperous flourish v. floreciente adj. prOspero(a) florecer v. foreboding (fôr-bōd' ĭng) n. a feeling that something, especially bad or harmful, is about to happen presagio n. sentimiento de que algo, especialmente malo o danino, va a suceder forlorn (fər-lôrn') adj. sad and desperate because of abandonment desamparado(a) adj. triste y alfigido(a) debido al abandono founder (foun'der) v. to get stuck; break down desplomarse v. caer, derrumbarse fumigate (fyoo'mĭ-gāt') v. to use smoke or fumes in order to kill off rodents or insects; to disinfect fumigar v. deshacerse de insectos y animales darlinos usando gases y sustancias quinnicas G gifted (gĭftĭd) adj. having natural talent or intelligence dotado(a) adj. que tiene talento o inteligencia natural gnarled (närld) adj. rugged and roughened, as from old age or work rugoso(a) adj. con protuberancias, aspero(a); como si fuera viejo(a) grimace (grĭm'ĭs) n. a facial expression of pain or disgust mueca n. expresiOn facial de dolor o disgusto H haphazardly (hăp-hăz'ərd-1ē) adv. in a random manner sin elección adv. al azar hazel (hā'zəl) adj. a light brown or yellowish brown avellanado(a) adj. de color castario claro humane (hyoo-mān') adj. merciful; showing the best qualities of humans humano(a) adj. con humanidad hypocritical (hĭp'ə-kr'ĭt'ĭ-kəl) adj. false or deceptive, like a person who is pretending to be what he or she is not hipócrita adj. falso(a) hypothesis (hī-pŏth'ĭ-sĭs) n. a theory used as a basis for research hipotesis n. teoria utilizada como base para una investigaciOn I ignite (ĭg-nīt') v. to cause to burn; kindle encender v. prender fuego; alumbrar immoral (ĭ-môr'əl) adj. contrary to what is considered to be correct behavior inmoral adj. sin moralidad impair (ĭm-pâr') v. to weaken; damage deteriorar v. debilitar; danar impart (ĭm-pärt') v. to make known; to give or reveal impartir v. dar a conocer; dar un aviso impel (ĭm-pĕl') v. to drive, force, or urge to action impeler v. Ilamar o inducir a la acciOn imperious (ĭm-pîr'ē-əs) adj. proud; overbearing imperioso(a) adj. orgulloso(a), arrogante impromptu (ĭm-prŏmp'too) adj. done on the spur of the moment; unplanned improvisado(a) adj. sin planificar improvise (ĭm'prə-vīz') v. to put together or act with little or no preparation or planning improvisado(a) adj. algo que se hace en el momento impudent (ĭm'pyə-dənt) adj. offensively bold and disrespectful descarado(a) adj. irrespetuoso(a), ofensivo(a) impulse (ĭm'pŭls') n. a sudden wish or urge impulso n. deseo repentino o urgente impunity (ĭm-pyoo'nĭ-tē) n. freedom from injury or punishment impunidad n. que no requiere castigo o perjuicio inadequate (ĭn-ăd' ĭ-kwĭt)adj. not good enough for what is needed inadecuado(a) adj. que no es suficientemente bueno(a) para lo que se necesita inarticulate (ĭn' är-tĭk' yə-lĭt) adj. speechless; unable to speak effectively or understandably inarticulado(a) adj. sin habla; sin posibilidad de hablar o hacerse comprender efectivamente incessantly (ĭn-sĕs'ənt-lē) adv. continually, without interruption incesantemente adv. continuamente, sin interrupción indignantly (ĭn-dĭg' nənt-1ē) adv. angrily aroused by something mean, unjust, or unworthy indignantemente adv. con enojo ante algo malo, injusto o indigno indomitable (ĭn-dŏm'ĭ-tə-bəl) adj. unable to be conquered indomable adj. que no se puede conquistar o veneer induce (ĭn-doos') v. to bring forth; cause inducir v. producir, causar ineptitude (ĭn-ĕp'tĭ-tood') n. incompetence, clumsiness; displaying a lack of judgment inaptitud n. incompetencia inert (ĭn-ûrt') adj. having no power to move or act; lifeless inerte adj. sin poder para moverse ni actuar; sin vida inevitable (ĭn-ĕv'ĭ-tə-bəl) adj. impossible to avoid or prevent inevitable adj. que no puede prevenirse instill (ĭn-stĭl') v. to supply gradually verter gota a gota v. suministrar gradualmente instinctive (ĭn-stĭngk'tĭv) adj. having a natural tendency; spontaneous instintivo(a) adj. con tendencia natural; espontáneo(a) intercession (ĭn'tər-sĕsh'ən) n. the act of asking for something that will benefit someone else intercesion n. action de pedir algo que favorecerá a otro interminably (ĭn-tûr'mə-nə-blē) adv. without end interminablemente adv. sin fin introspective (ĭn'trə-spĕk'tĭv) adj. examining one's own thoughts, feelings, and sensations introspectivo(a) adj. el que examina sus propios pensamientos, sentimientos y sensaciones intuition (ĭn'too-ĭsh'ən)n. a sense of knowing not dependent on reason; an insight intuition n. sentimiento de sabiduria que no depende de una razón; perspicacia invulnerable (ĭn-vŭl'nər-ə-bəl) adj. impossible to hurt invulnerable adj. que no se puede &liar J jubilation (joo' bə-lā' shən) n. rejoicing; a celebration or expression of joy jübilo n. regocijo; celebración o expresión de alegria judicious (joo-dĭsh'əs) adj. careful; showing sound judgment juicioso(a) adj. cuidadoso(a); que muestra buen juicio K kindling (kĭnd'lĭng) n. pieces of dry wood or other material that can be easily lighted to start a fire; tinder Jena n. trozos de madera seta con los que se puede hater fuego fácilmente; mecha L lapse (lăps) V. to sink or slip gradually deslizarse v. resbalar o sumergirse gradualmente lark (lärk) n. a carefree adventure jolgorio n. diversion sin preocupación lavish (lăv'ĭsh) adj. exceedingly generous; extravagant derrochador(a) adj. excesivamente generoso(a); extravagante learned (lûr'nĭd) adj. having a great deal of knowledge culto(a) adj. que tiene muchos conocimientos ledge (lĕj) n. a narrow shelf repisa n. estante angosto legitimate (lə-jĭt'ə-mĭt) adj. logical; genuine legitimo(a) adj. lógico(a); genuino(a) liable (lī'ə-bəl) adj. likely probable adj. posible litany (lĭt'n-ē) n. a repetitive recitation letania n. recitado repetitivo loathe (1ōth) v. to hate; to dislike someone or something greatly detestar v. odiar; aborrecer a alguien o algo logistics (lō-jĭs'tĭks) n. the management, planning, and carrying out of details in an operation or a project logistica n. manejo, plan y ejecución de detalles durante una operación o proyecto longing (lông'ĭng) n. a strong desire anhelo n. un deseo intenso lumbering (Iŭm'bər-ĭng) adj. moving in a heavy, clumsy way lumber v. pesado(a) adj. que se mueve de manera lenta y tbrpe avanzar pesadamente v. luminous (1oo'mə-nəs) adj. giving off light; shining luminoso(a) adj. brillante, con mucha luz MIEMEZIEWEREI M magnificence (măg-nĭf'ĭ-səns) n. greatness or richness; grand or impressive beauty magnificencia n. cualidad de nnagnifico malicious (mə-lĭsh'əs) adj. showing ill will; spiteful malicioso(a) adj. que muestra maldad; rencoroso(a) malodorous (mă1-ō'dər-əs) adj. having a bad odor maloliente adj. que tiene mal olor meditation (mĕd'ĭ-tā'shən) n. the act of deep thinking or reflection meditación n. acto de pensar profundamente o reflexionar menace (mĕ'n'ĭs) n. a possible danger; a threat amenaza n. un peligro posible monotonous (mə-nŏt'n-əs) adj. repeating over and over, without variety monótono(a) adj. que se repite continuamente, sin variation mug (mŭg) n. the face cara n. rostro mutinous (moot'n-əs) adj. rebelling against a leader motin n. rebelión en contra de un Ilder N naïveté (na'ēv-tā') n. a lack of sophistication; simplicity ingenuidad n. falta de sofisticación; simplicidad naturalist (năch'ər-ə-lĭst) n. a person who studies living things by observing them directly naturalista n. persona que estudia los seres vivientes observándolos directamente nondescript (nŏn'dĭ-skrĭpt') adj. lacking in distinctive qualities; drab indefinido(a) adj. con falta de cualidades distintivas; ordinario notorious (nō-tôr'ē-əs) adj. well-known, particularly for disgraceful behavior notorio(a) adj. conocido por todos, particularmente por comportamiento vergonzoso nurseryman (nŭr'sə-rē-mən) n. person employed by a nursery, where plants are grown for sale, transplanting, or experimentation viverista n. persona a cargo de un vivero, donde cultiva plantas para su yenta, trasplante o para experimentos O obsolete (ŏb'sə-1ēt') adj. out-of-date anticuado(a) adj. pasado(a) de moda ominous (ŏm'ə-nəs) adj. menacing; threatening ominoso(a) adj. amenazante; siniestro(a) opportunist (ŏp'ər-too'nĭst) n. a person who takes advantage of any opportunity to achieve a goal, with little regard for moral principles oportunista n. persona que saca provecho de cualquier oportunidad, sin principios morales oppression (ə-prĕsh' ən) n. the act of keeping someone down through harsh and unjust use of power; the feeling of being heavily weighed down, either mentally or physically opresión n. acto de contener a alguien por medio de la crueldad y el abuso de poder; sentimiento de estar agobiado(a), mental o fisicamente optimism (ŏp'tə-mĭz'əm) n. a tendency to expect the best possible outcome or to dwell on the most hopeful aspects of a situation optimismo n. tendencia a esperar los mejores resultados posibles o de ver los mejores aspectos de una situation ostentatiously (ŏs' tēn-tā' shəs-lē) adv. with great show or exaggeration ostentosamente adv. con mucha exageración outskirts (out'skûrts') n. the region remote from the central district of a city or town suburbios n. las regiones lejanas a un distrito central de una ciudad o pueblo P palatable (păl'ə-tə-bəl) adj. acceptable to the taste; able to be eaten sabroso(a) adj. que tiene un sabor agradable; gustoso(a) pandemonium (păn'də-mō' nēəm) wild confusion and noise; an uproar pandemonio n. desorden y ruido; alboroto paradox (păr'ə-dŏks') n. a statement that appears to be illogical but may nevertheless be true paradoja n. una aserción que parece ilógica pero sin embargo podria ser verdadera parched (pärchd) adj. extremely dry reseco(a) adj. muy seco(a) peer (pîr) v. to look intently, searchingly, or with difficulty escrutar v. mirar atentamente perceptible (pər-sĕp'tə-bəl) adj. capable of being observed; noticeable perceptible adj. que se puede observar; notable peril (pĕr'əl) n. danger peligro n. riesgo; la posibilidad de que suceda algün mal perilous (pĕr'ə-ləs) adj. full of danger peligroso(a) adj. que puede ocasionar datio; arriesgado(a) periscope (pĕrĭ-skōp') n. a tube-shaped optical device that lets one see into an area beyond the area he or she is in; a periscope is used by submarines to see above the surface of the water while remaining invisible periscopio n. un tubo Optico que since para observar los objetos por encima de un obstáculo que impide la vision directa. Los submarinos usan un periscopio para ver sobre la superficie del mar mientras están sumergidos. perpetual (pər-pĕch'oo-əl) adj. lasting for an indefinitely long time; continuing without interruption perpetuo(a) adj. eterno(a) persist (pər-sĭst') v. to continue stubbornly persistir v. seguir tercamente perspective (pər-spĕk'tĭv) n. a point of view from which things can be correctly understood or judged perspectiva n. un punto de vista desde el que se puede entender o evaluar las cosas correctamente pervade (pər-vād') v. to be spread or to be present throughout penetrar v. extender por; invadir perverse (pər-vûrs') adj. turned away from what is right or good; improper perverso(a) adj. que no es correcto(a) obueno(a); impropio(a) petite (pə-tēt) adj. small and slender pequefio(a) adj. chiquito(a) y delgado(a) pious (pī'əs) adj. showing sincere devotion; reverent beato(a) adj. con mucha reverencia pivotal (pĭv'ə-tl) adj. being of central importance fundamental adj. que tiene mucha importancia plummet (plŭm'ĭt) v. to fall suddenly and steeply desplomarse v. caer a plomo prodigy (prŏd'ə-jē) n. a person with an exceptional talent prodigio n. una persona que tiene un talento exceptional proportional (prə-pôr'shə-nəl) adj. having a constant relation in degree or number proportional adj. que tiene una relación constante de nivel o nümero proposition (prŏp'ə-zĭsh'ən) n. a suggested plan proposición n. un plan sugerido proprietor (prə-prī'ĭ-tər) n. the owner of a business propietario n. el duetio de un negocio prospector (prŏs'pĕk'tər) n. one who explores an area for mineral deposits or oil buscador n. una persona que explora una region para encontrar dep6sitos minerales o petrOleo provocation (prŏv'ə-kā'shən) n. something that irritates or stirs to action provocación n. algo que irrita o que incita a Ia action prudence (prood'ns) n. the quality of behaving with caution and good judgment prudencia n. Ia calidad de actuar con cautela y buen juicio pungent (pŭn'jənt) adj. sharp and intense, as an odor acre adj. áspero(a) y picante al gusto o al olfato Q quintessential (kwĭn'tə-sĕn'shəl) adj. most typical or characteristic depuradisimo(a) adj. más tipico(a) o caracteristico(a) ponder (pŏn'dər) v. to think or to consider carefully and thoroughly ponderar v. pensar cuidadosamente o considerar completamente posterity (pŏ-stĕr'ĭ-tē)n. future generations vuestras generaciones n. los hijos y nietos que heredan la posteridad precarious (prĭ-kâr'ē-əs) adj. not secure; risky precario(a) adj. que no es seguro(a); arriesgado(a) precedent (prĕs'ĭ-dənt) n. an event that serves as an example for later actions precedente n. un suceso que sirve de un ejemplo para acciones posteriores predator (prĕd'ə-tər) n. an organism that lives by preying on other organisms depredador n. un organismo que mata y come a otros organismos para vivir predicated (prĕd'ĭ-kā-tĭd) adj. established; assumed predicate v. fundado(a) adj. establecido(a); afirmado(a) fundar v. preening (prē'nĭng) n. cleaning feathers with the beak preen v. arreglo n. limpieza de las plumas con el pico arreglar v. presumptuous (prĭ-zŭmp'choo-əs) adj. excessively bold, confident, or shameless presuntuoso(a) adj. audaz, confiado(a) o sinvergiienza principle (prĭn'sə-pəl) n. the code of good behavior; morality principio n. base de buena conducta; moralidad probe (prōb) v. to investigate or to explore by touch; searching sondar v. investigar o explorar por tocar; buscar procure (prō-kyoor) v. to obtain; acquire procurar v. obtener; adquirir R rafter (răf'tər) n. a wooden beam that supports a roof par n. viga de madera que sostiene un techo ransom (răn'səm) n. a price or a payment demanded in return for the release of property or a person restate n. un precio o un pago que se pide por devolver una cosa o poner en libertad a una persona rapture (răp'chər) n. a feeling of ecstasy; great joy entusiasmarse v. sentir mucha pasiem o animo por algo rationalize (răsh'ə-nə-līz') v. to make self- satisfying but incorrect explanations about one's behavior encontrar una explicación v. justificar ravage (răv'ĭj) n. serious damage; widespread destruction devastador adj. que destruye totalmente rebuke (rĭ-byook') n. a sharp scolding or criticism reprimenda n. regatio; censura recessed (rē' sĕsd) adj. indented or hollowed-out space recess v. retirado(a) adj. que está en una depreskin o un espacio hueco retirar v. recoil (rĭ-koil') v. to shrink back, as in fear or disgust recular V. tener horror o asco a algo refined (rĭ-fīnd') adj. having polished manners; cultured fino(a) adj. tortes; culto(a) refugee (rĕf'yoo-jē') n. one who leaves his or her home in search of protection or shelter elsewhere, as in times of war refugiado n. una persona que, a causa de guerras u opresiem, busca protección o seguridad en un pais extranjero regression (rĭ-grĕsh'ən) n. a return to a less developed condition regresien n. un retroceso a una condiciem menos desarrollada rehabilitation (rē'hə-bĭl'ĭ-tā'shən) n. the process of being restored to good health or useful life through training or therapy rehabilitation n. el proceso de restablecer la buena salud o una vida Citil a traves del entrenamiento o la terapia relay (rē' lā) n. a race in which each side uses several team members to complete the race; each member has a turn to finish a set part of the race and is then replaced by another team member to finish the next part, and so forth carrera de relevos n. prueba deportiva en que los corredores de un mismo equipo se sustituyen sucesivamente. Cada miembro corre una parte de la carrera y luego se sustituye por otro miembro que corre Ia parte siguiente remorse (rĭ-môrs') n. a bitter regret or guilt after having done wrong remordimiento n. pens o culpa interns que queda despues de hater algo mal renunciation (rē-nŭn'sē-ā'shən) n. a declaration in which something is given up abdication n. ceder los derechos sobre algo reproach (rĭ-prōch') v. to criticize; to blame reprochar v. criticar; echar Ia culpa reserve (rĭ-zûrv') n. self-restraint in the way one looks or acts reserva n. discretion resistance (rĭ-zĭs'təns) n. the act of fending off; an opposing force resistencia n. Ia action de resistir; una fuerza de oposiciem retort (rĭ-tôrt') n. a quick, sharp, or witty reply replica n. una respuesta rSpida o aguda R179 retribution (rĕt'rə-byoo'shən) n. punishment for bad behavior punición n. castigo por comportamiento malo reverently (rĕv'ər-ənt-lē) adv. in a way that shows awe and respect con reverencia adv. de una manera que muestra temor o respeto reverie (rĕv'ə-rē) n. a daydream ensuerio n. una fantasia revert (rĭ-vûrt') v. to return to a former condition, belief, subject, or practice revertir V. volver a un estado, una creencia, un tema o una practica revoke (rĭ-vōk') v. to withdraw or repeal revocar v. retirar o anular S savor (sā'vər) v. to take great pleasure in gozar v. disfrutar segregation (sĕg'rĭ-gā'shən) n. the process of separating others from a main body or group; the policy and practice of separating one race from the rest of society segregación n. el proceso de separar algunas personas de otras o de un grupo principal; el sistema y la práctica de separar las personas de una raza del resto de la sociedad semblance (sĕm'bləns) n. an outward appearance semblante n. apariencia sensation (sĕn-sā'shən) n. a state of great interest and excitement sensation n. un estado de mucho inter& y mucha emotion sever (sĕv'ōr) v. to become separated; to be cut off from the whole romperse v. separarse de algo; estar apartado(a) del todo shrew (shroo) n. a mean, nagging woman regaiiona n. una mujer cruel y molesta sidekick (sīd'kĭk') n. a close friend compariero(a) n. un(a) buen(a) amigo(a) sinister (sĭn'ĭ-stər) adj. suggestive of evil or misfortune siniestro(a) adj. que indica el mal o el infortunio slight (slīt) n. an insult to one's pride or self-esteem desaire n. un insulto al orgullo o al amor propio de alguien slovenly (slŭv'ən-1ē) adj. lazy and careless; untidy desaliiiado(a) adj. perezoso(a) y descuidado(a); desaseado(a) sober (sō'bər) v. to make serious or solemn moderar v. poner serio(a) o solemne sovereignty (sŏv'ər-ĭn-tē) n. authority; rule soberania n. autoridad; dominio specialization (spĕsh'ə-l'ĭ-zā'shən) n. a focus on a particular activity or area of study especialización n. la action de dedicarse a una cosa o un terra especifico specimen (spĕs'ə-mən) n. an individual that is taken to represent a group or whole espécimen n. una muestra que se obtiene pars representar un grupo o un todo speculate (spĕk'yə-lāt') v. to draw a conclusion without having firm evidence; guess especular v. Ilegar a una conclusión sin tener conocimiento completo; adivinar spirited (spĭr''-tĭd) adj. lively; vigorous animado(a) adj. energico(a); vigoroso(a) stampede (stăm-pēd') n. a sudden head long rush or flight of a crowd of people espantada n. huida repentina de una multitud de personas statistically (stə-tĭs'tĭ-klē) adv. in terms of the principles used to analyze numerical data segan las estadisticas adv. en cuanto a los métodos que se usan para analizar los datos numéricos stealthily (stĕthĭ-lē) adv. cautiously; secretly furtivamente adv. secretamente stifled (stī'fəld) adj. smothered stifle v. sofocado(a) adj. ahogado(a) sofocar v. stipulated (stĭp'yə-lā'tĭd) adj. arranged in an agreement stipulate v. acordado(a) adj. negociado(a) acordar v. stoop (stoop) n. a small porch, platform, or staircase leading to the entrance of a building or house portico n. un porche pequeno, una plataforma o una escalinata delante de un edificio o una casa subordinate (sə-bôr'dn-ĭt) adj. less important or lower in rank; secondary subordinado(a) adj. menos importante o de rango más bajo; secundario(a) sullen (sŭl'ən) adj. showing silent resentment; sulky malhumorado(a) adj. resentido(a); malcontento(a) summit (sŭm'ĭt) n. the highest point or part; the top cima n. el punto de mayor elevación; el vértice surmount (sər-mount') v. to get to the top of; climb superar v. Ilegar a la parte de arriba; escalar surreptitiously (sûr' əp-tĭsh' əs-1ē) adv. in a sneaky way; secretly subrepticiamente adv. solapadamente; a escondidas surveying (sər-vā'ĭng) adj. looking over carefully; inspecting survey v. examinando V. mirando con cuidado; inspeccionando swoon (swoon) v. to faint desvanecerse v. desmayarse syndrome (sĭn'drōm') n. a group of symptoms that characterizes a disease or psychological disorder syndrome n. un grupo de sintomas que caracteriza una enfermedad o un problema psicológico T tackle (tăk'əl) v. to take on a problem or a challenge; to wrestle with an opponent atacar v. asumir y hacerle frente a una dificultad o un reto; luchar con un adversario tandem (tăn'dəm) adj. one behind the other (en) tandem adv. uno delante del otro tangible (tān'jə-bəl) adj. able to be seen or touched; material tangible adj. que se puede ver o tocar; material tedious (tē'dē-əs) adj. boring; tiresome because of length, slowness, or dullness tedioso(a) adj. aburrido(a); molesto(a) a causa de duración, lentitud o monotonia teem (tēm) v. to be full of; to abound abundar v. estar Ileno(a) de algo tentatively (tĕn'tə-tĭv-lē) adv. with uncertainty or hesitation a tientas adv. tanteando sin certidumbre tethered (tĕth'ərd) adj. tied to the ground or to another object tether v. atado(a) adj. asegurado(a) a la tierra o a otro objeto atar v. transition (trăn-zĭsh'ən) n. a change from one stage to another transition n. el proceso de cambiar de un estado a otro tremor (trĕ'm'ər) n. a shaking or a vibrating movement; a nervous trembling or quivering temblor n. movimiento rápido e involuntario U unappeasable (ŭn'ə-pē'zə-bəl) adj. impossible to calm or satisfy implacable adj. que no se puede calmar o satisfacer V vacuous (văk'yoo-əs) adj. showing a lack of intelligence or thought vacuo(a) adj. caracterizado(a) por una falta de inteligencia o reflexión vagrant (vā'grənt) adj. wandering from place to place; moving in a random way andariego(a) adj. que va de lugar en lugar valor (văl'ər) n. courage; bravery valor n. coraje; valentia varmint (vär'mĭnt) n. a wild animal that is considered undesirable or troublesome, such as a fox, a rabbit, or a rodent sabandija n. un animal considerado indeseable o molesto, como un zorro, un conejo o un roedor vault (vôlt) v. to jump or leap saltar v. impulsar el cuerpo sobre algo vehemently (vē'ə-mənt-lē) adv. with intense emotion con mayor vehemencia adv. con más intensidad vex (vĕks) v. to disturb; annoy confundir v. desorientar vile (vīl) adj. disgusting; hateful; unpleasant vil adj. repulsivo(a); odioso(a); desagradable vindictiveness (vĭn-dĭk'tĭv-nĭs) n. a desire for revenge carácter vengativo n. la cualidad de ser rencoroso vocation (vō-kā'shən) n. job; profession vocation n. empleo; profesión W wallow (wŏl' ō) v. to roll the body about, as an elephant in water or mud; to indulge in or to take great pleasure and delight in revolcarse v. voltearse por el suelo, como un elefante en el agua o el barro; darse gusto widow (wĭd' ō) n. a woman whose husband has died and who has not remarried viuda n. una mujer que ha Perdido a su esposo y que no ha vuelto a casarse Y yaw (yô) v. to swerve off course momentarily or temporarily desviarse v. perder la ruta momentáneamente o temporariament Z zeal (zēl) n. great enthusiasm; a devotion to a cause, an ideal, or a goal celo n. gran entusiasmo; dedication a un ideal o una meta