Download Reading Handbook Reading for Different Purposes Having a clear

Reading Handbook
Reading for Different Purposes
Having a clear purpose can help you better remember and understand what you
read. You may be reading for relaxation and pleasure. Perhaps you need
information so you can pass a test. Maybe you need to follow directions to
program your VCR or to fill out a form. Perhaps you need to analyze an
argument to make sure it makes sense. You will need specific reading
strategies for every type of reading you do. This Reading Handbook will help
you become a better reader of all kinds of materials.
Reading Literature
Forms: stories, plays, poems, memoirs, biographies, some nonfiction
Purpose for reading: for pleasure, for increased understanding
Strategies for Reading
Predict
Visualize
Connect
Question
Clarify
Evaluate
See page S3 for details about each strategy.
Reading for Information
Forms: newspapers, magazines, reference works, on-line information, textbooks
Purpose for reading: to be informed
Strategies for Reading
Look for text organizers such as titles, subheads, graphics, and other
devices.
Notice the organization of the text.
Look for connections to something you already know.
Read, reread, and answer questions to increase your understanding.
See pages R4—R10 for help with these strategies.
R2
Critical Reading
Forms: newspaper editorials, advertisements, political ads, letters, opinion
statements
Purpose for reading: to be informed, to make a decision
Strategies for Reading
Find the main ideas.
Evaluate the supporting details.
Determine the author's purpose.
Decide how well the author achieved that purpose.
See pages R11—R14 for detailed examples.
Functional Reading
---see sample
Forms: instruction manuals, applications, workplace documents, product
information, technical directions, public notices
Purpose for reading: to make decisions and solve problems
Strategies for Reading
Skim the whole piece.
Read the information in the order presented.
Look carefully at any drawings or pictures.
Reread when the meaning is unclear. See pages R15—R19 for examples.
Methods of Reading
When you read something for the first time, review material for a test, or search for
specific information, you use different methods of reading. The following
techniques are useful with all kinds of reading materials.
Skimming When you run your eyes quickly over a text, looking at headings,
graphic features, and highlighted words, you are skimming. Skimming is useful
in previewing textbook material that you must read for an assignment.
Scanning In a text, to find a specific piece of information, such as the date of a
battle, use scanning. Place a card under the first line of a page and move it
down slowly. Look for key words and phrases.
In-Depth Reading In-depth reading involves asking questions, taking notes, looking
for main ideas, and drawing conclusions as you read slowly and carefully. Use
this type of reading for literary works and textbooks.
R3
Reading for Information
When you read informational materials such as textbooks, magazines, newspapers,
and on-line text, you need to use specific strategies. It is important to study text
organizers, such as headings and special type, that tell you what the main
ideas, facts, and terms are on the page. It is also important to recognize
patterns of organization in the text and to map them in a graphic organizer.
Using these strategies will help you read and understand any kind of
informational text.
Text Organizers
Writers use special features such as headings, large or dark type, pictures, or
drawings to show you the most important information on the page. You can use
these special features to help you understand and remember what you read.
Strategies for Reading
---see sample
A First, look at the title and any subheads. These will tell you the main ideas of the
lesson.
B Many textbooks have one or more objectives or key terms at the beginning of
each lesson. Keep these in mind as you read. This will help you identify the
most important details. You may also want to read any questions at the end of
the section to find out what you'll need to learn.
C Watch for pulled-out text—quotations or other materials that are placed in a box
or in different type. Such text often includes especially surprising, important, or
memorable information.
R4
D Don't forget about the key terms. These are often boldfaced or underlined where
they first appear in the text. Be sure you understand what they mean.
E Look at the visuals— photographs, illustrations, time lines, or other graphics—
and read their captions. These will help you understand what you are about to
read.
F Read and questions that are part of the text. They will help you focus your
reading.
More Examples
To examine the structural features of other kinds of informational materials, see the
pages listed below.
For examples of newspaper articles, see pages 528, and 634.
For examples of magazine articles, see pages 44, 211, 283, and 733.
For examples of Internet articles, see pages 130 and 363.
R5
Patterns of Organization
Reading any type of writing is easier if you understand how it is organized. A writer
organizes ideas in a sequence, or structure, that helps the reader see how the
ideas are related. Four important structures are the following:
main idea and supporting details
chronological order
comparison and contrast
cause and effect
proposition and support
This page contains an overview of the four structures, which you will learn about in
more detail on pages R7—R10. Each type has been drawn as a map or graphic
organizer to help you see how the ideas are related.
Main Idea and Supporting Details
The main idea of a paragraph or a longer piece of writing is its most important point.
Supporting details give more information or evidence about the statements
made in the main idea.
Chronological Order
Writing that is organized in chronological order presents events in the order in which
they occur.
Comparison and Contrast
Comparison-and-contrast writing explains how two or more subjects are similar and
how they are different.
Cause and Effect
Cause-and-effect writing explains the relationship between events. The cause is the
first event. The effect happens as a result of the cause. A cause may have
more than one effect, and an effect may have more than one cause.
Proposition and Support
A proposition, or a proposal, is a plan offered for acceptance. The need for the plan,
the plan itself, and a description of how the plan would work are the usual parts
of a proposition.
R6
Main Idea and Supporting Details
The main idea of a paragraph is the basic point you should remember from your
reading. The supporting details give you additional information about the main
idea. A main idea can be stated directly, or it can be implied. If it is stated, it can
appear anywhere in the paragraph. Often, it will be the first or the last sentence.
An implied main idea is suggested by the details that are provided.
Strategies for Reading
To find the main idea, ask, "What is this paragraph about?"
To find supporting details, ask, "What else do I learn about the main idea?"
MODEL
Main Idea as the First Sentence
Main Idea
Both the North and the South needed more soldiers as the Civil War
continued year after year. As a result, each side passed draft laws These
laws required all men to serve in the military. The Confederate law went
into effect in the spring of 1862. The Union draft began in 1863.
Supporting Details
MODEL
Main Idea as the Last Sentence
Supporting Details
The South experienced severe food shortages during the Civil War. This was
because both men and machines were serving in the army rather than
working in the fields. Inflation was a problem in both the South and the
North. Prices increased much faster than wages. The war caused
economic hardship for almost everyone.
Main Idea
MODEL
Implied Main Idea
While the men were at war, women worked in the fields to produce food. They
also took over office and factory jobs left by men serving in the army.
Other women served as nurses and volunteers on the battlefields. Some
brave women, like Harriet Tubman, even acted as spies.
Implied main idea: Women made important contributions to the Civil War.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
MODEL
Approximately 3 million men, nearly 10 percent of the population, served in
the Civil War. More than one-fifth of these soldiers died. Almost that many
more were wounded. Not only the soldiers suffered, though. The economy
of the nation also was deeply affected. Some people did not have enough
to eat. Prices everywhere got higher. The life of practically every citizen
was disrupted by the conflict.
Read the model above and then do the following activities.
1. Identify the main idea of the paragraph.
2. List four details that support the main idea.
R7
Chronological Order
Chronological, or time, order presents ideas in the order that they happened.
Historical events are usually presented in chronological order. The steps of a
process may also be presented in time order.
Strategies for Reading
Identify the individual events or steps. These will often be presented in
separate paragraphs.
Look for words that signal order, such as first, afterward, then, before, finally,
and next.
Look for words and phrases that identify time, such as in a year, two hours
earlier, in July 4,1776; and later.
MODEL
Time phrases
Event
On Wednesday morning at a quarter past five came the earthquake. A minute
later the flames were leaping upward. In a dozen different quarters south
of Market Street, in the working-class ghetto, and in the factories, fires
started. There was no opposing the flames. There was no organization, no
communication. . . .
By Wednesday afternoon, inside of twelve hours, half of the heart of the city
was gone. At that time I watched the vast conflagration from out on the
bay. It was dead calm. Not a flicker of wind stirred. . . . Day and night this
dead calm continued, and yet, near to the flames, the wind was often half
a gale, so mighty was the vacuum.
Wednesday night saw the destruction of the very heart of the city. Dynamite
was lavishly used, and many of San Francisco's proudest structures were
crumbled by man himself into ruins, but there was no withstanding the
onrush of the flames. . . .
At nine o'clock Wednesday evening I walked down through the very heart of
the city. I walked through miles and miles of magnificent buildings and
towering skyscrapers. Here was no fire. All was in perfect order. The
police patrolled the streets. Every building had its watchman at the door.
And yet it was doomed, all of it. There was no water. The dynamite was
giving out. And at right angles two different conflagrations were sweeping
down upon it.
At one o'clock in the morning I walked down through the same section.
Everything still stood intact. There was no fire. And yet there was a
change. A rain of ashes was falling. The watchmen at the doors were
gone. The police had been withdrawn. There were no firemen, no fireengines, no men fighting with dynamite. The district had been absolutely
abandoned. . . . Half a dozen blocks away it was burning on both sides.
The street was a wall of flame. And against this wall of flame, silhouetted
sharply, were two United States cavalrymen sitting on their horses, calmly
watching. That was all.
—Jack London, "The Story of an Eyewitness"
PRACTICE AND APPLY
After reading the model, do the following activities.
1. Create a time line on your paper. Begin with the earthquake that struck San
Francisco on Wednesday, April 18, 1906, at 5:15 a.m. List the other events in
the order that they happened.
2. List all words or phrases in the model that signal time.
3. List the two subjects that are being compared and contrasted in the final two
paragraphs.
R8
Comparison and Contrast
Comparison-and-contrast writing explains how two different subjects are alike and
different. This type of writing is usually organized by subject or by feature. In
subject organization, the writer discusses subject 1, then discusses subject 2.
In feature organization, the writer compares a feature of subject 1 with a
feature of subject 2, then compares another feature of both, and so on.
Strategies for Reading
Look for words and phrases that signal comparison, such as like, similarly,
both, also, and in the same way.
Look for words and phrases that signal contrast, such as unlike, on the other
hand, in contrast, and however.
MODEL
Subjects
Contrast words
Comparison words
In 1788 the newly drafted Constitution of the United States was a subject of
great debate. On one side were the Federalists, those who supported the
Constitution. On the other side were the Antifederalists, who opposed the
Constitution.
The Federalists believed in a system of government called federalism. In this
type of government a central - or federal - government shares power with
the individual states.
The Antifederalists, on the other hand, believed that the Constitution took too
much power away from the states and the people. Unlike the Federalists,
the Antifederalists supported keeping all the important political power
with the stated.
Both the Federalists and the Anifederalists agreed that the government
should be made up of several branches. The Federalists believed that
power should be divided equally among the executive, the judicial, and
the legislative branches. Because of this system of checks and balances,
the Federalists thought that a single person should head the executive
branch.
The Antifederalists, in contrast, were afraid to give too much power to the
executive branch. They thought that the legislative branch should be the
most powerful arm of the government. They feared that if the executive
branch became too strong, the president might become like a king or a
tyrant.
The Federalists thought that the Constitution fully protected the rights of
individual citizens. The Antifederalists disagreed. They argued that a
separate bill of rights was needed to make sure that the people were
protected from the power of a strong federal government.
The Constitution that was ratified by the states was a compromise between
the Federalist and the Antifederalist positions. As the Federalists wanted,
it gave more power to the federal government than to the states. It also
divided the power of the federal government among its three branches. As
the Antifederalists demanded, however, the Constitution included a bill of
rights.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Read the model and do the following activities.
1. In the model, some contrast words are pointed out to you. Find two more contrast
words or phrases and write them on your paper.
2. Decide whether the model is organized by subject or by feature. Explain your
answer.
3. Create a Venn diagram like the one on page R6. Then fill in the similarities and
differences between the Federalist and Antifederalist positions.
R9
Cause and Effect
Cause-and-effect writing explains the relationship between events. A cause is an
event that brings about another event. An effect is something that happens as
a result of the first event. Cause-and-effect writing is usually organized in one of
three ways:
1. Starting with cause(s) and explaining effect(s).
2. Starting with effects and explaining cause(s).
3. Describing a chain of causes and effects.
Strategies for Reading
To find the effect or effects, ask "What happened?"
To find the cause or causes, ask "Why did it happen?"
Look for signal words and phrases such as because, as a result, for that
reason, so, consequently, and since.
MODEL
Effect
Signal Word
Causes
Immigrants streamed into the United States during the mid-1800s. Most of
them came from European countries, including Germany, Ireland,
Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Britain. There were basically two types of
forces that caused them to leave their homelands: reasons they were
pushed out and reasons they were pulled to the new land.
Pushing them out were events in people's homelands that made living there
more and more difficult. A huge growth in population, for example,
resulted in overcrowding and a shortage of food. At the same time, small
plots of land were being combined into large farms. Consequently,
farmers were forced off their land and could no longer make a living.
Religious persecution and political unrest also were reasons for people to
leave their homelands and look for a new and better life across the ocean.
Another important reason was the Industrial Revolution. Factories began to
produce goods more cheaply and quickly than independent tradespeople
could. So these tradespeople were forced out of business.
Immigrants also left their countries because such things as vast amounts of
land, economic opportunity, and freedom drew them to the United States.
Many immigrants left their homelands because of overcrowding and loss of
their farms. The United States, on the other hand, kept expanding
westward and adding more territory. For this reason, the immigrants
thought they could obtain land and make a better life for their families in
America.
The Industrial Revolution opened up many factory jobs for skilled immigrants
in the United States. As a consequence, tradesmen as well as farmers
looked to this country as a land of economic opportunity. Finally,
immigrants were drawn to the United States because it offered them the
freedom to practice their religion in any way they chose.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Read the model on this page and then do the following activities.
1. List six of the main causes of immigration to the United States in the mid-1800s.
2. Identify five words or phrases in the passage that signal causes and effects.
3. List the effects of the following events in Europe: a) population growth, b)
religious persecution and political unrest, c) the Industrial Revolution.
R10
Critical Reading: Persuasion
Persuasive writing attempts to convince readers to agree with the writer's point of
view Persuasive writing can take many forms. Advertisements, political posters,
newspaper editorials, proposals, and reviews are all forms of persuasion.
Proposals to convince you to support a change or a new idea are common
forms of persuasion.
What Is a Proposal?
A proposal is a special type of persuasive writing that outlines a plan to meet a
need or solve a problem. A proposal includes three parts: (1) a brief summary
of the plan of action, (2) a statement of the need or problem and support
explaining the need, and (3) a detailed discussion of the plan and how it will
solve the problem.
The following strategies can help you read a proposal:
Strategies for Reading
Identify the need or problem and the plan of action proposed to solve it.
Evaluate the evidence—facts, statistics, and opinions—that the writer gives
to support the proposal.
Evaluate the reasoning behind the writer's statements.
---see model
R11
Evaluating Reasoning
To be convincing, a proposal or other persuasive statement must show sound
reasoning. The conclusions that the author makes must follow clearly and
logically from the information presented.
Four types of unsound reasoning to watch out for are overgeneralization, the
either-or fallacy, the cause-and-effect fallacy, and circular reasoning.
Overgeneralization
An overgeneralization is a broad statement that says something is true for every
case, with no exceptions. In fact, very few statements have no exceptions.
Overgeneralizations often include the words all, none, everyone, no one, any,
and anyone.
Overgeneralization:
Every school official who cares about students supports video monitoring.
Logical statement:
Some school officials believe that video monitoring can help provide a safe
environment for students to learn both academic and social skills.
Either-Or Fallacy
The either-or fallacy states that there are only two possible ways to view a situation
or only two options to choose from. In most situations, there are actually a
number of views and options. Either-or fallacies often include the words either
... or.
Either-or fallacy:
Either video monitors are installed in the school, or students will be injured.
Logical statement:
A safety problem exists in the school and video monitoring will help solve it.
Cause-and-Effect Fallacy
In the cause-and-effect fallacy, the writer makes the assumption that because one
event follows another, the second event was caused by the first one. As you
read, think carefully about the evidence that one event actually caused another.
Cause-and-effect fallacy:
Westview School cut security staff, and two students fell down the stairs and
were seriously injured.
Logical statement:
Two Westview students were injured because they were running down a
slippery stairway that had just been mopped.
Circular Reasoning
Circular reasoning is an attempt to support a statement by simply repeating it in
other words. If a statement does not include any supporting facts and leaves
you thinking "So?", it may be circular reasoning.
Circular reasoning:
Using video cameras to monitor school hallways is good because it feels
right.
Logical statement:
Monitoring school hallways with video cameras will help reduce fights and
damage to property.
R12
Evaluating Evidence
In addition to evaluating the logic of an argument, you also must carefully examine
the evidence presented to support statements. First, to accurately evaluate
information, you must know the difference between facts and opinions. The
statements of experts also provide good evidence. Be careful, though, of
arguments that present expert opinions from only one side of an issue.
Here are some types of evidence to watch out for: fact and opinion, stereotyping,
bias, propaganda, and emotional appeals.
Fact and Opinion
A fact is a statement that can be proved. An opinion is a statement of personal
belief that cannot be proved. Make sure you identify when a statement is a fact
and when it is an opinion.
Opinion statement:
Video monitors in our school will save lives.
Factual statement:
Schools with video monitors have reported less running in hallways and
fewer accidents within their facilities.
Stereotyping
A stereotype is a generalization about a group of people that doesn't take individual
differences into account.
Stereotyping:
All school officials really care about are their jobs, not what is good for
students.
Balanced statement:
Some school officials are not fully aware of how much a safe environment
affects student learning.
Bias
Bias is a preference for one side of an argument.
Bias:
Video monitoring is a terrible crime.
Unbiased statement:
Some people think that video monitoring is an invasion of students' privacy.
Propaganda
Propaganda is a form of communication that may use distorted, false, or misleading
information.
Propaganda:
Video monitoring will turn students into criminals.
Balanced statement:
Some people think that students may resent monitoring and find ways to do
what they're not supposed to do without getting caught.
Emotional Appeals
Emotional appeals are statements that create strong feelings rather than use facts
and evidence to make a point. Be alert for statements that make you feel angry,
sad, or even very happy. Because emotional appeals are directed at feelings
rather than thoughts, they are also sometimes called unreasonable persuasion.
Emotional appeal:
What idiot would not support video monitoring of students?
Balanced statement:
The evidence that video monitoring works and is reasonable in cost should
convince people to support installing it in schools.
R13
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Read the model on this page and then do the activities that follow.
MODEL
Summary of Proposal
I propose that the city put up a stoplight at Park and Oak to help regulate
traffic and make our streets safer.
Need
The corner of Park Avenue and Oak Street is one of the most dangerous
places in town. In the past six months, two pedestrians and a cyclist have
been hit by cars at that intersection. Because there isn't a traffic signal at
the intersection, drivers aren't always sure about who has the right of
way. Because of the confusion, drivers sometimes don't pay enough
attention to people in the crosswalks. Another reason this intersection is
so dangerous is that it is on the edge of town. As cars are coming off the
highway, they sometimes don't see the change in speed limit and go
faster than the posted 25 miles per hour.
Proposed Solution
There is good evidence that a traffic light would help solve these problems.
Before the city installed a traffic light at the corner of Main and Elm, a 12year-old girl was killed there. Since the light went up two years ago, there
hasn't been a single accident at that intersection. How could anyone in
his or her right mind not realize that a traffic light is the solution to this
problem?
The chief of police, Gerald McCourt, agrees: "I just don't understand why the
city has to wait until people are seriously injured or killed to do something
about the traffic situation. It's been shown time and again that when traffic
lights go up, accidents go down. Putting up a traffic light is a low-cost
solution. And a single light can preserve the most precious thing in the
world—the life of a human being."
In conclusion, I urge the City Council to vote to install a traffic light at Park
and Oak. The light would make the right of way clear. It would also force
drivers to slow down and pay attention to what is going on around them.
Either the city installs this traffic light or we'll all end up in the hospital.
1. List the evidence—facts, statistics, and expert opinions—that the writer uses to
support her statements.
2. The sentence beginning "How could anyone in his or her right mind ..." is an
emotional appeal. Rewrite the sentence to make the appeal more reasonable.
3. Find another example of unsound reasoning. Rewrite it to make a logical
statement.
R14
Functional Reading
Often, to make decisions and solve problems in life, you will need to use consumer,
public, or workplace documents. The applications, technical directions,
schedules, product information, and public notices you will read require some
special strategies. By becoming familiar with the features and elements of these
documents, you will be better able to use them to make informed choices. Look
at each example as you read the strategies.
Product Information: Warranty
Strategies for Reading
A Notice the title stating the type of warranty and the product for which it applies.
B Read the section on the types of services the manufacturer will carry out and
the length of time they will be available.
C Read the conditions under which the company is not responsible for repair of
the product.
D Check the list of requirements you must supply in order to obtain warranty
service.
E Use the contact information, such as the manufacturer's phone number and
address, to find out where the product can be repaired.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Reread the warranty and explain the following:
1. For how many days after the purchase is labor free?
2. What conditions are not covered by the warranty?
3. How long does the warranty cover accessories?
4. What do you need to provide to prove that you bought the product within the
warranty period?
R15
Technical Directions
Strategies for Reading
A Notice headings or rules that separate one section from another.
B Read the directions all the way through at least once.
C Look for numbers or letters that give the steps in sequence.
D Watch for warnings, notes, or other page references with more information.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Reread the microwave instructions and explain how to solve the following problems.
1. The clock needs to be reset after a power outage.
2. The clock was incorrectly set at 14:30.
3. The power level needs to be set for defrosting.
4. A program needs to be canceled while the food in the microwave is cooking.
---see sample
R16
Workplace Document
Strategies for Reading
A Read the letterhead to find out the name of the company sending the letter.
B Notice the address and salutation to find out the receiver's name.
C Check the first paragraph to find out the overall purpose of the letter.
D Look for details in the body of the letter that will explain what the letter writer
wants you to do.
E Notice who signed the letter, so you know how to address your reply.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Reread the letter and answer the questions.
1. Who is this letter from?
2. What is the purpose of the letter?
3. What does the letter tell the yearbook staff to do?
---see sample
R17
Public Notice
Strategies for Reading
A Read the title, which often states the purpose of the notice.
B Read the introduction, if there is one, to find out the focus of the notice and
whom it should concern.
C Read the body of the notice for instructions, announcements, and general
information.
D Check the source of the notice to find contact information.
E Look for special features that may provide additional or related information.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Reread the notice and explain the following.
1. Whom this notice is for
2. What the notice asks readers to do
3. What will happen to people who do not follow the library's rules for Internet use
4. How the notice defines "netiquette"
---see sample
R18
Train Schedule
Strategies for Reading
A Scan the title to learn what the schedule covers.
B Study row labels, such as station names, to determine the category of
information in each row.
C Look at column headings, which are train numbers in this schedule, to
determine the category of information in each column.
D Look down columns and rows to find specific information.
E Notice any graphics or symbols that help you interpret the schedule.
---see sample
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Reread the schedule and answer the questions.
1. Where do the trains on this schedule go?
2. Which days does this schedule cover?
3. List two stations that train 306 skips.
4. If you board train 316 at Grant St., what will be its next stop?
5. If you missed the 6:26 at Fort Peck, what time is the next train you could take?
FUNCTIONAL READING REVIEW: COMPARE AND CONTRAST
1. Compare the train schedule and the public notice. What features do they share?
How are they different?
2. Compare the warranty on page R15 and the technical directions on page R16.
Both of these types of documents are often included with a product. How are
these documents different?
R19
Vocabulary Handbook
1 Context Clues
One way to figure out the meaning of a word you don't know is by using context
clues. The context of a word is made up of the punctuation marks, words,
sentences, and paragraphs that surround it.
1.1 General Context Sometimes you need to infer the meaning of an unfamiliar
word by reading all the information in the sentence or paragraph.
Kevin set out the broom, a dustpan, dusting rag, vacuum cleaner, and three trash bags before
beginning the monumental task of cleaning his room.
1.2 Definition Clue Often a difficult word will be followed by a definition of its
meaning. Commas, dashes, or other punctuation marks can signal a definition.
Sometimes the explorers encountered leads—open channels of water—and were forced to wait until
the ice formed before going on.
1.3 Restatement Clues Sometimes a writer restates a word or term in easier
language. Commas, dashes, or other punctuation can signal restatement clues,
as can expressions such as that is, in other words, and or.
The boy put together a hand-collated set of trading cards; in other words, he put together a set of
trading cards by hand.
1.4 Example Clues Sometimes a writer suggests the meanings of words with one
or two examples.
The cabin had several annoyances, including a leak in the roof, mildew in the shower, and a family
of mice.
1.5 Comparison Clues Sometimes a word's meaning is suggested by a
comparison to something similar. Like and as are words that signal comparison
clues.
The twins barreled through the living room like a tornado.
1.6 Contrast Clues Sometimes writers point out differences between things or
ideas. Contrast clues are signaled by words like although, but, however, unlike,
and in contrast to.
The student was usually bold, but he became hesitant when he had to present a report to the class.
1.7 Idiom and Slang An idiom is an expression whose overall meaning is different
from the meanings of the individual words. Slang is informal language
containing made-up words and ordinary words used to mean something
different from their meaning in formal English. Use context clues to figure out
the meaning of idioms and slang.
The mosquitoes drove us crazy on our hike through the woods. (idiom)
That's a really cool backpack that you are wearing. (slang)
TIP Be sure to provide appropriate context for words when you write. One way to
verify a word's meaning is to use one of the context-clue strategies in your
sentence. For example, use restatement or definition clues in a sentence where
understanding a word's precise meaning is important.
For more about context clues, see page 301; idioms and slang, see page 83.
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2 Word Parts
If you know roots, base words, and affixes, you can figure out the meanings of
many new words.
2.1 Base Words A base word is a complete word that can stand alone. Other
words or word parts can be added to base words to form new words.
2.2 Roots Many English words contain roots that come from older languages, such
as Latin, Greek, or Old English. A root is a word part that conveys the core
meaning 01 a word. Knowing the meaning of a word's root can help you
determine the word's meaning.
root
meanings
example
alt
high
altitude
vert
to turn
divert
grad
step, degree
graduate
2.3 Prefixes A prefix is a word part that appears at the beginning of a root or base
word to form a new word. A prefix usually changes the meaning of a root or a
base word.
prefix
meanings
example
ex-
out, from
export
in-
in, into, not
incite
pre-
before
preface
pro-
forward, favoring
propose
re-
again, back
rebound
un-
not, opposite
unhappy
2.4 Suffixes A suffix is a word part that appears at the end of a root or base word to
form a new word. Some suffixes do not change word meaning.
These suffixes are
added to nouns to change the number
added to verbs to change the tense
added to adjectives to change the degree of comparison
added to adverbs to show how
suffix
meanings
-s, -es
to change the number of a noun
example
snack + -s,
snacks
-ed, -ing
to change verb tense
walk + -ed,
walked
walk + -ing, walking
-er, -est
to change the degree of comparison
in modifiers
wild + -er,
wilder
wild + -est,
wildest
Other suffixes are added to a root or base word to change the word's meaning.
These suffixes can also be used to change the word's part of speech.
suffix
meanings
example
noun -age
action or process
pilgrim + -age, pilgrimage
adjective -able
ability
remark + -able, remarkable
verb -ize
to make
public + -ize, publicize
To find the meaning of an unfamiliar word, divide the word into parts. Think about
the meaning of the prefix, the suffix, and the root or base word. Use what you
know to figure out the meaning of the word. Then check to see if the word
makes sense in context.
For more about prefixes and suffixes, see page 394.
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3 Word Origins
3.1 Development of the English Language During the past 2,000 years or so,
English has developed from a language spoken by a few Germanic tribes into a
language that is more widely spoken and written than any other in the world.
Some experts, in fact, call today's English the first truly global language. Its
most valuable characteristic is its ability to change and grow, adopting new
words as the need arises. The history of the English language can be divided
into three main periods.
Old English About the year A.D. 449, Germanic people who lived on the European
continent along the North Sea began a series of invasions into Britain. At that
time, Britain was inhabited by the Celts, whose native language was Gaelic.
Over a period of years, the raiders conquered and settled in Britain. The
conquerors, known today as the Anglo- Saxons, prospered in Britain. In time,
Britain became "Engla land," and the Anglo-Saxon languages evolved into
"Englisc," or what modern scholars call Old English.
Old English was very different from the English we speak today. It was harsher in
sound, had no silent letters, and was written phonetically. Few examples of Old
English remain in our current English vocabulary. Those that do exist, however,
are common words for people, places, things, and actions.
man (mann)
wife (wif)
child (cild)
house (hus)
meat (mete)
drink (drincan)
sleep (shipan)
live (libban)
fight (feohtan)
In the sixth and seventh centuries, missionaries from Rome and other Christian
cities arrived in England, bringing with them their knowledge of religion and
ancient languages. Among the most influential
figures was St. Augustine, who helped convert thousands of Anglo-Saxons,
including a king, to Christianity. As the Anglo-Saxons accepted this faith, they
also accepted words from Latin and Greek.
Latin
Greek
candle
alphabet
cup
angel
priest
box
noon
demon
scripture
school
During the 790s, Viking invaders from Denmark and Norway settled in northeast
England. As a result, Scandinavian words became part of Old English.
sky
knife are
steak
leg
birth
they
skin
seat
window
them
their
Middle English The Norman Conquest brought great changes to England and its
language. In 1066, England was defeated by the Normans, a people from an
area in France. Their leader, William the Conqueror, staged a successful
invasion of England and became the nation's new monarch. With William on the
throne of England, Norman French became the language of the English court,
government business, nobility, and scholars. Eventually, French words were
adopted in everyday vocabulary as well.
The language that evolved is called Middle English. Middle English was not as
harsh-sounding as Old English and borrowed many words and grammatical
conventions from Norman French.
attorney
joint
mallet
baron
jolly
marriage
chivalry
laundry
merchandise
gown
lodge
petty
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Norman French itself borrowed thousands of words from Latin and Greek as well as
from ancient Indian and Semitic languages. Consequently, Middle English also
contained many of these foreign terms.
Latin
Greek
Indian
Semitic
language
circle
ginger
camel
library
hour
jungle
cinnamon
money
lantern
orange
coffee
serpent
leopard
sugar
lion
square
magnet
pepper
syrup
Modern English By the late 15th century, Middle English began to develop into
Modern English. The various pronunciations, word forms, and spellings
common to Middle English were becoming more uniform. One invention that
aided this process was the printing press. Introduced to London in around 1476,
the printing press allowed printers to standardize the spellings of common
English words. As a result, readers and writers of English became accustomed
to following "rules" of spelling and grammar.
During this period, the English vocabulary also continued to grow as new ideas and
discoveries demanded new words. As the English began to colonize and trade
with other areas of the world, they borrowed foreign words. In time, the English
vocabulary grew to include words from diverse languages, such as French,
Dutch, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, and Chinese. Many of these words stayed
the way they were in their original languages.
French
Dutch
Spanish
Italian
ballet
boss
canyon
diva
beret
caboose
rodeo
carnival
mirage
dock
taco
spaghetti
vague
skate
tornado
studio
Portuguese
Chinese
Japanese
Native American
cashew
chow
kamikaze
caribou
mango
ginseng
karaoke
moccasin
jaguar
kung fu
sushi
papoose
yam
kowtow
tsunami
tomahawk
Today, the English language is still changing and absorbing new words. It is
considered the international language of science and technology. It is also
widely used in business and politics.
3.2 Dictionary as a Source of Word Origins When you study a word's history and
origin, you find out when, where, and how the word came to be. A complete
dictionary entry includes each word's history.
tan•gi•ble (tadja-bal) adj. la. Discernible by the touch; palpable. b. Possible to touch.
c. Possible to be treated as fact; real or concrete. 2. Possible to understand or
realize. 3. Law That can be valued monetarily. Mate Lain from Latin langcre. to
t0tich.1
3.3 Word Families Words that have the same root make up a word family and have
related meanings. The charts below show some common Greek and Latin
roots. Notice how the meanings of the example words are related to the
meanings of their roots.
Latin Root: circum, around or about
English:
circumference the boundary line of a circle
circumnavigation the act of moving completely around
circumstance a condition or fact surrounding an event
Greek Root: mon, single or alone
English:
monopoly exclusive control by one group
monologue a speech delivered by one person
monotonous sounded or spoken in a single, unvarying tone
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TIP Once you recognize a root in one English word, you will notice the same root in
other words. Because all these words developed from the same root, they
share a core meaning.
For more about researching word origins, see page 783.
4 Synonyms and Antonyms
When you read, pay attention to the precise words a writer uses.
4.1 Synonyms A synonym is a word that has the same or almost the same
meaning as another word. Read each set of synonyms listed below.
occasionally/sometimes
parcel/package
pledge/vow
satisfy/please
rob/steal
schedule/agenda
You can find synonyms in a thesaurus or dictionary. In a dictionary, synonyms are
often given as part of the definition of a word. Although synonyms have similar
meanings, the words do not necessarily mean exactly the same thing.
4.2 Antonyms An antonym is a word with a meaning opposite of that of another
word. Read each set of antonyms listed below.
accurate/incorrect
similar/different
reveal/conceal
rigid/flexible
fresh/stale
unusual/ordinary
Sometimes an antonym is formed by adding the negative prefix anti-, in-, or un- to a
word as in the chart below.
word
prefix
antonym
climax
anti-
anticlimax
kind
un-
unkind
capable
in-
incapable
TIP Dictionaries of synonyms and antonyms, as well as some thesauri, can help
you find antonyms.
For more about synonyms and antonyms, see page 604.
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5 Connotative and Denotative Meaning
Good writers choose just the right word to communicate specific meaning.
5.1 Denotative Meaning A word's dictionary meaning is called its denotation. For
example, the denotative meaning of the word thin is "having little flesh; spare;
lean:
5.2 Connotative Meaning The images or feelings you connect to a word give it
finer shades of meaning, called connotation. Connotative meaning stretches
beyond a word's most basic dictionary definition. Writers use connotations of
words to communicate positive or negative feelings. Some examples are listed
below.
Positive Connotations
thin
careful
fast
thrifty
young
Negative Connotations
scrawny
cowardly
hasty
cheap
immature
For more information about denotative and connotative meanings, see page 669.
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6 Homonyms, Homophones, and Words with Multiple
Meaning
Homonyms, multiple-meaning words, and homophones can be confusing to readers
and can plague writers.
6.1 Homonyms Words that have the same spelling and pronunciation but different
meanings and (usually) origins are called homonyms. Consider this example:
The boy had to stoop to find his ball under the stoop.
Stoop can mean "a small porch," but an identically spelled word means "to bend
down!' Because the words have different origins, each word has its own
dictionary entry.
6.2 Words with Multiple Meanings Multiple-meaning words are ones that have
acquired additional meanings over time based on the original meaning.
Consider these examples:
Thinking of the horror movie made my skin creep.
I saw my little brother creep around the corner.
These two uses of creep have different meanings, but both of them have developed
from an original meaning. You will find all the meanings of creep listed in one
entry in the dictionary.
6.3 Homophones Words that sound alike but have different meanings and
spellings are called homophones. Consider this example:
Paul heard his mother say on the phone, "I hear you as well as I would if you were here talking to
me."
Homophones don't usually cause problems for readers, but they can be problems
for writers. Many common words with Old English origins (there, their; write,
right) have homophones. Be sure to check your writing for misspelled
homophones.
For more about homonyms and multiple- meaning words, see page 669.
7 Analogies
7.1 Analogy An analogy is a statement that compares two pairs of words. The
relationship between the first pair of words is the same as the relationship
between the second pair of words. In the example below, each pair of words
shows a relationship of an item to a category.
TRACTOR : VEHICLE :: wrench : tool
A tractor is a type of vehicle, just as a wrench is a type of tool.
The sign : stands for "is to:' The sign :: stands for "as:" The analogy is read like this:
"Tractor is to vehicle as wrench is to tool!"
7.2 Types of Analogies Here are some common word relationships.
type of analogy
example
relationship
Part to whole
STAGE: THEATER
is a part of
Synonyms
SWEET : THOUGHTFUL
is similar in meaning
Antonyms
FANTASTIC : AWFUL
is different in meaning
Degree of intensity
SATISFACTORY : EXCELLENT
is less (or more) intense
than
Characteristic to object
ROUGHNESS : SANDPAPER
is a quality of
Item to category
ANT : INSECT
is a type of
For more about analogies, see page 534.
8 Specialized Vocabulary
Professionals who work in fields such as law, science, or sports use their own
technical or specialized vocabulary. Use these strategies to help you figure out
the meanings of specialized vocabulary.
8.1 Use Context Clues Often the surrounding text gives clues that help you infer
the meaning of an unfamiliar term.
8.2 Use Reference Tools Textbooks often define special terms when they are first
introduced. Look for definitions or restatement clues in parentheses. You also
try to find definitions in footnotes, a glossary, or a dictionary. If you need more
information, refer to a specialized reference, such as an encyclopedia, a field
guide, an atlas, a user's manual, a technical dictionary
For more about specialized vocabulary, see page 143.
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9 Decoding Multisyllabic Words
Many words are familiar to you when you speak them or hear them. Sometimes
these same words may be unfamiliar to you when you see them in print. When
you come across a word unfamiliar in print, first try to pronounce it to see if you
might recognize it. Use these syllabication generalizations to help you figure out
a word's pronunciation.
Generalization 1: VCCV
When there are two consonants between two vowels, divide between the two
consonants unless they are a blend or a digraph.
pic/ture
a/brupt
feath/er
Generalization 2: VCCCV
When there are three consonants between two vowels, divide between the blend or
the digraph and the other consonant.
an/gler
mer/chant
tum/bler
Generalization 3: VCCV
When there are two consonants between two vowels, divide between the
consonants, unless they are a blend or a digraph. The first syllable is a closed
syllable, and the vowel is short.
lath/er
ush/er
ten/der
Generalization 4: Common Vowel Clusters
Do not split common vowel clusters, such as long vowel digraphs, r-controlled
vowels, and vowel diphthongs.
par/ty
poi/son
fea/ture
Generalization 5: VCV
When you see a VCV pattern in the middle of a word, divide the word either before
or after the consonant. Divide the word after the consonant if the first vowel
sound is short. Divide the word before the consonant if the first vowel sound is
long.
mod/el
ro/bot cra/zy
Generalization 6: Compound Words
Divide compound words between the individual words.
grape/vine life/guard
Generalization 7: Affixes
When a word includes an affix, divide between the base word and the affix.
re/bound
rest/less
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Spelling Handbook
1 Improving Your Spelling
Good spelling gives your writing a professional look and impresses your audience.
You can improve your spelling by practicing the habits of successful spellers.
The following guidelines and tips should help.
Good Spelling Habits
1. Conquer your personal spelling demons. Keep a list of the words you have
misspelled in your writing.
2. Pronounce words carefully. Pronouncing words correctly can help you spell
them correctly. For example, if you spell helpfully as "helpfly," it might be
because you are mispronouncing the word.
3. Get into the habit of seeing the letters in a word. Some English spellings are
tricky. By looking at new or difficult words letter by letter, you will remember the
spellings more easily.
4. Create memory devices for difficult words. For example:
acquaint (cq)
To get acquainted, I will seek you.
principal (pal)
The principal is my pal.
principle (ple)
Follow this principle, please.
5. Proofread everything you write. Slowly read what you've written, word for
word. You might even try reading a line in reverse order. Otherwise, your eyes
may play tricks on you and let you skip a misspelled word.
Mastering the Spelling of Difficult Words
1. Look at the word and say it one syllable at a time.
2. Look at the letters and say each one.
3. Write the word without looking at it.
4. Check to see whether you spelled the word correctly. If you made a mistake, note exactly what the
mistake was. Then repeat steps 1-3.
Words Ending in a Silent e
Before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel to a word ending in a silent e,
the e is usually dropped.
amaze + -ing = amazing
love + -able = lovable
nerve + -ous = nervous
Exceptions: change + -able = changeable; courage + -ous = courageous
When adding a suffix beginning with a consonant to a word ending in a silent
e, keep the e.
late + -ly = lately
noise + -less = noiseless
state + -ment = statement
Exceptions: true + -ly = truly; argue + -ment = argument
Words Ending in y
Before adding a suffix to a word that ends in y preceded by a consonant,
change the y to i
easy + -est = easiest
crazy + -est = craziest
However, when you add -ing, the y does not change.
worry + -ed = worried
BUT worry + -ing = worrying
When adding a suffix to a word that ends in y preceded by a vowel, the y usually
does not change.
play + -er = player
employ + -ed = employed
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Words Ending in a Consonant
In one-syllable words that end in one consonant preceded by one vowel,
double the final consonant before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel,
such as -ed or -ing. These are sometimes called 1+1+1 words.
dip + -ed = dipped
set + -ing = setting
hop + -ed = hopped
drug + -ist = druggist
The rule does not apply to words of one syllable that end in a consonant preceded
by two vowels.
feel + -ing = feeling
peel + -ed = peeled
reap + -ed = reaped
heat + -ing = heating
In words of more than one syllable, double the final consonant when the word
ends with one consonant preceded by one vowel and when the word is
accented on the last syllable.
be•gin'
per•mit
re•fer'
In the following examples, note that in the new words formed with suffixes, the
accent remains on the same syllable.
be•gin' + -ing = be•gin' ning
permit' + -ed = per•mit' ted
But in the following examples, the accent does not remain on the same syllable;
thus, the final consonant is not doubled.
re•fer + -ence = ref' e•ence
con•fer' + -ence = con' fe•ence
Prefixes and Suffixes
When adding a prefix to a word, do not change the spelling of the base word.
dis- + approve = disapprove
re- + build = rebuild
ir- + regular = irregular
mis- + spell = misspell
When adding -ly to a word ending in I, keep both I's. When adding -ness to a
word ending in n, keep both n's.
careful + -ly carefully
sudden + -ness = suddenness
final + -ly = finally
thin + -ness = thinness
Special Spelling Problems
Only one English word ends in -sede: supersede. Three words end in -ceed:
exceed, proceed, and succeed. All other verbs ending in the sound seed
are spelled with -cede.
concede
precede
recede
secede
In words with ie and ei when the sound is long e (e), the word is spelled ie
except after c.
i before e
thief
relieve
piece
field
grieve
pier
except after c
conceit
perceive
ceiling
receive
receipt
Exceptions: either neither weird leisure seize
When -ion is added to the end of words that contain the syllable -mit, -cede,
or -ceed, change the final letter, or letters (-t, -d, or -de) to -ss-.
transmit + -ion = transmission
secede + -ion = secession
proceed + -ion = procession
Some prefixes, such as ad- (which means "to; toward"), in- ("in; not"), and
com- ("with; together") usually change their final consonant to match the
beginning consonant of a root or base word to which they are added.
ad- + parent = apparent
in- + merse = immerse
com- + laborate = collaborate
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When the letters c and g have a hard sound, they are usually followed by the
vowels a, o, or u, or by any consonant except y. When the letters c and g
have a soft sound, they are usually followed by e, i, or y.
c and g before a, o, u, or a consonant
cause
common
curious
gap
gopher
ghost
c and g before e, i, or y
certain
circumstance
cycle
agile
giant
gyrate
Exceptions: gift, giddy
2 Using the Right Word
Good writers master words that are easy to misuse and misspell. As you read
through the following words, notice how their meanings differ.
all ready, already All ready means "all are ready" or "completely prepared!' Already
means "previously"
The astronauts were all ready to land.
The other team has already started practicing.
bring, take Bring refers to the movement toward or with something. Take refers to
the movement away from something.
I'll bring you a glass of water.
He took five dollars from his sister.
capital, capitol, the Capitol Capital means "excellent," "most serious," or "most
important" It also means "seat of government!' Capitol is a building in which a
state legislature meets. The Capitol is the building in Washington, D.C., in
which the U.S. Congress meets.
Proper nouns begin with capital letters.
Is Madison the capital of Wisconsin?
Protestors rallied at the state capitol.
A subway connects the Senate and the House in the Capitol.
choose, chose Choose is a verb that means "to decide" or "prefer Chose is the
past tense form of choose.
He had to choose between taking art or band.
She chose to write for the school paper.
farther, further Farther refers to distance. Further refers to something additional.
We traveled two hundred miles farther that afternoon.
This idea needs further discussion.
fewer, less Fewer refers to numbers of things that can be counted. Less refers to
amount, degree, or value.
Fewer than ten students camped out.
We made less money this year on the walkathon than we did last year.
good, well Good is always an adjective. Well is usually an adverb that modifies an
action verb. Well can also be an adjective meaning "in good health."
Dana felt good when she finished painting her room.
Angela ran well in yesterday's race. I felt well when I left my house.
hear, here Hear means "to listen to!' Here means "in this place:'
Because of the noisy crowd, we couldn't hear the candidate.
After leaving Italy, my grandparents settled here in Chicago.
its, it's Its is a possessive pronoun. It's is a contraction for it is or it has.
Sanibel Island is known for its beaches. It's great weather for a picnic.
lay, lie Lay is a verb that means "to place." It takes a direct object. Lie is a verb that
means "to be in a certain place!' Lie never takes a direct object.
The carpenter will lay the planks on the bench.
My cat likes to lie under the bed.
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lead, led Lead can be a noun that means "a heavy metal" or a verb that means "to
show the way: Led is the verb's past-tense form.
A plumb is a weight made of lead.
Maria leads the league in home runs.
She led a discussion on ways to help homeless people.
learn, teach Learn means "to gain knowledge." Teach means "to instruct:'
Raul is learning how to play chess.
Alicia is teaching Spanish.
like, as, as if Use as or as if, not like, to introduce a clause.
He walks as if his ankle were sore.
loan, lone Loan refers to "something given for temporary use:' Lone refers to "the
condition of being by oneself, alone."
I gave that shirt to Max as a gift, not a loan.
The lone plant in our yard turned out to be a scraggly weed.
of Use have, not of, in phrases such as could have, should have, and must have.
He could have passed if he had studied for the test.
passed, past Passed is the past tense of pass and means "went by." Past is an
adjective that means "of a former time." Past is also a noun that means "the
time gone by."
We passed through the Grand Tetons during our vacation.
Our past experiences have taught us we can win.
Ebenezer Scrooge is a character who relives his past.
peace, piece Peace means "calm or quiet." Piece means a "section or part of
something"
Music can bring a sense of peace. We cut the pizza into pieces.
quiet, quite Quiet refers to "freedom from noise or disturbance." Quite means "truly"
or "almost completely."
Observers must be quiet during the recording session.
We were quite worried about the results of the test.
set, sit Set means "to place." It takes a direct object. Sit means "to occupy a seat or
a place." It does not take a direct object.
He set the box down outside the shed.
We sit in the last row of the upper balcony at every concert.
their, there, they're Their means "belonging to them." There means "in that place:'
They're is the contraction for "they are."
All the campers returned to their cabins.
I keep my card collection there in those folders.
Because Lisa and Beth run daily, they're on the track team.
to, too, two To means "toward" or "in the direction of." Too means "also" or "very:'
Two is the number 2.
We went to the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.
It was too cold to play baseball.
Two newspapers sent critics to review the play.
whose, who's Whose is the possessive form of who. Who's is a contraction for who
is or who has.
Whose parents will drive us to camp? Who's going to the recycling center?
your, you're Your is the possessive form of you. You're is a contraction for you are.
Please take your places in line.
You're going to the library after school, aren't you?
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1 The Writing Process
The writing process consists of the following four stages: prewriting, drafting,
revising and editing, and publishing. As the graphic shows, these stages are not
steps that you must complete in a set order. Rather, you may return to any step
at any one time in your writing process, using feedback from your readers along
the way.
1.1 Prewriting
In the prewriting stage, you explore your ideas and discover what you want to write
about.
Finding Ideas for Writing
Try one or more of the following techniques to help you find a writing topic.
Personal Techniques
Practice imaging, or trying to remember mainly sensory details about a subject—its look, sound,
feel, taste, and smell.
Complete a knowledge inventory to discover what you already know about a subject.
Browse through magazines, newspapers, and online bulletin boards for ideas.
Start a clip file of articles that you want to save for future reference. Be sure to label each clip
with source information.
Sharing Techniques
With a group, brainstorm a topic by trying to come up with as many ideas as you can without
stopping to critique or examine them.
Interview someone who knows a great deal about your topic.
Writing Techniques
After freewriting on a topic, try looping, or choosing your best idea for more freewriting. Repeat
the loop at least once.
Make a list to help you organize ideas, examine them, or identify areas for further research.
Graphic Techniques
Create a pro-and-con chart to compare the positive and negative aspects of an idea or a course
of action.
Use a cluster map or tree diagram to explore subordinate ideas that relate to your general topic
or central idea.
Determining Your Purpose
Your purpose for writing may be to express yourself, to entertain, to describe, to
explain, to analyze, or to persuade. To clarify it, ask questions like these:
Why did I choose to write about my topic?
What aspects of the topic mean the most to me?
What do I want others to think or feel after they read my writing?
LINK TO LITERATURE One purpose for writing is to inform. For example, Jack
London wrote "The Story of an Eyewitness," page 160, to inform
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people about the disastrous effects of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake.
Identifying Your Audience
Knowing who will read your writing can help you focus your topic and choose
relevant details. As you think about your readers, ask yourself questions like
these:
What does my audience already know about my topic?
What will they be most interested in?
What language is most appropriate for this audience?
1.2 Drafting
In the drafting stage, you put your ideas on paper and allow them to develop and
change as you write.
Two broad approaches in this stage are discovery drafting and planned drafting.
Discovery drafting is a good approach when you are not quite sure what you think
about your subject. You just plunge into your draft and let your feelings and
ideas lead you where they will. After finishing a discovery draft, you may decide
to start another draft, do more prewriting, or revise your first draft.
Planned drafting may work better for research reports, critical reviews, and other
kinds of formal writing. Try making a writing plan or a scratch outline before you
begin drafting. Then, as you write, you can fill in the details.
LINK TO LITERATURE
Some writers plan and outline. Others write in a great flurry, without much previous
planning, as ideas occur to them. Describing the approach she uses to draft
stories like "Raymond's Run" on page 33, Toni Cade Bambara says, "I babble
along, heading I think in one direction, only to discover myself tugged in
another, or sometimes I'm absolutely snatched into an alley."
1.3 Revising, Editing, and Proofreading
The changes you make in your writing during this stage usually fall into three
categories: revising for content, revising for structure, and proofreading to
correct mistakes in mechanics.
Use the questions that follow to assess problems and determine what changes
would improve your work.
Revising for Content
Does my writing have a main idea or central focus? Is my thesis clear?
Have I incorporated adequate detail? Where might I include a telling detail,
revealing statistic, or vivid example?
Is any material unnecessary, irrelevant, or confusing?
Revising for Structure
Is my writing unified? Do all ideas and supporting details pertain to my main
idea or advance my thesis?
Is my writing clear and coherent? Is the flow of sentences and paragraphs
smooth and logical?
Do I need to add transitional words, phrases, or sentences to clarify the
relationships among ideas?
Are my sentences well constructed? What sentences might I combine to
improve the grace and rhythm of my writing?
WRITING TIP Be sure to consider the needs of your audience as you answer the
questions under Revising for Content and Revising for Structure. For example,
before you can determine whether any of your material is unnecessary or
irrelevant, you need to identify what your audience already knows.
Proofreading to Correct Mistakes in Grammar, Usage, and Mechanics When
you are satisfied with your revision, proofread your paper, looking for mistakes
in grammar, usage, and mechanics. You may want
R33
to do this several times, looking for different types of mistakes each time. The
following checklist may help.
Sentence Structure and Agreement
Are there any run-on sentences or sentence fragments?
Do all verbs agree with their subjects?
Do all pronouns agree with their antecedents?
Are verb tenses correct and consistent?
Forms of Words
Do adverbs and adjectives modify the appropriate words?
Are all forms of be and other irregular verbs used correctly?
Are pronouns used correctly?
Are comparative and superlative forms of adjectives correct?
Capitalization, Punctuation, and Spelling
Is any punctuation mark missing or not needed?
Are all words spelled correctly?
Are all proper nouns and all proper adjectives capitalized?
WRITING TIP For help identifying and correcting problems that are listed in the
Proofreading Checklist, see the Grammar Handbook, pages R70—R92.
You might wish to mark changes on your paper by using the proofreading symbols
shown in the chart below.
Proofreading Symbols
---see symbols
1.4 Publishing and Reflecting
Always consider sharing your finished writing with a wider audience. Reflecting on
your writing is another good way to bring closure to a project.
Creative Publishing Ideas
Here are some ideas for publishing and sharing your writing.
Post your writing on an electronic bulletin board or send it to others via email.
Create a multimedia presentation and share it with classmates.
Publish your writing in a school newspaper or literary magazine.
Present your work orally in a report, a speech, a reading, or a dramatic
performance.
Submit your writing to a local newspaper or a magazine that publishes student
writing.
Form a writing exchange group with other students.
WRITING TIP You might work with other students to publish an anthology of class
writing. Then exchange your anthology with another class or another school.
Reading the work of other student writers will help you get ideas for new writing
projects and find ways to improve your work.
Reflecting on Your Writing
Think about your writing process and whether you would like to add what you have
written to your portfolio. You might attach a note in which you answer questions
like these:
What did I learn about myself and my subject through this writing project?
Which parts of the writing process did I most enjoy and which did I least enjoy?
As I wrote, what was my biggest problem? How did I solve it?
What did I learn that I can use the next time I write?
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1.5 Using Peer Response
Peer response consists of the suggestions and comments your peers or classmates
make about your writing.
You can ask a peer reader for help at any point in the writing process. For example,
your
peers can help you develop a topic, narrow your focus, discover confusing
passages, or organize your writing.
Questions for Your Peer Readers You can help your peer readers provide you
with the most useful kinds of feedback by following these guidelines:
Tell readers where you are in the writing process. Are you still trying out ideas,
or have you completed a draft?
Ask questions that will help you get specific information about your writing.
Open-ended questions that require more than yes-or-no answers are more
likely to give you information you can use as you revise.
Give your readers plenty of time to respond thoughtfully to your writing.
Encourage your readers to be honest when they respond to your work. It's OK if
you don't agree with them—you always get to decide which changes to
make.
Tips for Being a Peer Reader
Follow these guidelines when you respond to someone else's work:
Respect the writer's feelings.
Make sure you understand what kind of feedback the writer is looking for, and
then respond accordingly.
Use "I" statements, such as "I like ... ," "I think ... ," or "It would help me if ...."
Remember that your impressions and opinions may not be the same as
someone else's.
WRITING TIP Writers are better able to absorb criticism of their work if they first
receive positive feedback. When you act as a peer reader, try to start your
review by telling something you like about the piece.
The chart below explains different peer- response techniques to use when you are
ready to share your work.
Peer-Response Techniques
Sharing When you are just exploring ideas or when you want to celebrate the completion of a piece
of writing, phrase your question like this.
Will you please read or listen to my writing without criticizing or making suggestions afterward?
Summarizing When you want to know if your main idea or goals are clear, ask these questions.
What do you think I'm saying? What's my main idea or message?
Replying Ask these questions when you want to enrich your writing by adding new ideas.
What are your ideas about my topic? What do you think about what I have said in my piece?
Responding to Specific Features Ask these questions when you want a quick overview of the
strengths and weaknesses of your writing.
Are the ideas supported with enough examples? Did I persuade you? Is the organization clear
enough for you to follow the ideas?
Telling Ask these questions to find out which parts of your writing are affecting readers the way you
want and which parts are confusing.
What did you think or feel as you read my words? Would you show me which passage you were
reading when you had that response?
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2 Building Blocks of Good Writing
Whatever your purpose in writing, you need to capture your readers' interest,
organize your ideas well, and present your thoughts clearly. Giving special
attention to some particular parts of a story or an essay can make your writing
more enjoyable and more effective.
2.1 Introductions
When you flip through a magazine trying to decide which articles to read, the
opening paragraph is often critical. If it does not grab your attention, you are
likely to turn the page.
Kinds of Introductions
Here are some introduction techniques that can capture a reader's interest.
Make a surprising statement.
Provide a description.
Pose a question.
Relate an anecdote.
Address the reader directly.
Begin with a thesis statement.
Make a Surprising Statement Beginning with a startling statement or an
interesting fact can capture your reader's curiosity about the subject, as in the
model below.
MODEL
Imagine something only 15 to 20 inches long dropping down out of the sky at
200 miles an hour! It would be nothing but a blur. And that is what makes
the peregrine falcon such an effective bird of prey.
Provide a Description A vivid description sets a mood and brings a scene to life
for your reader. In the following model, details about heating the air for a hot air
balloon set the tone for a narrative about a balloon ride.
MODEL
Whoosh! The red and yellow flame shot up into the great nylon cone. The
warm air filled the balloon so that the cooler air below held the apparatus
aloft. A soft breeze helped to push the balloon and basket along. The four
passengers hardly noticed the noise or the heat as they stared in awe at
the hilly farmland below.
Ask a Question Beginning with a question can make your reader want to read on
to find out the answer. Note how the introduction that follows invites the reader
to learn more about a great sports achievement.
MODEL
What did St. Louis Cardinal Mark McGwire do in the 1998 baseball season that
no other player had ever done? He hit 70 home runs in a single season,
breaking the previously held record of 61 set by Roger Maris in 1961. Both
McGwire and Chicago Cub Sammy Sosa passed Maris's record during the
season, but it wasn't until the season's end that the home-run race was
won by McGwire.
Relate an Anecdote Beginning with a brief anecdote, or story, can hook readers
and help you make a point in a dramatic way. The anecdote below introduces a
firsthand account of a rescue from a burning apartment building.
MODEL
A red light began blinking. A siren started up slowly but built to a screeching
pitch. Twenty-five sleepy faces appeared a few at a time in the hallway. As
I recall, each of us looked to the left and right almost in unison as if
watching an imaginary tennis match.
R36
Address the Reader Directly Speaking directly to the readers establishes a
friendly, informal tone and involves them in your topic.
MODEL
Find out how to maintain your cardiovascular system while enjoying yourself.
Come to a free demonstration of Fit for Life at the Community Center
Friday night at 7:00 P.M.
Begin with a Thesis Statement A thesis statement expressing a paper's main idea
may be woven into both the beginning and the end of nonfiction writing. The
following example begins with a thesis statement that introduces a research
report.
MODEL
There are many similarities between Mohandas Gandhi and Martin Luther
King, Jr. Both believed in nonviolent resistance to laws they felt were
unfair. Both were leaders who rallied millions behind their causes, and
both leaders met a tragic end.
2.2 Paragraphs
A paragraph is made up of sentences that work together to develop an idea or
accomplish a purpose. Whether or not it contains a topic sentence stating the
main idea, a good paragraph must have unity and coherence.
Unity
A paragraph has unity when all the sentences support and develop one stated or
implied idea. Use the following techniques to create unity in your paragraphs.
Write a Topic Sentence A topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph; all
other sentences in the paragraph provide supporting details. A topic sentence is
often the first sentence in a paragraph. However, it may also appear later in the
paragraph or at the end, to summarize or reinforce the main idea, as shown in
the model that follows.
MODEL
They unite against a common enemy but never quarrel among themselves.
They feel no need to take over territory or conquer new waters. In fact,
they never even fight over food. This ability to live together in total peace
is one of the dolphins' most remarkable qualities.
Relate All Sentences to an Implied Main Idea A paragraph can be unified without
a topic sentence as long as every sentence supports the implied, or unstated,
main idea. In the example below, all the sentences work together to create a
unified impression of baking an apple pie.
MODEL
The chef carefully poured in the mixture of freshly sliced apples, sugar, flour,
salt, cinnamon, and nutmeg. Then she floured her hands again before
adding strips of pastry in crisscrosses across the top. She dotted some
butter all along the top and sprinkled a little more sugar and cinnamon.
Finally she placed the masterpiece in the oven.
Coherence
A paragraph is coherent when all its sentences are related to one another and flow
logically from one to the next. The following techniques will help you write
coherent paragraphs.
Present your ideas in the most logical order.
Use pronouns, synonyms, and repeated words to connect ideas.
Use transitional words and phrases to show the relationships among ideas.
MODEL
According to the English colonist John Smith, Pocahontas saved his life. A
few years later, she was kidnapped by other colonists. While living with
them, she fell in love with John Rolfe, and they were married. Later,
Pocahontas, her husband, and their infant son traveled to England, where
Pocahontas was introduced to the king.
R37
Transitions are words and phrases that show the connections between details.
Clear transitions help show how your ideas relate to each other.
2.3 Transitions
Kinds of Transitions
Transitions can help readers understand several kinds of relationships:
Time or sequence
Spatial order
Degree of importance
Compare and contrast
Cause and effect
Time or Sequence Some transitions help to clarify the sequence of events over
time. When you are telling a story or describing a process, you can connect
ideas with such transitional words as first, second, always, then, next, later,
soon, before, finally, after, earlier, afterward, and tomorrow.
MODEL
The orchestra members were seated. At first, the sounds conflicted with one
another as the players tuned and tested their instruments. Then the
concertmaster stood and played one note on her violin. Next, all the
instruments tuned to that tone so that one great sound on the same pitch filled
the auditorium.
Spatial Order Transitional words and phrases such as in front, behind, next to,
along, nearest, lowest, above, below, underneath, on the left, and in the middle
can help readers visualize a scene.
MODEL
On my mother's dresser you can read the history of our family. On the left, a
picture shows my parents' wedding. The picture in the middle is of my
older brother as a baby, still toothless. The picture on the right shows all
of us children in our fanciest clothes.
Degree of Importance Transitional words such as mainly, strongest, weakest, first,
second, most important, least important, worst, and best may be used to rank
ideas or to show degree of importance.
MODEL
I look for several qualities in a friend. Most important, I like someone who
shares my interests. Second, I want someone who can keep a secret.
Least important, my new friend should get along with all my other friends.
Compare and Contrast Words and phrases such as similarly, likewise, also, like,
as, neither . . . nor, and either . . . or show similarity between details. Words and
phrases such as however, by contrast, yet, but unlike, instead, whereas, and
while show difference.
MODEL
Like the lawyer in "The Bet," Jerry in "A Mother in Mannville" spends much of
his time alone. Both characters experience loneliness. However, as an
orphan, Jerry never chooses to be alone, whereas the lawyer agreed to
his solitary confinement.
WRITING TIP Both but and however may be used to join two independent clauses.
When but is used as a coordinating conjunction, it is preceded by a comma.
When however is used as a conjunctive adverb, it is preceded by a semicolon
and followed by a comma.
Cause and Effect When you are writing about a cause-and-effect relationship, use
transitional words and phrases such as since, because, thus, therefore, so, due
to, for this reason, and as a result to help clarify that relationship.
MODEL
My notebook might look tattered, but I treasure it because Silvio gave it to me.
He was my best friend, and he moved to Texas. Since the notebook is all I
have to remember him by, I will never throw it out.
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2.4 Conclusions
A conclusion should leave readers with a strong final impression. Try any of these
approaches.
Kinds of Conclusions
Here are some effective methods for bringing your writing to a conclusion:
Restate your thesis.
Ask a question.
Make a recommendation.
Make a prediction.
Summarize your information.
Restate Your Thesis A good way to conclude an essay is by restating your thesis,
or main idea, in different words. The conclusion below restates the thesis
introduced on page R37.
MODEL
There can be no doubt that Mohandas Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr., had
much in common. Each was a great leader who struggled to help the
oppressed people of his country.
Ask a Question Try asking a question that sums up what you have said and gives
readers something new to think about. The question below concludes a request
to consider visiting a place of educational entertainment.
MODEL
If you enjoy science experiments and you like puzzles, shouldn't you plan
soon to visit the Science Museum?
Make a Recommendation When you are persuading your audience to take a
position on an issue, you can conclude by recommending a specific course of
action.
MODEL
Shawn, Maria, and Katie are all real children. The next time you see a
homeless person, remember these children and think about what you can
do to help.
Make a Prediction Readers are concerned about matters that may affect them and
therefore are moved by a conclusion that predicts the future.
MODEL
If this state continues to permit landowners to drain wetlands, we will see a
tremendous decline in the number of animals and the variety of wildlife.
Summarize Your Information Summarizing reinforces the writer's main ideas,
leaving a strong, lasting impression. The model below concludes with a
statement that summarizes a literary analysis of the works of Mark Twain.
MODEL
Although Roughing It and "A Fable" are very different in terms of style and
subject matter, in both works Mark Twain uses humor as a way of
criticizing society.
2.5 Elaboration
Elaboration is the process of developing a writing idea by providing specific
supporting details that are relevant and appropriate to the purpose and form of
your writing.
Facts and Statistics A fact is a statement that can be verified, while a statistic is a
fact stated in numbers. Make sure the facts and statistics you supply are from a
reliable, up- to-date source. As in the model below, the facts and statistics you
use should strongly support the statements you make.
MODEL
Female cicadas cut little slits in the bark of twigs on trees and lay their eggs
inside the slits. The eggs hatch after 6 to 10 weeks. When the eggs hatch,
the twigs drop from the trees. Although this might seem threatening to the
host trees, in fact there is little danger.
R39
Sensory Details Details that show how something looks, sounds, tastes, smells, or
feels can enliven a description, making readers feel they are actually
experiencing what you are describing. Which senses does the writer appeal to
in this paragraph?
MODEL
On the second day of the heat wave, the temperature hit a sweltering 106
degrees. Outside, the sun melted the soft tar of newly paved streets.
Inside, people sipped sweet, cool lemonade and hovered around whirring
old fans.
Incidents Describing a brief incident can help to explain or develop an idea. The
writer of the following example includes an incident to help make a point about
safety.
MODEL
Pedestrians, like drivers, should follow certain rules of the road, such as
looking both ways before crossing the street. I learned how dangerous it
can be to break that rule when I was nearly hit by a driver who was
traveling the wrong direction down a one-way street.
Examples An example can help make an abstract or a complex idea concrete or
can provide evidence to clarify a point for readers.
MODEL
Narrative poetry tells a story in poetic form. Like a work of prose fiction, a
narrative poem has a setting, characters, and a plot. For example, "Paul
Revere's Ride" by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow tells the story of the
dramatic events that took place in Massachusetts on April 18, 1775, the
night before the battles of Lexington and Concord.
Quotations Choose quotations that clearly support your points and be sure that
you copy each quotation word for word. Remember always to credit the source.
MODEL
In his short story "The Tell-Tale Heart," Edgar Allan Poe uses bizarre and
frightening details to grip the reader with a sense of horror. "I saw it [the
eye] with perfect distinctness—all a dull blue, with a hideous veil over it
that chilled the very marrow in my bones . . ."
2.6 Using Language Effectively
Effective use of language can help readers to recognize the significance of an
issue, to visualize a scene, or to understand a character. This is true of all
writing, from novels to office memos. Keep these particular points in mind.
Specific Nouns Nouns are specific when they refer to individual or particular
things. If you refer to a city, you are being general. If you refer to Austin, you
are being specific. Specific nouns help readers identify the who, what, and
where of your message.
Specific Verbs Verbs are the most powerful words in sentences. They convey
the action, the movement, and the drama of thoughts and observations. Verbs
such as trudged, skipped, and sauntered provide a more vivid picture of the
action than the verb walked.
Specific Modifiers Use modifiers sparingly, but when you use them, make
them count. Is the building big or towering? Are your poodle's paws small or
petite?
WRITING TIP Knowing synonyms and antonyms can help you choose the best
words when you write. A dictionary of synonyms, also known as a thesaurus,
will provide you with exact word choices.
R40
3 Descriptive Writing
Descriptive writing allows you to paint word pictures about anything and everything
in the world, from events of global importance to the most personal feelings.
Description is an essential part of almost every piece of writing, including
essays, poems, letters, field notes, newspaper reports, and film scripts.
RUBRIC STANDARDS FOR WRITING
A successful description should
have a clear focus and sense of purpose.
use sensory details and precise words to create a vivid image, establish a
mood, or express emotion.
present details in a logical order.
3.1 Key Techniques
Consider Your Goals What do you want to accomplish in writing your description?
Do you want to show why something is important to you? Do you want to make
a person or scene more memorable? Do you want to explain an event?
Identify Your Audience Who will read your description? How familiar are they with
your subject? What background information will they need? Which details will
they find most interesting?
Gather Sensory Details Which sights, smells, tastes, sounds, and textures make
your subject come alive? Which details stick in your mind when you observe or
recall your subject? Which senses does your subject most strongly affect?
MODEL
Davis slouched at the table and gazed out the coffee-shop window, his worn
shirt soaked with perspiration. A fly began buzzing furiously against the
torn window screen, so Davis took aim with a rolled-up newspaper. When
an order of fried eggs and grits was served at the next table, his mouth
watered and his stomach growled.
You can use a chart like the one below to collect sensory details about your subject.
Organize Your Details Details that are presented in a logical order help the reader
form a mental picture of the subject. Descriptive details may be organized
chronologically, spatially, by order of importance, or by order of impression. In
the following model, descriptive details are organized by order of impression.
MODEL
The new teacher's towering height and her icy blue eyes drew our attention
immediately. As she strode firmly to the board, our gaze followed her
nervously. Only when she finally spoke, in a tone that was warm and
friendly, did we begin to relax.
Show, Don't Tell Instead of telling about a subject in a general way, provide details
that enable your readers to share your experience. The following sentence, for
example, just tells and doesn't show: I was proud when the local paper
published my article. The model that follows uses descriptive details to show
how proud the writer felt.
MODEL
I've delivered newspapers since I was eight, but last Thursday, for the first
time, the newspaper printed an article I had written for a contest. I bought
a pad of sticky notes and left messages for my customers: "Check out
page B7. Enjoy the paper today." I thought about signing the article, but I
decided that would be too much.
R41
3.2 Options for Organization
Spatial Order Choose one of these options to show the spatial order of a scene.
MODEL
Thunder's nostrils quivered as he was led into the barn. How would this be as
a place to spend nights from now on? In the stall to the left, the straw
smelled fresh. Beyond that stall, a saddle hung from the rough boards. To
the right of his stall was another from which a mare looked at him
curiously. So far, so good. To the far right, beyond two empty stalls, a cat
lay on its side.
WRITING TIP Use transitions that help the reader picture the relationship among
the objects you describe. Some useful transitions for showing spatial
relationships are behind, below, here, in the distance, on the left, over, and on
top.
Order of Impression Order of impression is how you notice details.
What first catches your attention
What you notice next
What you see after that
What you focus on last
MODEL
As she lost her balance on the slippery pebbles, her first thought was that
she was going to sprain her ankle and be swept away by the surf. Her
heart beat rapidly, but before she knew it, she was sitting in the sand
while the warm surf rolled in, almost covering her. She realized that the
water was not going to reach beyond her shoulders and that she was
safe. Then, suddenly, she felt the tug of the water in the other direction as
the undertow flowed back, sweeping the sand from under her as it went.
As soon as the water had receded, she scrambled to her feet.
WRITING TIP Use transitions that help readers understand the order of the
impressions you are describing. Some useful transitions are after, next, during,
first, before, finally, and then.
Order of Importance You might want to use order of importance as the organizing
structure for your description.
Least Important
More Important
Most Important
MODEL
Jordana tried desperately to remember the details of the accident. She found
it easy to remember unimportant details, like the song that was playing on
the radio when the truck appeared coming toward them. Gradually she
recalled more important information—the ice on the road, the look on the
driver's face as the truck plowed into their car. Most importantly, she
remembered the panic she had felt. She knew it would be a long time
before she forgot that feeling of panic.
WRITING TIP Use transitions that help the reader understand the order of
importance that you attach to the elements of your description. Some useful
transitions are first, second, mainly, more important, less important, and least
important.
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4 Narrative Writing
Narrative writing tells a story. If you write a story from your imagination, it is a
fictional narrative. A true story about actual events is a nonfictional narrative.
Narrative writing can be found in short stories, novels, news articles, and
biographies.
RUBRIC STANDARDS FOR WRITING
A successful narrative should
include descriptive details and dialogue to develop the characters, setting, and
plot
have a clear beginning, middle, and end
have a logical organization with clues and transitions to help the reader
understand the order of events
maintain a consistent tone and point of view
use language that is appropriate for the audience
demonstrate the significance of events or ideas
4.1 Key Techniques
Identify the Main Events What are the most important events in your narrative? Is
each event part of the chain of events needed to tell the story? In a fictional
narrative, this series of events is the story's plot.
MODEL
An electrical storm approaches while two ranchers search for Kid Turner, a
missing ranch hand.
They find his horse and follow its hoof prints up a dry riverbed.
The storm breaks as they find Kid lying helpless with his leg broken.
They carry him to safety just before a flash flood rolls down the riverbed
where he was lying.
Define the Conflict The conflict of a narrative is the problem that the main
character faces. What is the main problem that Jake faces? Is his conflict
external or internal?
MODEL
Jake looked at the dark clouds that hovered overhead. How much time did
they have to find Kid before the storm broke? Judging by the sky, the
storm would break any minute, endangering all the men who were part of
the search. On the other hand, Kid might be seriously hurt. His life
depended on their getting to him as fast as possible.
Depict Characters Vividly What do your characters look like? What do they think
and say? How do they act?
MODEL
Jake had the hard, lined face of a veteran cowhand. His dark, piercing eyes
scanned the countryside from beneath the shadow of his hat brim. He
studied the clouds rolling in from the western horizon, gauging how
severe the coming storm would be.
WRITING TIP Dialogue is an effective way of developing characters in a narrative.
As you write dialogue, choose words that express your characters' personalities
and feelings.
MODEL
"Better find 'im soon," Jake said.
Edna Mae could barely make out the words that were muffled by the wind.
"We'll find him, Jake," was her reply, given with somewhat more confidence
than she felt.
"I'll know the hoof prints of Kid's horse if we ever pick up the frail," Jake
answered.
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4.2 Options for Organization
Option 1: Chronological Order One way to organize a piece of narrative writing is
to arrange the events in chronological order, as shown below.
MODEL
Kid Turner hasn't come back to the ranch in three days. Fearing that he is
hurt, Jake and Edna Mae set out to search for him.
As a thunderstorm approaches, they find his horse and backtrack up a dry
wash.
They find Turner just as the storm breaks. He has a broken leg, so he can't
drag himself out of the dry wash.
They carry him out of the riverbed and find shelter under a rock ledge. As
they watch, a flash flood surges through the riverbed where Kid had been
lying.
WRITING TIP Try hooking your reader's interest by opening a story with an exciting
event or some attention-grabbing dialogue. After your introduction, you may
need to go back in time and relate the incidents that led up to the opening
event.
Option 2: Character Chronological order is the most common way to organize a
narrative. However, you may wish to focus more directly on characters.
Introduce the main character.
Describe the conflict that the character faces.
Relate the events and the changes that the character goes through as a result
of the conflict.
Present the final change or new understanding.
Option 3: Focus on Conflict When the telling of a fictional narrative focuses on a
central conflict, the story's plot may follow the model shown below.
MODEL
The brothers arrive at the school gym long before the rest of the basketball
team. Although the twins are physically identical, their personalities
couldn't be more different. Mark is outgoing and impulsive, while Matt is
thoughtful and shy.
Matt realizes Mark is missing shots on purpose and worries they will lose the
championship.
Matt has a chance at a basketball scholarship if they win the
championship.
Mark needs money to buy a car. He is being paid to lose the game.
Matt and Mark have stood by each other no matter what.
Matt retells a family story in which their grandfather chose honor and integrity
over easy money. The story encourages Mark to play to win.
Option 4: Flashback It is also possible in narrative writing to arrange the order of
events by starting with an event that happened before the beginning of the
story.
Flashback
Begin with a key event that happened before the time in which the story takes
place.
Introduce characters and setting.
Describe the events leading up to the conflict.
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5 Explanatory Writing
Explanatory, or expository, writing informs and explains. For example, you can use
it to explain how to cook spaghetti or to compare two pieces of literature. The
rubric on the left shows you the basics of successful expository writing.
RUBRIC STANDARDS FOR WRITING
Successful explanatory writing should
engage the interest of the reader
state a clear purpose
develop the topic with supporting details
create a visual image for the reader by using precise verbs, nouns, and
adjectives
conclude with a detailed summary linked to the purpose of the composition
5.1 Types of Explanatory Writing
There are many types of explanatory writing. Select the type that presents your
topic most clearly.
Compare and Contrast How are two or more subjects alike? How are they
different?
MODEL
While the domestic honeybee has been bred for good honey production and
gentleness, the Africanized bee is a "wild" bee that is quick-tempered and
uncomfortable around animals and people.
Cause and Effect How does one event cause something else to happen? What are
the results of an action or a condition?
MODEL
If the Africanized bees drive out or breed into domesticated honeybee
colonies, commercial beekeepers in the United States could be forced out
of business.
Problem-Solution How can you identify, state and analyze a problem? How can it
be solved?
MODEL
The best way to protect yourself against the stings of the Africanized bee is to
understand how it behaves.
Analysis/Classification How does something work? How can it be defined? What
are its parts? How can it be classified into categories?
MODEL
The Africanized honeybee is a new insect that has the potential to affect
agriculture, recreation, and the environment.
5.2 Compare and Contrast
Compare-and-contrast writing examines the similarities and differences between
two or more subjects.
RUBRIC STANDARDS FOR WRITING
Successful compare-and-contrast writing should
clearly identify the subjects that are being compared and contrasted.
include specific, relevant details.
be easy to follow, using either feature-by-feature or subject-by-subject
organization.
use transitional words and phrases to signal similarities and differences.
end with a conclusion that summarizes how the subjects are alike and different.
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Options for Organization
Compare-and-contrast writing can be organized in different ways. The diagrams
that follow demonstrate feature-by-feature organization and subject-by-subject
organization.
WRITING TIP: Remember your purpose for comparing and contrasting your
subjects, and support your purpose with expressive language and specific
details.
5.3 Cause and Effect
Cause-and-effect writing explains why something happened, why certain conditions
exist, or what resulted from an action or a condition. You might use cause-andeffect writing to explain a character's actions, the progress of a disease, or the
outcome of a war.
RUBRIC STANDARDS FOR WRITING
Successful cause-and-effect writing should
clearly state the cause-and-effect relationship.
show clear connections between causes and effects.
present causes and effects in a logical order and use transitions effectively.
use facts, examples, and other details to illustrate each cause and effect.
use language and details appropriate to the audience.
Options for Organization
Your organization will depend on your topic and purpose for writing.
If you want to explain the causes of an event, such as the threat of Africanized
bees to commercial beekeeping, you might first state the effect and then
examine its causes.
Option 1: Effect-to-Cause Organization
If your focus is on explaining the effects of an event, such as the appearance of
Africanized bees in the United States, you might first state the cause and then
explain the effects.
Option 2: Cause-to-Effect Organization
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Sometimes you'll want to describe a chain of cause-and-effect relationships to
explore a topic such as the disappearance of tropical rain forests or the
development of home computers.
Option 3: Cause-and-Effect Chain Organization
WRITING TIP: Don't assume that a cause-andeffect relationship exists just
because one event follows another. Look for evidence that the later event could
not have happened if the first event had not caused it.
5.4 Problem—Solution
Problem—solution writing clearly states a problem, analyzes the problem, and
proposes a solution to the problem. It can be used to identify and solve a
conflict between characters, analyze a chemistry experiment, or explain why
the home team keeps losing.
RUBRIC STANDARDS FOR WRITING
Successful problem—solution writing should
identify the problem and help the reader understand the issues involved.
present a workable solution and include details that explain and support it.
conclude by restating the problem.
Options for Organization
Your organization will depend on the goal of your problem—solution piece, your
intended audience, and the specific problem you choose to address. The
organizational methods that follow are effective for different kinds of problem—
solution writing.
Option 1: Simple Problem—Solution
Description of problem and why it needs to be solved
Recommended solution
Explanation of solution
Conclusion
Option 2: Deciding Between Solutions
Description of problem and why it needs to be solved
Solution A
Pros
Cons
Solution B
Pros
Cons
Recommendation
WRITING TIP: Have a classmate read your problem—solution writing. Ask your
peer reader: Is the problem clearly stated? Is the organization easy to follow?
5.5 Analysis/Classification
In writing an analysis, you explain how something works, how it is defined, or what
its parts are. The details you include will depend upon the kind of analysis you
write.
Process Analysis What are the major steps or stages in a process? What
background information does the reader need to know— such as definitions of
terms or a list of needed equipment—to understand the analysis? You might
use process analysis to explain how to program a VCR or prepare for a test.
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Definition Analysis What are the most important characteristics of a subject? You
might use definition analysis to explain a quality such as proficiency, the
characteristics of a sonnet, or the features of a lever.
Parts Analysis What are the parts, groups, or types that make up a subject? Parts
analysis could be used to explain the makeup of an organization or the
anatomy of an insect.
Classification and Division How can one or more items be classified into groups?
For example, you might use classification and division to explain how honey
bees are either drones, workers, or queens.
RUBRIC STANDARDS FOR WRITING
Successful analysis should
hook the readers' attention with a strong introduction.
clearly state the subject and its parts.
use a specific organizing structure to provide a logical flow of information.
use transitions to connect thoughts.
use language and details appropriate to the audience.
Options for Organization
Organize your details in a logical order appropriate to the kind of analysis you're
writing.
Option 1: Process Analysis A process analysis is usually organized
chronologically, with steps or stages in the order they occur.
MODEL
Insect metamorphosis
Many insects grow through a four-step cycle.
Step 1 egg
Step 2 larva
Step 3 pupa
Step 4 adult
Option 2: Definition Analysis You can organize the details in a definition or parts
analysis in order of importance or impression.
MODEL
What is an insect?
An insect is a small animal with an external skeleton, three body segments,
and three pairs of legs.
Feature 1: external skeleton
Feature 2: three body segments
Feature 3: three pairs of legs
Option 3: Parts Analysis The following parts analysis explains the parts of an
insect's body.
MODEL
An insect's body is divided into three main parts.
Part 1: The head includes eyes, mouth, and antennae.
Part 2: The thorax has the legs and wings attached to it.
Part 3: The abdomen contains organs for digesting food, eliminating waste,
and reproducing.
Option 4: Classification/Division The following classification divides things into
groups or categories based on certain characteristics.
MODEL
One way that scientists classify insects is into species that are social insects
and those that are not. The vast majority of insects are not social insects.
The parents get together simply to mate. The female lays her eggs near a
food source and then abandons them. Social insects, on the other hand,
live in organized communities in which members depend on one another.
Individual insects have specific roles within the community. All termites
and ants are social insects. Many bees and some wasps are also social
insects.
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6 Persuasive Writing
Persuasive writing allows you to use the power of language to inform and influence
others. It can take many forms, including speeches, newspaper editorials,
billboards, advertisements, and critical reviews.
RUBRIC STANDARDS FOR WRITING
Successful persuasion should
have a strong introduction
clearly state the issue and the writer's position
present ideas logically
answer opposing viewpoints
end with a strong argument or summary or a call for action
6.1 Key Techniques
State Your Opinion Taking a stand on an issue and clearly stating your opinion are
essential to every piece of persuasive writing.
MODEL
Public tax dollars should continue to fund Green Park Zoo.
Know Your Audience Knowing who will read your writing will help you decide what
information you need to share and what tone you should use to communicate
your message. In the model below, the writer has chosen a formal tone that is
appropriate for a letter to a politician or for a newspaper editorial.
MODEL
In fact, an increase in funding will enable Green Park Zoo to expand its highly
successful habitat program.
Support Your Opinion Using reasons, examples, facts, statistics, and anecdotes
will show your audience why you feel the way you do. Below, the writer uses an
example to support her opinion.
MODEL
The zoo's habitat program concentrates on the conservation of endangered
species, such as orangutans.
Ways to Support Your Argument
Statistics
Facts that are stated in numbers
Examples
Specific instances that explain your point
Observations
Events or situations you yourself have seen
Anecdotes
Brief stories that illustrate your point
Quotations
Direct statements from authorities
Begin and End with a Bang How can you hook your readers and make a lasting
impression? What memorable quotation, anecdote, or statistic will catch their
attention at the beginning or stick in their minds at the end? What strong
summary or call to action can you conclude with?
BEGINNING
Have you ever enjoyed the antics of the orangutans at Green Park Zoo? Have
you learned about the habitat of polar bears by visiting the zoo's polar
bear exhibit? If you want to ensure that this wonderful facility does not
close down, make sure that public funding for the zoo continues.
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CONCLUSION
Many people, old and young alike, have spent countless enjoyable hours at
Green Park Zoo. Not only is it a place for relaxation and fun, it is also an
important scientific laboratory where trained professionals work together
to create educational programs and ensure the survival of endangered
species. Don't let this valuable asset close down. Make sure that public
tax dollars continue to support Green Park Zoo.
6.2 Options for Organization
In persuasive writing, you need to gather information to support your opinions. Here
are some ways you can organize material to convince your audience.
Option 1: Reasons for Your Opinion
MODEL
Opinion:
Public tax dollars should continue to fund Green Park Zoo animals.
Reason 1:
This zoo enables scientists to learn more about the habits and the diseases of
animals.
Reason 2:
The zoo educates city dwellers about nature.
Reason 3:
Most important, the zoo breeds endangered species to protect them from
extinction.
Depending on the purpose and form of your writing, you may want to show the
weaknesses of other opinions as you explain the strength of your own. Two
options for organizing writing that includes more than just your side of the issue
are shown below.
Option 2: Why Your Opinion Is Stronger
Option 3: Why Another Opinion Is Weaker
WRITING TIP: Start a persuasive piece with a question, a surprising fact, or an
anecdote to capture your readers' interest and make them want to keep
reading. The ending of a persuasive piece is often the part that sticks in a
reader's mind. Your conclusion might summarize the two sides of an issue,
restate your position, invite readers to make up their own minds, or call for
some action.
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7 Research Report Writing
In research report writing, you can find answers to questions about a topic you're
interested in. Your writing organizes information from various sources and
presents it to your readers as a unified and coherent whole.
RUBRIC STANDARDS FOR WRITING
An effective research report should
clearly state the purpose of the report in a thesis statement
use evidence and details from a variety of sources to support the thesis.
contain only accurate and relevant information.
document sources correctly.
develop the topic logically and include appropriate transitions.
include a properly formatted works cited list.
7.1 Key Techniques
Formulate Questions Asking thoughtful questions will help you find an interesting,
specific topic. Focus on the who, what, when, where, and why of your topic. If
you were researching Frederick Douglass, you might develop these questions.
MODEL
When did Frederick Douglass live? What were his most important
accomplishments?
What difficulties did he overcome?
Clarify Your Thesis Your thesis statement explains to your readers the question
your report will answer. In the following example, the thesis statement answers
the question "How did Frederick Douglass draw support for the antislavery
movement?"
MODEL
In his writing and lectures Frederick Douglass used compelling tales of his
own experience as a slave to gain support for the antislavery movement.
Support Your Ideas You need to support your ideas with details and facts from
reliable sources. In the following example, the writer supports the claim that
Douglass risked his freedom.
MODEL
Douglass wrote his autobiography at the risk of being arrested as a runaway
slave. According to writer Richard Conniff, Douglass only revealed his
true identity because people doubted his stories about slavery.
Document Your Sources You need to document, or credit, the sources where you
find your information. In the example below, the writer quotes Douglass and
documents the source.
MODEL
Douglass stated that the slaveholders tried "to disgust their slaves with
freedom" so that the slaves would think they were better off in captivity.
(Douglass 85)
LINK TO LITERATURE Your reading can inspire ideas for research topics. For
example, after reading Frederick Douglass's letter to Harriet Tubman on page
765, you may be interested in learning more about him. The research
demonstrated in this part of the Writing Handbook was inspired by Douglass's
statement "Most that I have done and suffered in the service of our cause has
been in public."
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7.2 Finding and Evaluating Sources
Begin your research by looking for information on your topic in books, magazines,
newspapers, and computer databases. In addition to using your library's card or
computer catalog, look up your subject in indexes, such as the Readers' Guide
to Periodical Literature or the New York Times Index. The bibliographies in
books that you find during your research may also help lead to additional
sources. The following checklist will help you evaluate the reliability of the
sources you find.
Checklist for Evaluating Your Sources
Authority
An authoritative resource gives evidence of the author's experience and current
position. An author who has written books and articles, published in respected
sources, is considered to be an authority.
Currency
An authoritative resource clearly shows the date when the document was created or
revised. You can check items in the author's works cited list for more clues on
currency. For historical research, older resources can be appropriate. For
current research, up- to-date resources are important.
Intended audience
Use materials created for serious readers. Such materials have depth of content
and respected authors and publishers.Tabloid newspapers and popular-interest
magazines, while entertaining, are not reliable sources for reports. For
questions about appropriate sources, ask a librarian.
7.3 Making Source Cards
For each source you find, record the bibliographic information on a separate index
card. You will need this information to give credit to the sources you use in your
paper. The following samples show how to make source cards for encyclopedia
entries, magazine articles, and books. You will use the source number on each
card to identify the notes you take during your research.
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7.4 Taking Notes
As you find material that suits the purpose of your report, record each piece of
information on a separate note card. You will probably use all three of the
following note-taking methods. Paraphrase, or restate the passage in your own
words. Start by finding the main idea and rewriting it in your own words. Then
find and list the details that support the idea. As you restate the passage, try to
use simpler language. Remember to note the source of the passage.
Summarize, or rephrase the passage in fewer words. Restate only the main ideas,
using your own words. Leave out details. As a final step, check to make sure
that your summary is accurate and that it does not include unnecessary details.
Quote, or copy word for word, the original text, if you think the author's own words
best clarify a particular point. Use quotation marks to signal the beginning and
end of the quotation.
For more details on making source cards and taking notes, see the Research
Report Workshop on pages 818-825.
7.5 Writing a Thesis Statement
A thesis statement in a research report defines the main idea, or overall purpose, of
your report. A clear one-sentence answer to your main question will result in a
good thesis statement.
Question: How did Frederick Douglass draw support for the antislavery movement
in a way that others could not?
Thesis Statement: Speaking and writing as a former slave, Frederick Douglass
openly criticized racism in the United States and drew support for the
antislavery movement.
7.6 Making an Outline
To organize your report, group your note cards into main ideas and arrange them in
a logical order. With your notes, make a topic outline, beginning with a
shortened version of your thesis statement. Key ideas are listed after Roman
numerals, and subpoints are listed after uppercase letters and Arabic numerals,
as in the following example.
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7.7 Documenting Your Sources
When you quote one of your sources or write in your own words information you
have found in a source, you need to credit that source, using parenthetical
documentation.
Work by One Author
Put the author's last name and the page reference in parentheses: (Douglass 12) If
you mention the author's name in the sentence, put only the page reference in
parentheses: (12)
Work by Two or Three Authors
Put the authors' last names and the page reference in parentheses: (Meier and
Rudwick 146)
Work by More Than Three Authors
Give the first author's last name followed by et al. and the page reference in
parentheses: (Ripley et al. 14)
Work with No Author Given
Give the title (or a shortened version) and the page reference in parentheses:
("Frederick Douglass" 113)
One of Two or More Works by Same Author
Give the author's last name, the title (or a shortened version), and the page
reference in parentheses: (Conniff, "Frederick Douglass" 117)
WRITING TIP Presenting someone else's writing or ideas as your own is
plagiarism. To avoid plagiarism, you need to credit sources as noted in the
chart. However, if a piece of information is common knowledge—available in
several sources—you do not need to credit the source.
PUNCTUATION TIP When only the author and the page number appear in
parentheses, there is no punctuation between the two items.
7.8 Following MLA Manuscript Guidelines
The final copy of your report should follow the Modern Language Association (MLA)
guidelines for manuscript preparation.
The heading in the upper left-hand corner of the first page should include your
name, your teacher's name, the course name, and the date, each on a separate
line.
Below the heading, center the title on the page.
Number all the pages consecutively in the upper right-hand corner, one-half
inch from the top. Also, include your last name before each page number.
Double-space the entire paper.
Except for the margins above the page numbers, leave one-inch margins on all
sides of every page.
Works Cited List
At the end of your research report, you need to include a list of works cited. All
sources that you have cited in your research report need to be listed
alphabetically by the authors' last names. If no author is named in a source, use
the editor's last name or the title of the work. Note the guidelines for spacing
and punctuation on the model list on page R55.
Internet Sources A works cited entry for an Internet source includes the same
kinds of information as one for a print source. It also includes the date you
accessed the information and the electronic address of the source. Some of the
information may be unavailable; include as much as you can. For more
information on how to write works cited entries for Internet sources, see the
MLA guidelines posted on the Internet or access that document through the
McDougal Littell Web site.
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CD-ROMs Entries for CD-ROMs include the publication medium (CD-ROM), the
distributor, and the date of publication. Some of the information may not be
available. Include as much as you can.
---see sample
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8 Technical Writing
Technical writing is a type of writing used for detailed instructions or descriptions of
items or processes in a variety of fields, such as engineering, government,
industry, and science. Technical writing can take the form of bylaws,
instructions for assembling and using an object or tool, and descriptions of how
a tool, machine, or scientific theory works.
8.1 Instructions for Using a Tool
Often in careers or everyday life, an individual will have to use technical writing to
leave detailed instructions for another person.
Instructions include specific steps that guide the reader through a process. Each
step should offer a specific description of how to do one particular task in the
process.
BASICS IN A BOX
A successful set of instructions should include
1. the purpose of the tool
2. a list of necessary equipment and materials
3. numbered steps in the correct order, and clearly explained
4. definitions of unfamiliar terms if necessary
How to Prepare a Hand Sander
A hand sander is used to sand wood or other material to a fine finish. A hand
sander makes the job easier by holding sandpaper or other types of abrasive
paper in a constant flat position.
Materials
hand sander
sandpaper
1. Choose the appropriate type of sandpaper for your job.
2. Lift the flexible rubber flap at one end of the hand sander.
3. Insert the sandpaper in the slot between the flap and the base.
4. Lower the flap. Metal pins in the flap will pierce the sandpaper
to hold it in place.
5. Lift the rubber flap at the other end of the hand sander.
6. Pull the sandpaper tightly and insert it in the slot between the flap and the base.
7. Lower the flap to secure the sandpaper.
8. Rub the hand sander along the wood or other material until you get the finish you
want. Be careful not to rub too hard.
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8.2 Writing Organizational Bylaws
An organizational bylaws document provides a detailed written description of the
rules and regulations that allow formal organizations, governing bodies, and
businesses to function smoothly. Bylaws include basic information from which
an organization sets policies and conducts activities.
BASICS IN A BOX
Complete organizational bylaws should include
1. an opening statement with the organization's name, the type of group, and the
purpose for its existence
2. sections that begin with headings and present information in a clear format
3. statements of the characteristics and operation of the organization
4. rules that cannot be changed or suspended without changing the bylaws
themselves
Central High School Drama Club Bylaws
We, the current members of Central High School Drama Club, create the following
laws for our organization. Our members include actors, scenery designers,
makeup artists, costume designers, lighting and sound specialists, stagehands,
and stage managers.
MISSION STATEMENT: To provide an organization where members of the
dramatic arts program at Central High School heighten awareness about
theater in the school, support each other during shows, and provide
entertainment for the Oakland community.
ACTIVITIES:
Biweekly meetings to talk about concerns and programming
Publicity for upcoming school productions
Performances, including two major drama productions
MEMBERSHIP REQUIREMENTS
To qualify for membership in the Drama Club, a candidate must
be enrolled as a student in Central High School
complete ten hours of participation in a school or community production
To remain a member of the Drama Club, an individual must
actively contribute to the goals of the club
complete a minimum of five hours of production participation each year
OFFICER ELECTION LAWS
Each year the members will vote for a president, vice-president, treasurer, and
secretary.
1. The individuals running for office must be nominated by another Drama Club
member.
2. To be elected, a nominee must receive a majority of the votes.
RULES OF ORDER FOR MEETINGS
1. All meetings will be conducted according to Robert's Rules of Order.
2. A quorum of five members must be present for discussion of business items and
voting.
3. The president will call the meeting to order.
4. The secretary will record, distribute, and manage meeting minutes.
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9 Career Handbook
The ability to write clearly is an important skill in the business world As you prepare
to enter the job market, you will need to know how to research different careers,
fill out job applications, write business letters, and prepare résumés.
9.1 Career Report
Each year, there are jobs that did not exist the year before. How will you find out
about the latest career opportunities? One way is to use the library and the
Internet as research tools. Here is what one eighth-grade student wrote about a
career in which she has an interest— computer animation.
BASICS IN A BOX
A successful career report should
1. include an introductory paragraph that describes the career
2. present information about career training
3. follow a logical pattern of organization, using transitions between ideas
4. use information from multiple sources
5. credit sources of information
6. include a properly formatted Works Cited list
Fantasia 1
Joyce Fantasia
Writing Class 8B
Mrs. Palin
September
Become a Computer Animator
Have you ever wondered who creates the special effects in feature films such as
The Phantom Menace and Titanic or who creates the animation for television
commercials? The answer is professional computer animators. Computer
animation is a growing field that offers many exciting career opportunities.
If you are interested in this field, the first thing to think about is where to get the
training you will need. Computer animation started in the 1970s and 1980s. In
those days, only a few schools offered training programs. Today, however,
hundreds of colleges and universities have programs and courses in computer
animation (Morie). For example, the California Institute of the Arts has programs
both in character animation and experimental animation, and the University of
Washington has a new program that covers the basics ("Growing Demand").
The next thing to think about is what to specialize in. There are
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Fantasia 2
many different specialties, and new ones are developing all the time. Besides being
used in the field of entertainment, computer animation is used in meteorology
and medicine. For example, weather forecasters use computer animation to
track changes in the weather, and doctors use it to study what's happening
inside the human bod y. Pilots us it in training to fly. Computer animation is even
used by architects, lawyers and business executives (Lund 8-10).
Finally, it's important to know what skills you will need to become a computer
animator. The basic skills are the same for all computer animators—to be good
at math and art (Mardis ; Morie).
After you have covered the basics, what you need know depends on the
specialty you choose. For example, I want to be a computer animator in the
field of entertainment. (Since I was little, I've always loved to draw. I even
invented two cartoon characters—Mighty Max and Asteroid Alexandra.) If I
specialize in movies or in television, I might work with storyboards that set up
the outlines of stories. Or I might be in charge of "in-betweening"—making the
drawings that show every move each character makes. There are many
opportunities because the completion of one feature-length film requires
hundreds of people and takes thousands of hours of work (Lund 27).
So if you are creative and a good math student, you might want to join the growing
number of computer anaimators. But be prepared—you'll have to work hard to
become one!
Fantasia 3
Works Cited
"Growing Demand for Computer Animators Spurs a New Program at University of
Washington." Chronicle of 7 ug. 1997: A23.
Lund, Bill. Gettin• Read for a Career as a Corn suter Animator. Mankato:
Capstone, 1998.
Mardis, Lori A. "Career Biographies: 3D Computer Animation." The Ir!tg!-net._
PulorlcDrar . 2 May 1997. U of Michigan School of Information. 25 Aug.
1999 <http://www.ipl.org/teen/pathways/comptech/companim.html>.
Morie, Jacquelyn Ford. "CO Training for the Entertainment Film Industry."
LEES.
Corneuter Gra.hics and A..lications 18.1 (1998). 17 Aug. 1999
<http://wvvw.education.siggraph.org/curriculum/mischmorie.html>.
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9.2 Job Application
When you apply for a job, you may be asked to fill out an application form.
Application forms vary, but most of them ask for similar kinds of information.
BASICS IN A BOX
When completing a job application, you should
1. print all information neatly
2. be sure your answers are accurate and complete
3. write N/A ("not applicable") if a section does not apply to you
4. list schools attended and work experience in order, giving the most recent first
5. include a brief cover letter if you mail the application (see page R62)
air&
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9.3 Résumé
BASICS IN A BOX
A successful résumé should
1. state your purpose or objective
2. describe your qualifications
3. list your previous employment experience
4. describe your education
5. list extracurricular activities and hobbies
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9.4 Business Letter/ Letter of Inquiry
Business letters are more formal than personal letters and require a precise form.
Types of business letters include the letter of inquiry, letter of complaint, cover
letters for résumés, and announcements. The letter of inquiry asks for
information or service from an individual or organization that is in a position to
provide it. Formal letters are printed on white stationery, 81/2 by 11 inches in
size. Margins should be at least one inch wide.
BASICS IN A BOX
A successful business letter will have
1. a heading—showing where the letter comes from and when
2. an inside address—showing to whom the letter is being sent
3. a salutation, or greeting
4. a body, or text
5. a closing
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9.5 Memorandum
A memorandum (or memo) is a type of informal correspondence between
individuals within an office or organization. The memo has a specific format but
does not require a salutation or closing.
BASICS IN A BOX
A successful memorandum should have
1. the word memo or memorandum centered at the top of the page
2. a heading that includes guide words followed by a colon
"To" line—identifies who is receiving the memo
"From" line—indicates who is sending the memo
"Date" line—indicates the full date of the sent memo
"Re" line—indicates the subject of the memo
3. a body or message that is concise
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10 Model Bank
10.1Research Report
BASICS IN A BOX
A successful research report should
1. include a strong introduction and a thesis statement that clearly states the topic
and purpose.
2. use evidence from primary or secondary sources to develop and support ideas.
3. credit sources of information.
4. follow a logical pattern of organization, using transitions between ideas.
5. use information from multiple sources.
6. summarize ideas in the conclusion.
7. include a properly formatted works cited list at the end.
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10.2 Book Review
BASICS IN A BOX
A successful book review should
1. have an introduction that gives the title, author, and some information about the
book.
2. summarize the work without giving away the ending.
3. if the work is fiction, discuss the plot, setting, characters, and theme.
4. explain why you admire or dislike the work.
5. support your reactions with details from the work.
6. conclude with a strong statement of your opinion or a recommendation.
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10.3 Short Story
BASICS IN A BOX
A successful short story should
1. have a strong beginning and ending.
2. use the elements of character, setting, and plot to create a convincing world.
3. use vivid sensory language, concrete details, and dialogue to create believable
characters and setting.
4. develop a main conflict.
5. present a clear sequence of events.
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Short Story at a Glance
Introduction
Sets the stage by
introducing the characters
describing the setting
Body
Develops the plot by introducing the conflict
telling a sequence of events
developing characters through words and actions
building suspense toward a climax
Conclusion
Finishes the story by
resolving the conflict
telling the last event
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Grammar Handbook
1 Quick Reference: Parts of Speech
Noun
Names a person, place, thing, idea, quality, or action.
Pandora, Greece, boat, freedom, joy, sailing
Pronoun
Takes the place of a noun or another pronoun.
Personal
Refers to the one speaking, spoken to, or spoken about.
I, me, my, mine, we, us, our, ours, you your, yours, she, he, it, her, him, hers, his,
its, they, them, their, theirs
Reflexive
Follows a verb or preposition and refers to a preceding noun or pronoun.
myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves
Intensive
Emphasizes a noun or another pronoun.
(Same as reflexives)
Demonstrative
Points to specific persons or things.
this, that, these, those
Interrogative
Signals questions.
who, whom, whose, which, what
Indefinite
Refers to person(s) or thing(s) not specifically mentioned.
both, all, most, many, anyone, everybody, several, none, some
Relative
Introduces subordinate clauses and relates them to words in the main clause.
who, whom, whose, which, that
Verb
Expresses action, condition, or state of being.
Action
Tells what the subject does or did, physically or mentally.
run, reaches, listened, consider, decides, dreamt
Linking
Connects subjects to that which identifies or describes them.
am, is, are, was, were, sound, taste, appear, feel, become, remain, seem
Auxiliary
Precedes and introduces main verbs.
be, have, do, can, could, will, would, may, might
Adjective
Modifies nouns or pronouns.
strong women, two epics, enough time
Adverb
Modifies verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
walked out, really funny, far away
Preposition
Relates one word to another (following) word.
at, by, for, from, in, of, on, to, with
Conjunction
Joins words or word groups.
Coordinating
Joins words or word groups used the same way.
and, but, or, for, so, yet, nor
Correlative
Join words or word groups used the same way and are used in pairs.
both ... and, either or, neither ... nor
Subordinating
Joins word groups not used the same way.
although, after, as, before, because, when, if, unless
Interjection
Expresses emotion.
wow, ouch, hurrah
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2 Quick Reference: The Sentence and Its Parts
The diagrams that follow will give you a brief review of the essentials of the
sentence-subjects and predicates-and of some of its parts.
The boy's clothes were ragged and worn.
The complete subject includes all the words that identify the person, place, thing,
or idea that the sentence is about.
The simple subject tells exactly whom or what the sentence is about. It may be
one word or a group of words, but it does not include modifiers.
The complete predicate includes all the words that tell or ask something about the
subject.
The simple predicate, or verb, tells what the subject does or is. It may be one
word or several, but it does not include modifiers.
At the cabin, the woman had given the boy some apples.
A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, its object, and any modifiers of
the object. In this phrase, at is the preposition and the cabin is its object.
subject
Verbs often have more than one part. They may be made up of a main verb, like
given, and one or more auxiliary, or helping verbs, like had.
A is a direct object is a word or group of words that tells who or what receives the
action of the verb in the sentence.
An indirect object is a word or group of words that tells to whom or for whom or to
what or for what about the verb. A sentence can have an indirect object only if it
has a direct object. The indirect object always comes before the direct object in
a sentence.
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3 Quick Reference: Punctuation
End Marks period, question mark, exclamation point
to end sentences
We can start now.
When would you like to leave?
What a fantastic hit!
initials and other abbreviations
Mr. Misenheimer, O. Henry, McDougal Littell Inc., P.M., A.D., lbs., oz., Blvd., Dr.
items in outlines
I. Volcanoes
A. Central-vent
1. Shield
exception: post office abbreviations
NE (Nebraska), NV (Nevada)
Commas
before conjunction in compound sentence
I have never disliked poetry, but now I really love it.
items in a series
She is brave, loyal, and kind.
The slow, easy route is best.
words of address
Maria, how can I help you?
You must do something, soldier.
parenthetical expressions
Well, just suppose that we can't?
Hard workers, as you know, don't quit.
I'm not a quitter, believe me.
introductory phrases and dependent clauses
In the beginning of the day, I feel fresh.
Having finished my chores, I went out.
While she was out, I was here.
nonessential phrases and clauses
Ed Pawn, captain of the chess team, won.
Ed Pawn, who is the captain, won.
The two leading runners, sprinting toward the finish line, finished in a tie.
in dates and addresses
September 21, 2001. Mail it by May 14, 2000, to Hauptman Company, 321 Market
Street, Memphis, Tennessee.
in letter parts
Dear Jim, Sincerely yours,
for clarity or to avoid confusion
By noon, time had run out.
What the minister does, does matter.
While cooking, Jim burned his hand.
Semicolons
in compound sentences that are not joined by coordinators and, etc.
The last shall be first; the first shall be last.
I read the Bible; however, I have not memorized it.
with items in series that contain commas
We invited my sister, Jan; her friend, Don; my uncle Jack; and Mary Dodd.
in compound sentences that contain commas
After I ran out of money, I called my parents; but only my sister was home,
unfortunately.
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Colons
to introduce lists
Correct: We invited the following people: Dana, John, and Will.
before a long quotation
Abraham Lincoln wrote: "Four score and seven years ago, our fathers brought forth
on this continent a new nation...."
after the salutation of a business letter
To Whom It May Concern:
Dear Leonard Atole:
with certain numbers
1:28 P.M., Genesis: 2:5
Dashes
to indicate an abrupt break in thought
I was thinking of my mother—who is arriving tomorrow—just as you walked in.
Parentheses
to enclose less important material
It was so unlike him (John is always on time) that I began to worry.
Hyphens
with a compound adjective before nouns
The not-so-rich taxpayer won't stand for this!
in compounds with all-, ex-, self-, -elect
The ex-firefighter helped rescue him.
Our president-elect is self-conscious.
in compound numbers (to ninety-nine)
Today, I turn twenty-one.
in fractions used as adjectives
My cup is one-third full.
between prefixes and words beginning with capital letters
Which pre-Raphaelite painter do you like best?
It snowed in mid-October.
when dividing words at the end of a line
How could you have any reasonable expec-
tations of getting a new computer?
Apostrophes
to form possessives of nouns and indefinite pronouns
my friend's book, my friends' book,
anyone's guess, somebody else's problem
for omitted letters in numbers/contractions
don't (omitted o); he'd (omitted woul) the class of '99 (omitted 19)
to form plurals of letters and numbers
I had two A's and no 2's on my report card.
Quotation Marks
to set off a speaker's exact words
Sara said, "I'm finally ready." "I'm ready," Sara said, "finally." Did Sara say, "I'm
ready"? Sara said, "I'm ready!"
for titles of stories, short poems, essays, songs, book chapters
I liked Paulsen's "Dirk the Protector" and Roethke's "The Bat."
I like Joplin's "Me and Bobby McGee."
Ellipses
for material omitted from a quotation
"When in the course of human events . . . and to assume among the powers of the
earth. . . ."
Italics
for titles of books, plays, magazines, long poems, operas, films, TV series, names
of ships
Roughing It, Hamlet, Newsweek, The Odyssey, Madame Butterfly, Gone with the
Wind, Seinfeld, U.S.S. Constitution
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People and Titles
Names and initials of people
Gish Jen, J. Frank Dobie
Ttles with names
Professor Holmes, Senator Long
Deities and members of religious groups
Jesus, Allah, the Buddha, Zeus, Baptists, Roman Catholics
Names of ethnic and national groups
Hispanics, Irish, African Americans
Geographical Names
Cities, states, countries, continents
Philadelphia, Kansas, Japan, Europe
Regions, bodies of water, mountains
the South, Lake Baikal, Mount McKinley
Geographic features, parks
Great Basin, Yellowstone National Park
Streets and roads, planets
318 East Sutton Drive, Charles Court, Jupiter, Pluto
Organizations and Events
Companies, organizations, teams
Talbot Toy Company, Boy Scouts of America, St. Louis Cardinals
Buildings, bridges, monuments
Empire State Building, Eads Bridge, Washington Monument
Documents, awards
the Declaration of Independence, Stanley Cup
Special named events
Mardi Gras, World Series
Governmental bodies, historical periods and events
U.S. Senate, House of Representatives, Middle Ages, Vietnam War
Days and months, holidays
Thursday, March, Thanksgiving, Labor Day
Specific cars, boats, trains, planes
Vauxhall, Mississippi Queen, Orient Express, Concorde
Proper Adjectives
Adjectives formed from proper nouns
French cooking, Freudian psychology, Edwardian age, Atlantic coast
First Words and the Pronoun I
The first word in a sentence or quotation
This is it. He said, "Let's go."
Complete sentence in parentheses
(Consult the previous chapter.)
Salutation and closing of letters
Dear Madam, Very truly yours,
First lines of most poetry
Let them be as flowers,
The personal pronoun I
If I could stand alone, stron and free,
I'd rather be a tall, ugly weed.
First, last, and all important words in titles
High Tide in Tucson, "A Loaf of Poetry"
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5 Writing Complete Sentences
5.1 Sentence Fragments A sentence fragment is a group of words that does not
express a complete thought. It may be missing a subject, a predicate, or both. A
sentence fragment makes you wonder What is this about? or What happened?
Missing Subject or Predicate You can correct a sentence fragment by adding the
missing subject or predicate to complete the thought.
INCORRECT: Play an important part in a radio drama. The chug of an oncoming
train. A car engine. Blows frantically.
CORRECT: Sound effects play an important part in a radio drama. The chug of an
oncoming train signals danger. A car engine stalls. The train whistle blows
frantically.
Phrase and Subordinate-Clause Fragments When the fragment is a phrase or a
subordinate clause, you may join the fragment to an existing sentence.
INCORRECT: In a radio drama. The music also stirs the listener's emotions. As the
music speeds up. The tension builds. Suddenly, terror grips the listener.
Because the music has ended abruptly.
CORRECT: In a radio drama the music also stirs the listener's emotions. As the
music speeds up, the tension builds. Suddenly, terror grips the listener,
because the music has ended abruptly.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Correct the sentence fragments that you find in this paragraph.
(1) Like The Hitchhiker, the dramatization of The War of the Worlds was produced
for radio by Orson Welles. (2) Reporting a Martian invasion of the United
States. (3) Broadcast October 30, 1938. (4) An announcer interrupted the
broadcast several times. (5) Said that it was just a play. (6) However, the story
and the acting were so convincing that millions of Americans thought it was a
real news report. (7) Terror struck. (8) Spreading quickly across the country. (9)
Reports of panic-stricken people in the streets. (10) Welles later apologized to
the nation. (11) The radio station also. (12) The Federal Communications
Commission made new regulations after the broadcast. (13) To make sure a
radio drama would never cause such panic again.
5.2 Run-on Sentences A run-on sentence consists of two or more sentences
written incorrectly as one. A run-on sentence occurs because the writer either
used no end mark or used a comma instead of a period to end the first
complete thought. A run-on sentence may confuse readers because it does not
show where one thought ends and the next begins.
WATCH OUT! To correct a run-on sentence, read it to yourself, noticing where you
naturally pause between ideas. The pause usually indicates where you should
place end punctuation.
Forming Separate Sentences One way to correct a run-on sentence is to form two
separate sentences. Use a period or other end punctuation after the first
sentence, and capitalize the first letter of the next sentence.
INCORRECT: In "The Treasure of Lemon Brown" Lemon Brown lived in an
abandoned building he slept on a pile of rags. Homeless people have to live by
their wits they don't have many other defenses against robbery and other
dangers.
CORRECT: In "The Treasure of Lemon Brown" Lemon Brown lived in an
abandoned building. He slept on a pile of rags. Homeless people have to live by
their wits. They don't have many other defenses against robbery and other
dangers.
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Forming Compound Sentences You can also correct a run-on sentence by
rewriting it to form a compound sentence. One way to do this is by using a
comma and a coordinating conjunction.
Never join simple sentences with a comma alone, or a run-on sentence will result.
You need a comma followed by a conjunction such as and, but, or or to hold the
sentences together.
EXAMPLE: Lemon Brown was homeless, but he still had his treasure and his
memories to comfort him.
You may use a semicolon to join two ideas that are closely related.
In addition, you can correct a run-on sentence by using a semicolon and a
conjunctive adverb. Commonly used conjunctive adverbs are however,
therefore, nevertheless, and besides.
INCORRECT: Lemon Brown had an interesting past he had once been a famous
blues singer. Homeless people are often ignored, Greg learned an important
lesson by taking time to get to know Lemon Brown.
CORRECT: Lemon Brown had an interesting past; he had once been a famous
blues singer. Homeless people are often ignored; however, Greg learned an
important lesson by taking time to get to know Lemon Brown.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Rewrite this paragraph, correcting the run-on sentences.
(1) In "The Treasure of Lemon Brown" we learn a little about what it's like to be
homeless, it's not the whole picture. (2) It has been estimated that 250,000 to 3
million homeless people are living in the United States today one-third of these
people are children. (3) In fact, children are the fastest-growing segment of the
homeless population their average age is three years old. (4) Many of these
kids face other problems health is a particularly big concern. (5) In 1999 over
half of the children in New York City's homeless shelters had not received
proper immunizations. (6) Education is another problem, homeless children are
more likely to repeat a grade, and they are more likely to drop out or be placed
in a special education program.
6 Making Subjects and Verbs Agree
6.1 Simple and Compound Subjects A verb must agree in number with its
subject. Number refers to whether a word is singular or plural. When a word
refers to one thing, it is singular. When a word refers to more than one thing, it
is plural.
Agreement with Simple Subjects Use a singular verb with a singular subject.
When the subject is a singular noun, use the singular form of the verb. The presenttense singular form of a regular verb usually ends in -s or -es.
EXAMPLE: In "The Dinner Party" a poisonous snake invades a dining room.
USAGE TIP To find the subject of a sentence, first find the verb. Then ask who or
what performs the action of the verb. Say the subject and the verb together to
see if they agree.
Use a plural verb with a plural subject.
EXAMPLE: The hostess behaves calmly and orders a servant to distract the snake.
These events prove what I have always believed. Women possess as much
self- control as men.
Agreement with Compound Subjects Use a plural verb with a compound subject
whose parts are joined by and, regardless of the number of each part.
EXAMPLE: The woman and the scientist realize that a snake is under the table.
When the parts of a compound subject are
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joined by or or nor, make the verb agree in number with the part that is closer to
it.
EXAMPLE: Neither the guests nor their hostess expects to see a cobra.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Write the correct form of the verb given in parentheses.
1. In "The Dinner Party" the narrator (describes, describe) what happened during a
dinner party in India.
2. A colonial official and his wife (invites, invite) a number of people to dinner.
3. Both the host and the hostess (enjoys, enjoy) the dinner conversation.
4. The guests (discusses, discuss) an interesting topic.
5. Most of the men at the dinner party believe that a woman (tends, tend) to lose
control when faced with a crisis.
6. Is it true that neither the colonel nor the other men at the dinner party (agrees,
agree) with the young girl?
7. However, the hostess (proves, prove) that women also have self-control when
she reacts calmly to the presence of the snake.
6.2 Pronoun Subjects When a pronoun is used as a subject, the verb must agree
with it in number.
Agreement with Personal Pronouns When the subject is a singular personal
pronoun, use a singular verb. When the subject is a plural personal pronoun,
use a plural verb.
Singular pronouns are /, you, he, she, and it. Plural pronouns are we, you, and they.
With I and you, use the plural form of the verb. (However, use the singular form
I am when using the verb "to be.")
EXAMPLE: We know a lot about the Vietnam War. In "Stop the Sun" a young boy
searches for information that history books cannot teach. He tries to find out
what soldiers experienced in Vietnam. As you read the story, you understand
the horror of war. I think the story is very moving.
When he, she, or it is the part of the subject closer to the verb in a compound
subject containing or or nor, use a singular verb. When a pronoun is a part of a
compound subject containing and, use a plural verb.
EXAMPLE: Terry worries about his father. Neither his mother nor he understands
what his father is going through. His mother and he want his father to be happy.
Agreement with Indefinite Pronouns When the subject is a singular indefinite
pronoun, use the singular form of the verb.
The following are singular indefinite pronouns: another, either, nobody, anybody,
everybody, somebody, no one, anyone, everyone, someone, one, nothing,
anything, everything, something, each, and neither.
EXAMPLE: My friends feel sorry for Terry's father. Nobody wants to experience that
kind of pain. Someone knows a man who was a soldier in Vietnam.
When the subject is a plural indefinite pronoun (both, few, many, or several), use
the plural form of the verb.
EXAMPLE: Few imagine that such a thing will ever happen to them. In fact, several
hope to serve in the armed forces.
The indefinite pronouns some, all, any, none, and most can be either singular or
plural. When the pronoun refers to one thing, use a singular verb.
When the pronoun refers to several things, use a plural verb.
EXAMPLE: In class all the students discussed the story. Most think Terry did the
right thing. None believes that Terry made his father's condition worse.
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GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Choose the correct verb form from each pair.
1. Among students of history, some (know, knows) a great deal about the Vietnam
War.
2. All (understand, understands) the importance of this war in American history.
3. Everybody (agree, agrees) that the war had a very divisive effect on American
society.
4. Few (understand, understands) the psychological effects that the war had on
American soldiers.
5. Many (know, knows) someone like Terry's father.
6. In the story Terry and he (talk, talks) about the war.
7. Neither Terry nor he (enjoy, enjoys) the conversation; however, he and Terry
(seem, seems) to have grown closer because of their talk.
8. I have read many accounts of the war; most (deal, deals) with military strategies.
9. None (convey, conveys) the impact that this war had on people's minds.
6.3 Common Agreement Problems Several other situations can cause problems
in subject-verb agreement.
Interrupting Words and Phrases Be sure the verb agrees with its subject when
words or phrases come between them.
Sometimes one or more words come between the subject and the verb. These
interrupting words do not affect the number of the subject. The subject of a verb
is never found in a prepositional phrase or in an appositive, which may follow
the subject and come before the verb.
EXAMPLE: This excerpt, which is full of vivid imagery, describes Lewis and Clark's
expedition. Meriwether Lewis, President Thomas Jefferson's private secretary,
leads the exploration of the Louisiana Territory.
Phrases beginning with including, as well as, along with, such as, and in addition to
are not part of the subject.
EXAMPLE: This story, along with other articles I have read about the expedition,
fascinates me. Adventures, such as the one described here, excite and intrigue
me.
Inverted Sentences When the subject comes after the verb, be sure the verb
agrees with the subject in number.
A sentence in which the subject follows the verb is called an inverted sentence.
Questions are usually in inverted form, as are sentences beginning with here,
there, and where. (For example, Where are the explorers? There is a storm
coming.)
EXAMPLE: Much has changed since Lewis and Clark's expedition. There were
huge herds of bison that once roamed the Plains. Where, in a landscape that
has changed out of recognition, are they now?
Singular Nouns with Plural Forms Be sure to use a singular verb when the
subject is a noun that is singular in meaning but appears to be plural.
Words like mumps, news, and molasses appear to be plural because they end in -s.
However, these words are singular in meaning. Words ending in -ics that refer
to sciences or branches of study (physics, mathematics, genetics, politics) are
also singular.
EXAMPLE: In the early 19th century, news about Native Americans who lived out
west was hard to come by. Likewise Native Americans who lived in the West
were unaware of events back east in the United States. American politics was
not a subject that interested them.
Collective Nouns Use a singular verb when the subject is a collective noun—such
as class, team, crowd, or flock—that refers to a group acting as a unit. Use a
plural verb when the collective noun refers to members of the group acting
individually.
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EXAMPLE: The flock was preening itself on a sandbar. My class discusses whether
Lewis should have fired his gun into its midst.
Nouns of Time, Weight, or Measure Use a singular verb with a subject that
identifies a period of time, a weight, a measure, or a number.
EXAMPLE: It is amazing to think that 28 months was the total amount of time it
took to travel from just above St. Louis to the Pacific Ocean and back. Some
8,000 miles was the total distance covered by the expedition.
Titles Use a singular verb when the subject is the title of a work of art, literature, or
music, even though the title may contain plural words.
EXAMPLE: I wrote a poem about the expedition. My English teacher told me that
"Lewis and Clark" is the best poem he has read all year.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Write the correct form of each verb given in parentheses.
1. The selection from Undaunted Courage (are, is) a fascinating account of Lewis
and Clark's expedition.
2. The writer, Stephen Ambrose, (describe, describes) the strange sights that the
travelers encounter.
3. There (are, is) many descriptions of animals and plants.
4. Lewis, along with Clark and other members of the expedition, (were, was) often
astonished by new sights and sounds.
5. Lewis's objectives, as given to him by President Jefferson, (were, was) to explore
the new territory and to interest the native tribes in trade.
6. The expedition (seems, seem) as if it were quite cut off from contact with people
in the United States.
7. News of events in the United States (was, were) impossible to obtain.
8. How (does, do) you get news when you are so far from home?
9. I read that 55 feet (was, were) the length of the keelboat that they used on the
trip.
10. Our class always (enjoy, enjoys) reading stories of exploration.
7 Using Nouns and Pronouns
7.1 Plural and Possessive Nouns Nouns refer to people, places, things, and
ideas. A noun is plural when it refers to more than one person, place, thing, or
idea. Possessive nouns show who or what owns something.
Plural Nouns Follow these guidelines to form noun plurals.
Nouns
To Form Plural
Examples
Most nouns
add -s
tree—trees
Most nouns that end in s, sh, ch,
x, or z
add -es
dress—dresses
brush—brushes
Most nouns that end in ay, ey, oy,
or uy
add -s
essay—essays
monkey—monkeys
Most nouns that end in a
consonant and y
change yto land
story—stories
duty—duties
add -es
Most nouns that end in o
add -s
photo—photos
patio—patios
cameo—cameos
Some nouns that end in a
consonant and o
add -es
echo--echoes
hero—heroes
veto—vetoes
Most nouns that end in for fe
change fto v, add -es or -s
leaf—leaves
wife—wives but
belief—beliefs
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WATCH OUT! The dictionary usually lists the plural form of a noun if the plural is
formed irregularly or if the plural might be formed in more than one way.
Dictionary listings are especially helpful for nouns that end in o, f, and fe.
Some nouns have the same spelling in both singular and plural: series, trout,
sheep. Some noun plurals are irregular forms that don't follow any rule:
children, teeth.
EXAMPLE: "The Lady, or the Tiger?" is one of those stories that one never forgets.
Part of the story takes place in an ancient arena—a place filled with the echoes
of cheering crowds; a place where destinies are decided and lives are cut
short.
Possessive Nouns Follow these guidelines to form possessive nouns.
Nouns
To Form Possessive
Examples
Singular nouns
add apostrophe and -s
girl—girl's
Plural nouns ending in s
add apostrophe
fields—fields' plays—plays'
Plural nouns not ending in s
add apostrophe and -s
men—men's oxen—oxen's
EXAMPLE: This is a story about a woman's difficult choice between saving and
sacrificing her beloved. In the arena, where men's and women's fate often hung
in the balance, a young man must choose between two doors.
WATCH OUT! Be careful when placing apostrophes in possessive nouns. A
misplaced apostrophe changes the meaning. For example, girl's refers to
possession by one girl, but girls' refers to possession by two or more girls.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Write the correct noun given in parentheses. (1) "The Lady, or the Tiger?" takes
place in a (kings', king's) arena. (2) In many parts of the ancient world, (arena's,
arenas) or (amphitheaters, amphitheaters') were places where violent games
were held. (3) Usually circular or oval in shape, these structures, with their huge
vaults and (gallerys, galleries), could seat thousands. (4) People came to watch
their (heros, heroes) fight. (5) Often (animals', animals) were made to fight each
other as well. (6) These arenas were sometimes frightening places that echoed
with (gladiators', gladiator's) cries. (7) People enjoyed watching terrifying
(brushes, brushs) with death. (8) Often (criminals', criminals) were punished in
these arenas. (9) Sometimes people were sent to die in the arenas for their
(believes, beliefs).
7.2 Pronoun Forms A personal pronoun is a pronoun that can be used in the first,
second, or third person. A personal pronoun has three forms: the subject form,
the object form, and the possessive form.
Subject Pronouns Use the subject form of a pronoun when it is the subject of a
sentence or the subject of a clause. /, you, he, she, it, we, and they are subject
pronouns.
Using the correct pronoun form is seldom a problem when there is just one pronoun
in a sentence. Problems can arise, however, when a noun and a pronoun, or
two pronouns, are used in a compound subject or compound object. To see if
you are using the correct pronoun form, imagine the sentence with only one
pronoun.
EXAMPLE: "War Party" is about a boy on the verge of manhood. His mother and
he are traveling west in a wagon train.
Use the subject form of a pronoun when it is a predicate pronoun following a linking
verb.
You often hear the object form used as a predicate pronoun in casual conversation
(It is her.) For this reason, the subject form may sound awkward to you, though
it is preferred for more formal writing.
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EXAMPLE: There can be no doubt about who took over Bud's upbringing after his
father's death. It was she.
WATCH OUT! To check the form of a predicate pronoun, see if the sentence still
makes sense when the subject and the predicate pronoun are reversed. (It was
she. She was it.)
Object Pronouns Use the object form of a pronoun when it is the object of a verb
or preposition. Me, you, him, her, it, us, and them are object pronouns.
EXAMPLE: Bud's mother helped him assume more responsibility.
Possessive Pronouns Each personal pronoun has its own possessive form. These
forms are shown below.
Subject Pronoun
Possessive Form
I
my, mine
you
your, yours
he
his
she
her, hers
it
its
we
our, ours
they
their, theirs
who
whose
Writers often confuse the possessive pronouns its, your, and their with the
contractions it's, you're, and they're. The words it's, you're, and they're are
called contractions because they are shortened forms of the words it is, you
are, and they are. The apostrophe in each of these contractions stands for the
missing letters.
EXAMPLE: The long journey west took its toll. It's very sad, but when Bud's father
dies, Bud, his mother, and his sister realize that they're on their own.
Personal Pronouns as Subjects When using a personal pronoun as a subject,
make sure to match it with the correct form of the verb to be.
Present Tense
Past Tense
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
I am
we are
I was
we were
you are
you are
you were
you were
she, he, it is
they are
she, he, it was
they were
Note especially that the pronoun you takes the verbs are and were, regardless of
whether it is referring to the singular you or to the plural you.
WATCH OUT! You is and you was are nonstandard forms and should be avoided in
writing and speaking. We was and they was are also forms to be avoided.
INCORRECT: You was late this morning. They was very tired.
CORRECT: You were late this morning. They were very tired.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Write the correct pronoun form given in parentheses.
(1) When the story opens, four or five wagons are turning back, because (they're,
their) drivers can't withstand the hardship of the journey. (2) They are startled
by the sudden openness of the prairie and (it's, its) enormous vistas. (3) Bud's
mother asks (he, him) if he wants to continue traveling. (4) Bud realizes that
there is only one person who can make the decision. It is (him, he). (5) Bud's
father did not know that death awaited (him, he) on the trail. (6) Bud's mother
explains the meaning of the word home to Bud and his sister Jeanie. Jeanie
and (him, he) realize that home is not the place they left but the place they are
seeking. (7) After Bud's mother speaks to the Sioux in (they're their) own
language, people in the wagon train grow suspicious of her.
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(8) However, Bud and (she, her) stand up to the men who are bullying her. (9)
She and (him, he) decide to head off on their own. (10) At the end of the story,
many other families decide to take (they're, their) chances with Bud and his
family.
7.3 Pronoun Antecedents An antecedent is the noun or pronoun to which a
personal pronoun refers. The antecedent usually precedes the pronoun.
Pronoun and Antecedent Agreement A pronoun must agree with its antecedent
in
NUMBER —singular or plural
PERSON —first, second, or third
GENDER —male or female
Use a singular pronoun to refer to a singular antecedent; use a plural pronoun to
refer to a plural antecedent.
Do not allow interrupting words to determine the number of the personal pronoun.
EXAMPLE: Because Squeaky in "Raymond's Run" realizes that the track meet is
the last of the May Day events, she takes her time getting to it.
If the antecedent is a noun that could be either male or female, use he or she (him
or her, his or her) or reword the sentence to avoid the need for a singular
pronoun.
EXAMPLE: Every member of the class had something to say after he or she
finished reading "Raymond's Run."
Be sure that the antecedent of a pronoun is clear.
In most cases, do not use a pronoun to refer to an entire idea or clause. Writing is
much clearer if the exact reference is repeated.
EXAMPLE: The narrator mentions Amsterdam Avenue, Broadway, and 34th Street
when she is describing her life in New York City, but these streets are not
described in detail.
WATCH OUT! To avoid vague pronoun reference, do not use this or that alone to
start a clause. Instead, include a word that clarifies what this or that refers to—
this method, this grouping, that idea.
Indefinite Pronouns as Antecedents When a singular indefinite pronoun is the
antecedent, use he or she (him or her, his or her) or rewrite the sentence to
avoid the need for a singular pronoun.
EXAMPLE: Anybody can appreciate a sport that brings him or her so much
pleasure.
OR
Anybody can appreciate a sport that brings so much pleasure.
Indefinite Pronouns
Singular
another
anybody
anyone
anything
each
either
everybody
everyone
everything
neither
nobody
no one
nothing
one
somebody
someone
something
Plural
both
few
many
several
Singular or Plural
all
any
most
none
some
more
enough
plenty
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Write the correct form given in parentheses.
1. For Squeaky, running was one of her talents, and (they were, it was) a talent that
filled her with pride.
2. On the day of the track meet, parents, children, and Maypole dancers filled the
park, but (they, all these people) seemed crazy to Squeaky.
3. Each person was there to watch an event that interested (them, him or her).
4. No one could celebrate (their, his or her, its) victory until the judges chose the
winner.
5. Every judge had to express (their, his or her, its) opinion.
6. (This, Waiting for the judges' decision) did not bother Squeaky.
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7. Every runner had to wait to see if (they, he or she, it) had won the race.
7.4 Pronoun Usage The form that a pronoun takes is always determined by its
function within its own clause or sentence.
Who and Whom Use who or whoever as the subject of a clause or sentence.
EXAMPLE: If Mr. Misenheimer didn't have an heir, who would take care of his
garden after his death? Whoever visited the garden often wondered what would
happen to it.
WATCH OUT! In the first sentence of the example, who is the subject of the clause
who would take care of his garden after his death. In the second sentence,
whoever is the subject of the sentence.
Use whom as the direct or indirect object of a verb or verbal and as the object of a
preposition.
People often use who for whom when speaking informally. However, in written
English the pronouns should be used correctly.
EXAMPLE: Mr. Misenheimer might have wondered, "To whom should I leave my
garden?" or "Whom should I choose to carry on my work?" or "I will give whom
the garden?"
WATCH OUT! Whom should be used instead of who in each sentence in the
example: To whom—object of a preposition; Whom should—direct object of the
verb should choose; Give whom—indirect object of will give.
In determining the correct pronoun form, ignore interrupters that come between the
subject and the verb.
In the example that follows, who should replace whom because the pronoun is the
subject of the clause "Who ... should inherit the garden?"
EXAMPLE: Who do you think should inherit the garden?
Whose and who's Do not confuse the contraction who's with the possessive
pronoun whose.
EXAMPLE: When you're planning garden layout and design, you must consider
who's going to be seeing the garden. Whose plans are these?
Pronouns with Nouns Determine the correct form of the pronoun in phrases such
as we girls and us boys by saying the sentence without the noun.
EXAMPLE: We gardeners like to think that other people appreciate our work.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Write the correct pronoun given in parentheses.
1. (Whomever, Whoever) enjoys gardening understands how relaxing it can be.
2. When (you're, your) gardening, your troubles become less important.
3. However, there are many for (whom, who) gardening is rather boring.
4. (Whom, Who) among you has ever planted flowers or seeds?
5. (Whom, Who) would like to learn the art of gardening?
6. (Whose, Who's) interested in learning a very ancient art?
7. (We, Us) humans have always enjoyed getting close to the earth.
8. (Whose, Who's) garden is this?
9. (Whomever, Whoever) knows the answer should contact me.
10. (Who, Whom) do you think knows the answer?
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8 Using Verbs Correctly
8.1 Verb Tenses and Forms Verb tense shows the time of an action or a condition.
Writers sometimes cause confusion when they use different verb tenses in
describing actions that occur at the same time.
Consistent Use of Tenses When two or more actions occur at the same time or in
sequence, use the same verb tense to describe the actions.
EXAMPLE: In "Pandora's Box," Pandora pulled the casket from under the bed,
lifted the lid, and watched the horrible things escape.
WATCH OUT! In telling a story, be careful not to shift tenses so often that the
reader has difficulty keeping the sequence of events straight.
A shift in tense is necessary when two events occur at different times or out of
sequence. The tenses of the verbs should clearly indicate that one action
precedes the other.
EXAMPLE: Prometheus was punished because he had stolen fire from heaven.
Although Zeus had punished him, the king of the gods decided to punish
Prometheus's brother. as well.
Tense
Verb Form
Present
walk/walks
Past
walked
Future
will walk
Present perfect
have/has walked
Past perfect
had walked
Future perfect
will/shall have walked
Past Tense and the Past Participle The simple past form of a verb can always
stand alone. Always use the past participles of the following irregular verbs
when these verbs follow helping verbs.
Present Tense
Past Tense
Past Participle
be (is/are)
was/were
(have, had) been
begin
began
(have, had) begun
break
broke
(have, had) broken
bring
brought
(have, had) brought
choose
chose
(have, had) chosen
come
came
(have, had) come
do
did
(have, had) done
drink
drank
(have, had) drunk
eat
ate
(have, had) eaten
fall
fell
(have, had) fallen
freeze
froze
(have, had) frozen
give
gave
(have, had) given
go
went
(have, had) gone
grow
grew
(have, had) grown
lose
lost
(have, had) lost
ride
rode
(have, had) ridden
sing
sang
(have, had) sung
slay
slew
(have, had) slain
swim
swam
(have, had) swum
tear
tore
(have, had) torn
think
thought
(have, had) thought
write
wrote
(have, had) written
EXAMPLE: Hera had given Pandora the gift of curiosity. Although Pandora only
wanted to peek inside the box, when she lifted the lid, evil things broke loose
and could not be brought under control.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Write the correct verb for each sentence.
1. Zeus did not punish Epimetheus as brutally as he (punishes, had punished)
Epimetheus' brother.
2. Instead Zeus (had created, created) another plan and (got, had gotten) the
goddesses to help him.
3. He (begins, began) by ordering Hephaestus to make a woman out of clay; then
he
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summoned the Four Winds to breathe life into the figure.
4. After Hephaestus (finishes, had finished), Zeus (had asked, asked) the
goddesses to give the figure some interesting qualities.
5. Hermes (will present, presented) Pandora to Epimetheus, and they (had married,
married).
6. When Pandora (had opened, opened) the box, the evil spirits (attacked, will
attack) her and (had flown, flew) off to attack the rest of humankind.
8.2 Commonly Confused Verbs The following verb pairs are often confused.
Let and Leave Let means "to allow or permit." Leave means "to depart" or "to allow
something to remain where it is."
EXAMPLE: Let me tell you the tale of Pecos Bill. First, though, you must leave
behind your ideas of what is real.
Lie and Lay Lie means "to rest in a flat position." Lay means "to put or to place."
EXAMPLE: When baby Bill fell off the family wagon, he didn't just lie there and
scream. He met a coyote who carried him off and laid him down in its den.
Sit and Set Sit means "to be in a seated position." Set means "to put or place."
EXAMPLE: Bill just sat in the dirt, not worrying. Bill always seemed to set his
problems on a stump so they'd blow away.
Rise and Raise Rise means "to move upward." Raise means "to move something
upward."
EXAMPLE: I was reading "Pecos Bill" when I saw smoke rise in the distance. I
raised the window and tried to get a better view.
WATCH OUT! If you're uncertain about which verb to use, check to see whether
the verb has an object. The verbs lie, sit, and rise never have objects.
Learn and Teach Learn means "to gain knowledge or skill." Teach means "to help
someone learn."
EXAMPLE: It was strange how quickly Bill learned what the coyotes had to teach
him.
Here are the principal parts of these troublesome verb pairs.
Present Tense
Past Tense
Past Participle
let
let
(have, had) let
leave
left
(have, had) left
lie
lay
(have, had) lain
lay
laid
(have, had) laid
sit
sat
(have, had) sat
set
set
(have, had) set
rise
rose
(have, had ) risen
raise
raised
(have, had) raised
learn
learned
(have, had) learned
teach
taught
(have, had) taught
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Choose the correct verb from each pair of words.
1. Tall tales like "Pecos Bill" (rise, raise) many questions about the real life of
cowboys, those men and boys who herded cattle for a living.
2. The true life of cowboys (lies, lays) hidden from most Americans who have been
misled by novels and movies.
3. However, it's important to (set, sit) people straight and to (learn, teach) them the
truth about history.
4. For example, if you (let, leave) people to their storybook understanding of the Old
West, they'll never know that almost one- fourth of all cowboys were African
American.
5. People should be (learned, taught) that almost another fourth of all cowboys were
Mexican.
6. Today, more than ever, we must (rise, raise) people's awareness about who
helped settle the West.
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9 Using ModifiersEffectively
9.1 Adjectives and Adverbs Use an adjective to modify a noun or a pronoun. Use
an adverb to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
EXAMPLE: In Grand Mothers, Nikki Giovanni remembers her grandmother fondly.
Because her grandmother was such an organized person, Giovanni is
absolutely amazed that her grandmother used to forget her soap.
WATCH OUT! Always determine first which word is being modified. For example, in
the second sentence of the example, amazed is the word being modified; since
amazed is an adjective, the modifier must be an adverb.
Use an adjective after a linking verb to describe the subject.
Remember that in addition to forms of the verb be, the following are linking verbs:
become, seem, appear, look, sound, feel, taste, grow, smell.
EXAMPLE: Giovanni felt sad when she left her grandmother's house after her
grandfather's funeral. Her grandmother looked brave as Giovanni drove away.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Write the correct modifier given in each parentheses.
1. Nikki Giovanni recalls her grandmother's accomplishments (proud, proudly).
2. Her grandmother was a (bravely, brave) woman who fought against segregation.
3. To other people she appeared (courageous, courageously).
4. She seemed (highly, high) organized.
5. She was a (strongly, strong) and determined woman.
6. Giovanni sometimes grew (tiredly, tired) of her grandmother's advice.
7. However, now that her grandmother is gone, she misses her (terribly, terrible).
9.2 Comparisons and Negatives
Comparative and Superlative Adjectives Use the comparative form of an
adjective when comparing two things.
Comparative adjectives are formed by adding -er to short adjectives (fierce—
fiercer) or by using the word more with longer adjectives (unusual—more
unusual).
EXAMPLE: In the story "Otoonah" Otoonah's main challenges were finding food
and shelter; she dealt with the easier one first. Shelter was more difficult to find.
WATCH OUT! When comparing something with everything else of its kind, do not
leave out the word other. (Ilga is taller than any other girl in the class.)
Use the superlative form when comparing three or more things.
Superlatives are formed by adding -est to short adjectives (great—greatest) or by
using the word most with longer adjectives (remarkable—most remarkable).
EXAMPLE: Otoonah proved she was the most successful hunter in her family. She
found the greatest number of animals.
The comparative and superlative forms of some adjectives are irregular.
Adjective
Comparative
Superlative
good
better
best
bad
worse
worst
ill
worse
worst
little
less or lesser
least
much
more
most
many
more
most
Comparative and Superlative Adverbs When comparing two actions, use a
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comparative adverb, formed by adding -er or the word more.
EXAMPLE: When attacking the young hunter, the polar bear moved faster and
more forcefully than the man.
WATCH OUT! Do not use both -er and more or -est and most: His car is faster than
hers. It has the biggest tires I've ever seen.
When comparing more than two actions, use the superlative form of an adverb,
formed by adding -est or the word most.
EXAMPLE: The songs Otoonah sang most enthusiastically were the boastful ones.
Adverb
Comparative
Superlative
hard
harder
hardest
carefully
more carefully
most carefully
Double Negatives To avoid double negatives, use only one negative word in a
clause. Not, no, never, none, and nobody are negatives.
Besides the compounds formed with not and no, the words barely, hardly, and
scarcely also function as negative words.
EXAMPLE: Returning home, Otoonah didn't have any hard feelings toward her
parents. They could hardly believe Otoonah was alive.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Rewrite these sentences, correcting mistakes in modifiers.
1. One hundred years ago, the greater challenge facing Eskimos (or Inuits) like
those in the story "Otoonah" was finding enough food to feed a family during the
harsh winters.
2. Compared to Inuits today, a family like Otoonah's was worst off.
3. Hunting was more hard than it is today.
4. A handmade harpoon couldn't never match the rifle for ease of use and
accuracy.
5. An Inuit using a rifle hunted efficiently, while an Inuit using a harpoon worked
hardest.
6. Also, of the two methods of hunting, using a harpoon is most dangerous.
7. Of the two types of hunters, the one throwing the harpoon is likely to lose his or
her balance and fall into the freezing waters.
9.3 Special Problems with Modifiers Although the following terms are frequently
misused in spoken English, they should be used correctly in written English.
Them and Those Them is always a pronoun and never a modifier of a noun. Those
is a pronoun when it stands alone. It is an adjective when followed by a noun.
EXAMPLE: In "The Other Pioneers" the poet honors those settlers who plowed the
land. He admires them for their strength and courage.
Bad and Badly Always use bad as an adjective, whether before a noun or after a
linking verb. Badly should generally be used to modify an action verb.
EXAMPLE: The settlers wanted so badly to be part of this country, but many times
they felt bad about leaving their homeland.
This, That, These, and Those Whether used as adjectives or pronouns, this and
these refer to people and things that are nearby, and that and those refer to
people and things that are farther away.
EXAMPLE: Reading about the Spanish settlers of Texas, I could tell the poet
admires these hardworking people more than those wealthy enough to live a
life of ease. More people plowed the land in that long-ago time than do in this
day.
The Extra Here and There Avoid the use of here with this or these; also, do not
use there with that and those. Notice the improvement when here and there are
removed from the following sentence:
INCORRECT: This here was a good movie. We hardly breathed as that there
image appeared on the screen.
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CORRECT: This was a good movie. We hardly breathed as that image appeared
on the screen.
Good and Well Good is always an adjective, never an adverb. Use well as either
an adjective or an adverb, depending on the sentence.
When used as an adjective, well usually refers to a person's health. As an adverb,
well modifies an action verb. In the expression "feeling good," good refers to
being happy or pleased.
INCORRECT: When the weather was well the crops grew good. The immigrants felt
well about settling in a land that held so much promise for their children.
CORRECT: When the weather was good, the crops grew well. The immigrants felt
good about settling in a land that held so much promise for their children.
Few and Little, Fewer and Less Few refers to numbers of things that can be
counted; little refers to amounts or quantities. Fewer is used when comparing
numbers of things; less is used when comparing amounts or quantities.
INCORRECT: Early settlers got few help from the government and little
opportunities to rest. Who knows whether immigrants then had less problems
than immigrants now?
CORRECT: Early settlers got little help from the government and few opportunities
to rest. Who knows whether immigrants then had fewer problems than
immigrants now?
Kind and Sort Kind and sort are singular. Use this or that with kind and sort. Kinds
and sorts are plural. Use these or those with kinds and sorts.
INCORRECT: These kind of things irritate me. This sorts of books fascinate me.
CORRECT: This kind of thing irritates me These sorts of books fascinate me.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Write the modifier from each pair that fits the meaning of the sentence.
1. (This, This here) poem, "The Other Pioneers" acknowledges the important role
played by the Spanish in the settlement of Texas.
2. The poem inspired me to do some research to learn more about (these, those)
distant colonial days.
3. I realized that my knowledge of the history of Texas was quite (bad, badly), so I
decided to check out some books at the library.
4. I learned that in the 16th century, the Spanish sent many expeditions north from
Mexico. (Them, Those) expeditions were searching for legendary cities that
were supposedly rich in gold.
5. Although the explorers searched thoroughly, they found (little, few) evidence of
(this, these) kind of wealth.
6. In the 17th century, Spanish missionaries built the first two missions in what
became Texas. Spain based its claim to Texas territory on (those, those there)
missions and on the expeditions of exploration.
7. In 1685 a French explorer named RenéRobert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle,
founded a French settlement on the coast of Texas. However, La Salle's
expedition ended (bad, badly); La Salle was killed and the rest of the settlers
died.
8. The Spanish continued to send expeditions of exploration into Texas. They also
founded more missions and forts. However, (few, little) Spanish settlers moved
into Texas.
9. Mexico broke away from Spain in 1821, and Texas became part of the new
Empire of Mexico. In the 1820s and 30s, many American settlers began moving
into Texas. (This sort, These sorts) of mass migration alarmed the Mexican
government.
10. Now that I have done so much research, I believe that my knowledge of the
history of Texas is quite (good, well).
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10 Phrases and Clauses
10.1 Phrases A phrase is a group of related words that does not have a subject
and a predicate and that functions in a sentence as a single part of speech.
Phrases may appear anywhere in a sentence. If a phrase appears at the
beginning of a sentence, it is called an introductory phrase. Because phrases
can act as a single part of speech, they are classified as prepositional phrases,
appositive phrases, infinitive phrases, participial phrases, and gerund phrases.
Prepositional Phrases When a phrase consists of a preposition, its object, and
any modifiers of the object, it is called a prepositional phrase. Prepositional
phrases that modify nouns or pronouns are adjective phrases. Prepositional
phrases that modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs are adverb phrases.
ADJECTIVE PHRASE: In the excerpt from All But My Life, Gerda Weissmann Klein
tells the story of her long ordeal.
ADVERB PHRASE: She suffered in many Nazi work camps.
Appositive Phrases An appositive phrase is a group of words that identifies or
provides further information about a noun or pronoun that directly precedes the
phrase.
EXAMPLE: Gerda Weissmann Klein, a young Polish girl, lost all her family and
friends in the Holocaust.
Infinitive Phrases An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive (to + a verb) along
with its modifiers and objects. Infinitive phrases can function as nouns,
adjectives, and adverbs.
INFINITIVE PHRASE AS A NOUN (subject of a sentence): To survive became
Klein's aim.
INFINITIVE PHRASE AS A NOUN (object of a sentence): The Nazis tried to
destroy the Jews of Europe.
INFINITIVE PHRASE AS AN ADJECTIVE: The Nazis needed an enemy to
persecute.
INFINITIVE PHRASE AS AN ADVERB: Klein lived to see the destruction of the
Nazis.
Participial Phrases A participial phrase is a group of words that includes a
participle. There are two kinds of participles: the past participle is usually
formed by adding -d or -ed to the present tense; however, the past participles of
irregular verbs do not follow this rule. The present participle is formed by adding
-ing to the present tense of any verb. A participle with its objects and modifiers
is called a participial phrase. Participial phrases act as adjectives, modifying
nouns or pronouns.
EXAMPLE: Having read her autobiography, I can better imagine what life was like
under the Nazis.
Here are examples of the infinitive and participial forms of some regular verbs.
Regular Verbs
Infinitive
Present Participle
Past Participle
(to) call
calling
called
(to) cook
cooking
cooked
(to) jump
jumping
jumped
(to) look
looking
looked
(to) paint
painting
painted
(to) rub
rubbing
rubbed
(to) scrub
scrubbing
scrubbed
(to) search
searching
searched
(to) shout
shouting
shouted
(to) talk
talking
talked
(to) toss
tossing
tossed
(to) walk
walking
walked
(to) wash
washing
washed
WATCH OUT! Errors in parallelism often occur with clauses and phrases as well as
with individual words. Make sure the parts of the clause are parallel.
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Here are examples of the infinitive and participial forms of some irregular verbs.
Infinitive
Present Participle
Past Participle
(to) eat
eating
eaten
(to) fly
flying
flown
(to) give
giving
given
(to) grow
growing
grown
(to) hide
hiding
hidden
(to) ride
riding
ridden
(to) sit
sitting
sat
(to) swim
swimming
swum
(to) tear
tearing
torn
(to) think
thinking
thought
(to) write
writing
written
Gerund Phrases A gerund is a verb form ending in -ing that functions as a noun. A
gerund phrase is a group of words that includes a gerund, its modifiers, and
objects. Because a gerund phrase functions as a noun, it can act as the subject
of a sentence, a direct object, a subject complement, or the object of a
preposition.
GERUND PHRASE AS SUBJECT: Reading about the Holocaust is difficult.
GERUND PHRASE AS DIRECT OBJECT: Many people dislike thinking about the
Holocaust.
GERUND PHRASE AS SUBJECT COMPLEMENT: Our goal is preventing another
Holocaust.
GERUND PHRASE AS OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION: Many people feel
uncomfortable about hearing stories like these.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Identify each underlined phrase as a prepositional phrase, an appositive phrase, an
infinitive phrase, a participial phrase, or a gerund phrase.
(1) After reading the selection by Gerda Weissmann Klein, I wanted to find out more
about the Holocaust. (2) Searching through the library, I came across many
books on the subject. (3) During the Holocaust, the 12-year period when the
Nazis persecuted and murdered Jews and other minorities, millions of people
died. (4) It is astonishing that people throughout Nazi-occupied territory
allowed such crimes to happen. (5) People living near the death camps must
have known that thousands were being murdered. (6) Reading about this
period of history was sometimes a painful experience. (7) However, I wanted to
learn the truth.
10.2 Clauses A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb.
There are two kinds of clauses: independent clauses and subordinate clauses.
Independent and Subordinate Clauses An independent clause can stand alone
as a complete sentence. A subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a
sentence and must be attached to an independent clause to form a complex
sentence. If a subordinate clause is not attached to an independent clause, it is
considered a sentence fragment.
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE: I read "Racing the Great Bear."
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE: After I had finished dinner
COMPLEX SENTENCE: After I had finished dinner, I read "Racing the Great Bear."
Adjective and Adverb Clauses An adjective clause is a subordinate clause used
as an adjective. An adjective clause is usually introduced by the relative
pronoun who, whom, whose, which, or that. An adverb clause is a subordinate
clause that is used as an adverb to modify a verb, an adjective, or another
adverb.
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE: Swift Runner was the name of the boy who saved his
people.
ADVERB CLAUSE: Swift Runner accepted the mission when the chief asked for a
volunteer.
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A subordinate clause acting as an adverb is usually introduced by one of the
following subordinating conjunctions.
Subordinating Conjunctions
after
although
as
because
before
if
since
so
that
than
that
though
unless
until
when
whenever
where
wherever
while
why
Noun Clauses A noun clause is a subordinate clause that is used in a sentence as
a noun. A noun clause may be used as a subject, a direct object, an indirect
object, a predicate noun, or an object of a preposition.
NOUN CLAUSE AS SUBJECT: What Swift Runner discovered was terrible.
NOUN CLAUSE AS DIRECT OBJECT: Swift Runner discovered what was killing
his people.
NOUN CLAUSE AS INDIRECT OBJECT: The chief offered whoever would
volunteer the task of investigating the disappearances.
NOUN CLAUSE AS PREDICATE NOUN: Swift Runner is what we would call a
hero.
NOUN CLAUSE AS OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION: I read of how he had killed the
monster.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Identify each underlined clause as an independent or a subordinate clause. If the
clause is subordinate, identify it as an adjective, adverb, or noun clause.
(1) Some young Seneca men tried to visit the Onondaga people. (2) The people in
the Seneca village grew worried when the young people were never heard
from again. (3) No one could imagine what has happened to them. (4) The
chief, who was very old, called a council meeting. (5) Everyone knew that the
chief was proposing a dangerous mission. (6) Swift Runner took the wampum
when the chief offered it. (7) The Nyagwahe was the monster that had killed the
villagers. (8) Swift Runner realized that the monster was afraid of him. (9) The
boy killed the great bear that had caused so much suffering. (10) Everyone
celebrated Swift Runner's victory.
Parallelism Words or groups of words that have the same function in a sentence
and the same form are said to be parallel. Paired items and items in a series
require a parallel construction.
EXAMPLE: At block parties, the neighbors ate ribs and corn, danced in the streets,
and sang our favorite songs.
In this series of items, each verb serves the same function in the sentence (to
describe what the neighbors are doing) and has the same form, a verb in the
past tense.
When items in a sentence are not parallel, the sentence is awkward. In the following
example, the verb forms are inconsistent.
EXAMPLE: At block parties, the neighbors are eating home-cooked food, danced
till dawn, and sing favorite songs.
To create parallelism, balance nouns with nouns, infinitives with infinitives, and
gerund phrases with gerund phrases. If the words are verbs, each must have
the same tense. Make sure the words also serve the same function in the
sentence.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Revise each sentence below to make the sentence parts parallel.
(1) Jewell Parker Rhodes wrote "Block Party" about her old neighborhood and to
publish a memoir of it. (2) In the story, she mentions many colorful characters,
riding her bike with her sister, and watching the world from her front stoop. (3)
With her friends, Rhodes played hide and seek in the laundry hanging out to
dry, would slide down the banisters in the house, and rode a red tricycle
through the kitchen. (4) A block party is when the street is closed off to traffic,
hydrants were turned on by the fire department, and the neighbors gather for a
picnic. (5) The author went on to
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earn degrees in drama criticism, English, and a third degree in creative writing.
(6) Rhodes now writes novels, nonfiction, and for magazines.
11 The Structure of Sentences
The structure of a sentence is determined by the number and kind of clauses it
contains. Sentences are classified as simple, compound, complex, and
compound-complex.
11.1 Simple Sentences A simple sentence is made up of one independent clause
and no dependent (or subordinate) clauses.
The stone tool was ancient.
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
We did not know its use.
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
A simple sentence may contain a compound subject or a compound verb.
SIMPLE SENTENCE WITH A COMPOUND SUBJECT: Rita and Julie investigated
the stone tool.
SIMPLE SENTENCE WITH A COMPOUND VERB: They read and studied about
ancient people.
11.2 Compound Sentences A compound sentence is made up of two or more
independent clauses joined together. A compound sentence does not contain
any dependent clauses.
INDEPENDENT CLAUSES
Rita studied the tool, and
her assistant took notes.
Independent clauses can be joined with a comma and a coordinating conjunction, a
semicolon, or a conjunctive adverb preceded by a semicolon and followed by a
comma.
COMPOUND SENTENCE WITH A COMMA AND A COORDINATING
CONJUNCTION: Prehistoric people built forts,and they also created burial
mounds.
COMPOUND SENTENCE WITH A SEMICOLON: Prehistoric people built forts, and
they created burial mounds.
COMPOUND SENTENCE WITH A CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB: Prehistoric people
built forts; however, they collapsed over time.
WATCH OUT ! Do not confuse a compound sentence with a simple sentence that
has compound parts.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Identify the subject and verb in each part of the compound sentence; identify the
conjunction or semicolon.
(1) You can pass an ancient mound, and you may not even notice it. (2) Mounds
look natural; they often seem like enormous hills. (3) Once thousands of
mounds existed, but now many are gone. (4) Some of these earthworks were
built thousands of years ago, but others were constructed less than three
hundred years ago. (5) Ancient people built them for burial purposes, or they
used them as fortresses.
11.3 Complex Sentences A complex sentence is made up of one independent
clause and one or more dependent clauses.
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
I would like to be an archaeologist,
although I have never been on an expedition.
DEPENDENT CLAUSE
An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent clause also
has a subject and a predicate, but it cannot stand alone. It is often introduced
by a subordinating conjunction, such as when, if, because, or until.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
In each of the following complex sentences, identify the independent clause and the
dependent clause. Then identify the subordinating conjunction.
(1) Before you know it, your flat television picture may be gone. (2) The image looks
flat
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because it is two-dimensional. (3) The image would look more realistic if it were
three- dimensional. (4) That 3-D image is not far off, since technology is
changing. (5) Televisions will use holograms so that the images look real. (6)
Holograms are available today, although they are not very common. (7) If you
have ever seen a bank card, perhaps you have seen a hologram. (8) You can
see a 3-D picture on the card when you look closely. (9) Unless problems
develop, holographic television should be available in the near future. (10) Until
it is, we will have to depend on today's technology.
11.4 Compound-Complex Sentences A compound-complex sentence is made up
of two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. If you
start with a compound sentence, all you need to do to form a compoundcomplex sentence is add a dependent clause.
COMPOUND SENTENCE:
INDEPENDENT CLAUSES
I would like to be an archaeologist, but I have never visited an ancient site.
COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE:
INDEPENDENT CLAUSES
I would like to be an archaeologist, but I have never visited an ancient site,
although I have had a couple of opportunities.
DEPENDENT CLAUSE
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
In each of the following compound-complex sentences, identify the independent
and the dependent clauses.
(1) Rain had been falling for an hour, and the home football team, which was losing
badly, welcomed the half-time break. (2) Despite the downpour, the band
marched onto the field, and the half-time show began. (3) While the band
played the school anthem, the wind slapped rain in their faces, and the flag
bearers were nearly blown over. (4) Still, the band played on, and the rain
poured down, while the field turned into mud. (5) Finally, the show ended, and
as the band marched off, a tuba player's foot sank into the sloppy field, and he
fell face first into the mud.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE: MIXED REVIEW
Identify each sentence with S for simple, CD for compound, CX for complex, or CC
for compound-complex.
(1) The horse first existed in North America, but it became extinct here about ten
thousand years ago. (2) Then Christopher Columbus brought horses to the
New World in his second voyage. (3) The population of horses increased when
Spanish conquerors brought them to Mexico in the 1500s. (4) In 1519, Hernán
Cortés brought sixteen horses from Cuba and used them in his invasion of the
Aztec Empire. (5) Later Spanish explorers brought more horses to America,
where they were useful in battle and on long expeditions. (6) Because Native
Americans did not have horses, the Spanish had a great advantage in war, and
they defeated the Indians. (7) Without land, many Native Americans had no
means of livelihood, and they were forced to work for the Spanish. (8) Although
these workers cared for the horses, they were not to ride them; however, over
the years the workers learned to train and ride the horses. (9) Some of the
native peoples stole horses from the Spanish and then traded the horses
among their different groups. (10) Before many years had passed, Native
Americans were riding and breeding horses throughout the West.
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12 Correcting Capitalization
12.1 Proper Nouns and Adjectives A common noun names a whole class of
persons, places, things, or ideas. A proper noun names a particular person,
place, thing, or idea. A proper adjective is an adjective formed from a proper
noun. All proper nouns and proper adjectives are capitalized.
Names and Personal Titles Capitalize the name and title of a person.
Also capitalize the initials and abbreviations of titles. Clarissa Harlowe Barton, C H.
Barton, Senator Charles Sumner, and Mr. Dred Scott are capitalized correctly.
EXAMPLE: Russell Freedman's Lincoln: A Photobiography is about the
assassination of President Abraham Lincoln.
WATCH OUT! Do not capitalize personal titles used as common nouns. Do
capitalize a title when it is part of the name. (Did Senator Stephens call you?
The senator spoke to us.)
Capitalize a word referring to a family relationship when it is used as someone's
name (Uncle Al) but not when it is used to identify a person (Jill's uncle).
EXAMPLE: Robert Lincoln was summoned to join the crowd around his father's
bedside.
Languages, Nationalities, Religious Terms Capitalize the names of languages
and nationalities as well as religious names and terms.
Capitalize words referring to languages and nationalities, such as Hindi, Sanskrit,
Afrikaans, Korean, German, and Nigerian. Capitalize religious names and
terms, such as God, Buddha, Bible, and Koran.
EXAMPLE: One newspaper clipping found in Lincoln's wallet quotes the British
reformer John Bright. Bright praised Lincoln. Many others must have prayed for
God to protect Lincoln, whose life was always in danger.
School Subjects Capitalize the name of a specific school course (Biology 1, World
History). Do not capitalize a general reference to a school subject
(mathematics, history, music).
EXAMPLE: After reading Lincoln: A Photobiography, I became very interested in
history. Then I studied the Civil War in U.S. History
Organizations, Institutions Capitalize the important words in the official names of
organizations and institutions (Congress, Duke University).
Do not capitalize words that refer to kinds of organizations or institutions (school,
church, university) or words that refer to specific organizations but are not their
official names (at the university).
EXAMPLE: I've learned that decisions made in the House of Representatives cost
many young soldiers their lives. The government ran the war, but soldiers had
to fight it.
WATCH OUT! Do not capitalize minor words in a proper noun that is made up of
several words. (University of Illinois)
Geographical Names, Events, Time Periods Capitalize geographical names, as
well as the names of events, historical periods and documents, holidays, and
months and days, but not the names of seasons or directions.
WATCH OUT! Do not capitalize a reference that does not use the full name of a
place, event, or a period of history. (We went to Fort McHenry, but the fort was
closed.)
EXAMPLE: The Civil War began at Ft. Sumter in the South on April 12, 1861. By
the time the war ended in the spring of 1865, it had raged across the United
States from Pennsylvania south to the Gulf of Mexico.
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Names
Examples
Continents
North America, Asia
Bodies of water
Atlantic Ocean, Ohio River,
Political units
China, Kentucky, Moscow
Regions
New England, the Midwest
Public areas
Central Park, Civic Plaza
Roads and structures
Main Street, Aswam Dam
Historical events
Battle of Shiloh
Documents
the Constitution
Periods of history
the Renaissance
Holidays
Christmas, Presidents Day
Months and days
June, Tuesday
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Write the correct forms of the words given in parentheses.
1. Lincoln: A Photobiography is about the (president, President) who saved the
nation during the Civil (War, war).
2. Both sides in the (War, war) lost twice as many men to disease as on the
(Battlefield, battlefield).
3. Women served as nurses, set up hospitals, and organized relief for both (Union,
union) and (Confederate, confederate) armies.
4. One such woman, (Clara, Clara) Barton, went on to found the (American Red
Cross, american red cross).
5. Barton also formed a (Bureau, bureau) that
marked soldiers' graves at Andersonville
(Cemetery, cemetery) in (Georgia, georgia).
6. Mary Rice Livermore led much work by the (United States Sanitary Commission,
united states sanitary commission).
12.2 Titles of Created Works Titles follow certain capitalization rules.
Books, Plays, Magazines, Newspapers, Films Capitalize the first word, the last
word, and all other important words in the title of a book, play or musical,
magazine, newspaper, or film. Underline or italicize the title to set it off. (In
printed text, titles are italicized if the surrounding text is set in Roman type. If
the surrounding type is italicized, set the title in Roman.)
Within a title, don't capitalize articles, conjunctions, and prepositions of fewer than
five letters.
EXAMPLE: In "The Bet" a voluntary prisoner reads the works of Shakespeare. I'm
sure that he read The Merchant of Venice while in prison.
Poems, Stories, Articles Capitalize the first word, the last word, and all other
important words in the title of a poem, a story, or an article. Enclose the title in
quotation marks.
EXAMPLE: He also read the works of Lord Byron. Do you think that he came
across the poem "She Walks in Beauty"? Perhaps he read the article called
"Lord Byron and His Poetry."
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Rewrite this paragraph, correcting the punctuation and capitalization of titles.
1. How would you pass the time if you were a prisoner like the lawyer in the story
the bet?
2. I would spend my time reading horror stories and watching videos of monster
movies such as The Monster from the Ocean Floor.
3. If I were the prisoner, I would read old movie magazines such as famous
Monsters of Filmland.
4. Stephen King, author of the horror novels it, pet sematary, and the stand,
supposedly read the magazine as a child.
5. However, I find it hard to believe that someone who wrote a story as scary as the
langoliers was inspired by the movie i was a teenage werewolf.
6. For me, Edgar Allan Poe's poem the raven is much scarier than the movie
destroy all monsters, but the movie is more fun.
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13 Correcting Punctuation
13.1 Compound Sentences Punctuation helps organize longer sentences that
have several clauses.
Commas in Compound Sentences Use a comma before the conjunction that joins
the clauses of a compound sentence.
EXAMPLE: In "The Tell-Tale Heart" the narrator describes his crime, and he also
shows how he gave himself away to the police.
Semicolons in Compound Sentences Use a semicolon between the clauses of a
compound sentence when no conjunction is used. Use a semicolon before, and
a comma after, a conjunctive adverb that joins the clauses of a compound
sentence.
EXAMPLE: The narrator tries to conceal the evidence of his crime; however, he
gives himself away.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Rewrite these sentences, adding commas and semicolons where necessary.
1. Edgar Allan Poe wrote "The Tell-Tale Heart" he also wrote many other stories.
2. In "The Tell-Tale Heart" Poe examined the criminal mind and he also showed the
power of conscience to reveal the truth.
3. The narrator loved the old man however, the old man's eye filled him with horror.
13.2 Elements Set Off in a Sentence Most elements that are not essential to a
sentence are set off by commas.
Introductory Words Use a comma to separate an introductory word from the rest
of the sentence. A single introductory prepositional phrase need not be set off
with a comma.
EXAMPLE: In class we read Harriet Tubman: Conductor on the Underground
Railroad. Clearly, she was an extraordinary woman.
In a complex sentence, a comma follows the introductory subordinate clause.
EXAMPLE: Although they were afraid, Harriet Tubman and the fugitives struggled
toward freedom. Whenever they felt discouraged, Tubman kept them going.
Nouns of Address Use commas to set off a name or noun in direct address.
EXAMPLE: "Believe me, Thomas, we all thank you for the food and lodging."
Appositives Use commas to set off an appositive except when the appositive is
necessary for the meaning of the sentence.
EXAMPLE: That famous guide Harriet Tubman told her exhausted travelers that
Frederick Douglass, a famous escaped slave, had achieved great things once
he gained freedom.
Interrupters Use commas to set off a word that interrupts the flow of a sentence.
EXAMPLE: Harriet Tubman, fortunately, never lost confidence in herself.
When a subordinate clause interrupts the main clause, set it off with commas.
EXAMPLE: Thomas Garrett, because he wanted to help, gave shelter to the
fugitives.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Rewrite these sentences. Add commas where necessary.
1. Tell me Susan who was nicknamed Moses in Harriet Tubman: Conductor on the
Underground Railroad?
2. Jim it was Harriet Tubman the one who led a group of escaping slaves.
3. Born a slave on a plantation in Maryland Tubman became very strong from her
hard work.
4. She avoided capture and finally reached Pennsylvania a free state.
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13.3 Elements in a Series Commas should be used to separate three or more
items in a series and to separate adjectives preceding a noun. Use a comma
after every item except the last in a series of three or more items.
EXAMPLE: In the excerpt from High Tide in Tucson, Barbara Kingsolver shows
how insects, plants, and animals have been attracted to her pond.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Rewrite each sentence, inserting commas where they are needed.
1. Barbara Kingsolver describes the dry dusty, empty landscape around her house.
2. When she builds a pond, she attracts tadpoles water beetles, and dragonflies.
3. Dragonflies hovered dipped their tails and laid eggs.
4. Owls nighthawks, and bats hunt at night.
13.4 Dates and Addresses Punctuation in dates and addresses makes information
easy to understand.
Dates Use a comma between the day of the month and the year. If the date falls in
the middle of a sentence, use another comma after the year.
EXAMPLE: Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, who was born on August 8, 1896, wrote 'A
Mother in Mannville."
Addresses Use a comma between the city and the state in an address. If the city
and state fall in the middle of a sentence, use a comma after the state too.
EXAMPLE: If the narrator had written to Jerry, the return address on her letters
might have been Anchorage, Alaska.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Rewrite the following sentences, correcting the comma errors.
1. The author Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings died on December 14 1953 after having
lived in Florida for 25 years.
2. Previously, she had worked for the Courier- Journal in Louisville Kentucky.
3. Her first Florida residence was in Cross Creek Florida.
13.5 Quotations Quotation marks let readers know exactly who said what.
Incorrectly placed or missing quotation marks lead to misunderstanding.
Quotation Marks Use quotation marks at the beginning and the end of direct
quotations and to set off titles of short works.
EXAMPLE: In class our group chose to analyze Daniel P. Mannix's 'A Running
Brook of Horror." Diego said, "Let's check out the author's use of dialogue."
End Punctuation Place periods inside quotation marks. Place question marks and
exclamation points inside quotation marks if they belong to the quotation; place
them outside if they do not belong to the quotation.
EXAMPLE: Ira asked, "What do you suggest, now Mieko?" Mieko said, "Let's
discuss punctuation."
Divided Quotations Capitalize the first word of the second part of a direct
quotation if it begins a new sentence.
EXAMPLE: "Let's vote on it," said Diego. "There are five of us, so majority rules."
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Rewrite these sentences, correcting the use of quotation marks and correcting
capitalization and punctuation.
1. "There are many different kinds of snakes, my sister said. They're not all the
same."
2. "What are you talking about"? I replied. "I never said they were."
3. "I'm not going to talk to you," she hissed "If you're going to argue with me."
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Grammar Glossary
This glossary contains various terms you need to understand when you use the
Grammar Handbook Used as a reference source, this glossary will help you
explore grammar concepts and how they relate to one another.
Grammar Glossary
This glossary contains various terms you need to understand when you use the
Grammar Handbook. Used as a reference source, this glossary will help you
explore grammar concepts and the ways they relate to one another.
A
Abbreviation An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or word group; it is
often made up of initials. (B.C, A.M., Maj.)
Active voice. See Voice.
Adjective An adjective modifies, or describes, a noun or pronoun. (fine day, poor
me) An adjective answers the questions "How many?" "What kind?" and "Which
one(s)?"
A predicate adjective follows a linking verb and describes the subject. (I am
happy.)
A proper adjective is formed from a proper noun. (Spanish rice)
The comparative form of an adjective compares two things. (more elegant,
stronger)
The superlative form of an adjective compares more than two things. (most
alert,strongest)
Adjective Clause An adjective clause is a subordinate clause that acts as an
adjective. (The man told a story that was very long.)
Adjective phrase. See Phrase.
Adverb An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. (Meiko jumped
quickly.)
The comparative form of an adverb compares two actions. (more slowly,
sooner)
The superlative form of an adverb compares more than two actions. (most
slowly, soonest)
Adverb Clause An adverb clause is a subordinate clause used as an adverb. (We
waited until the sun went down.)
Adverb, conjunctive. See Conjunctive adverb.
Adverb phrase. See Phrase.
Agreement Sentence parts that correspond with one another are said to be in
agreement.
In pronoun-antecedent agreement, a pronoun and the word it refers to are the
same in number, gender, and person. (Bill mailed his application. The
students ate their lunches.)
In subject-verb agreement the subject and verb in a sentence are the same in
number. (I fly home. He flies to Rio.)
Ambiguous reference An ambiguous reference occurs when a pronoun may refer
to more than one word. (Bud asked his brother if he had any mail.)
Antecedent An antecedent is the noun or pronoun to which a pronoun refers.
(Because Juan practiced his backstroke, he improved.)
Appositive An appositive is a noun or phrase that explains one or more words in a
sentence. (Julie, a good student, found algebra simple.)
An essential appositive is needed to make the sense of a sentence complete.
(A comic strip inspired the musical Annie.)
A nonessential appositive is one that adds information to a sentence but is
not necessary to its sense. (O. Henry, a short-story writer, spent time in
prison.)
Article Articles are the special adjectives a, an, and the. (the car, a bug, an apple)
The definite article (the) is used when a noun refers to a specific thing. (the
boat)
An indefinite article indicates that a noun is not unique but one of many of its
kind. (a plate, an apple)
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C
Case A word's form or position in a sentence that indicates its relationship to other
words in the sentence.
Clause A clause is a group of words that contains a verb and its subject. (I
wondered)
An adjective clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a noun or pronoun.
(Hugh bought the sweater that he had admired.)
An adverb clause is a subordinate clause used to modify a verb, an adjective,
or an adverb. (Ring the bell when it is time for class to begin.)
A noun clause is a subordinate clause that is used as a noun. (Whatever you
say interests me.)
An elliptical clause is a clause from which a word or words have been omitted.
(We are not as lucky as they.)
A main (independent) clause can stand by itself as a sentence.
A subordinate (dependent) clause does not express a complete thought and
cannot stand by itself as a sentence.
Collective noun. See Noun.
Comma splice A comma splice is an error caused when two sentences are
separated with a comma instead of an end mark. (The band played a medley of
show tunes, everyone enjoyed the show)
Common noun. See Noun.
Comparative. See Adjective; Adverb.
Complement A complement is a word or group of words that completes the
meaning of a verb. (The kitten finished the milk.) See also Direct object;
Indirect object.
An objective complement is a word or a group of words that follows a direct
object and renames or describes that object. (The parents of the rescued
child declared Gus a hero.)
A subject complement follows a linking verb and renames or describes the
subject. (The coach seemed anxious.) See also Noun (predicate noun);
Adjective (predicate adjective).
Complete predicate The complete predicate of a sentence consists of the main
verb and any words that modify or complete the verb's meaning. (The sun
shimmered in the heat.)
Complete subject The complete subject of a sentence consists of the simple
subject and any words that modify or describe the simple subject. (The vast
canyon lay before us.)
Complex Sentence. See Sentence.
Compound predicate A sentence with two or more predicates is said to have a
compound predicate. (Di buys and sells rings.)
Compound Sentence A compound sentence consists of two or more independent
clauses. (Sue will play, and the rest of us will cheer.)
Compound sentence part A sentence element that consists of two or more
subjects, verbs, objects, or other parts is compound. (Lou and Jay helped.
Laura makes and models scarves. Jill sings opera and popular music.)
Compound subject A sentence with two or more subjects is said to have a
compound subject. (Jim and Bob moved.)
Conjunction A conjunction is a word that links other words or groups of words.
A coordinating conjunction connects related words, groups of words, or
sentences. (and, but, or)
A correlative conjunction is one of a pair of conjunctions that work together to
connect sentence parts. (either . . . or, neither . . . nor)
A subordinating conjunction introduces a subordinate clause. (unless, while,
if )
Conjunctive adverb A conjunctive adverb joins the clauses of a compound
sentence. (however, therefore, besides)
Contraction A contraction is formed by joining two words and substituting an
apostrophe for a letter or letters left out of one of the words. (hasn't)
Coordinating conjunction. See Conjunction.
Correlative conjunction. See Conjunction.
D
Dangling modifier A dangling modifier is one that does not clearly modify any word
in the sentence. (Dashing for the train, the barriers got in the way.)
Demonstrative pronoun. See Pronoun.
Dependent clause. See Clause.
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Direct object A direct object receives the action of a verb. (Sarasak hit the ball.)
Direct quotation. See Quotation.
Divided quotation. See Quotation.
Double negative A double negative is the incorrect use of two negative words
when only one is needed. (Incorrect: I can't hardly see you.)
E
End mark An end mark is one of several punctuation marks that can end a
sentence. See the punctuation chart on page R72.
F
Fragment. See Sentence fragment.
Future tense. See Verb tense.
G
Gender The gender of a personal pronoun indicates whether the person or thing
referred to is male, female, or neuter. (My cousin plays the tuba; he often
performs in school concerts.)
Gerund A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun. (Hitting a
home run is easy.)
H
Helping verb. See Verb
I
Illogical comparison An illogical comparison is a comparison that does not make
sense because words are missing or illogical. (My computer is newer than Kay)
Indefinite pronoun. See Pronoun.
Indefinite reference Indefinite reference occurs when a pronoun is used without a
clear antecedent. (My aunt hugged me in front of my friends, and it was
embarrassing.)
Independent clause. See Clause.
Indirect object An indirect object tells to whom or for whom (sometimes to what or
for what) something is done. (She told Marika a joke.)
Indirect question An indirect question tells what someone asked without using the
person's exact words. (My friend asked me if I could go with her to the dentist.)
Indirect quotation. See Quotation.
Infinitive An infinitive is a verbal that begins with the word to; the two words create
a phrase (to see)
Intensive pronoun. See Pronoun.
Interjection An interjection is a word or phrase used to express strong feeling.
(Oh!)
Interrogative pronoun. See Pronoun.
Inverted sentence An inverted sentence is one in which the subject comes after
the verb. (Where are my shoes? Here is the prize.)
Irregular verb. See Verb.
l
Linking verb. See Verb.
M
Main clause. See Clause.
Modifier A modifier makes another word more precise; modifiers most often are
adjectives or adverbs; they may also be phrases, verbals, or clauses that
function as adjectives or adverbs. (sunny day, scowled grimly)
An essential modifier is one that is necessary to the meaning of a sentence.
(Everybody who has a free pass should enter now.)
A nonessential modifier merely adds more information to a sentence that is
clear without the addition. (We will use the new dishes, which are stored in
the closet)
Mood Every verb in English is in one of three moods.
The indicative mood is used for opinions, facts, and questions. (He washed
the window.)
The imperative mood is used for orders or advice. (Wash the window!)
The subjunctive mood is used to express a wish, a requirement, a suggestion
or a condition contrary to fact. (If I had the right tools, I could wash the window.)
N
Noun A noun names a person, a place, a thing, or an idea. (Don, home, book,
goodness)
An abstract noun names an idea, a quality, or a feeling. (truth)
A collective noun names a group of things. (herd)
A common noun is a general name of a person, a place, a thing, or an idea.
(girl, mountain, snow, logic)
A compound noun contains two or more words. (folklore, sidewalk, son-in-law)
A noun of direct address is the name of a person being directly spoken to.
(Sam will you do the dishes?)
A possessive noun shows who or what owns or is associated with something.
(Yuri's jacket, the sun's light)
A predicate noun follows a linking verb and renames the subject. (She is a
good friend.)
A proper noun names a particular person, place, or
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thing. (Rashid Hamdi, Maine, Eiffel Tower)
Noun Clause A noun clause is a clause used as a noun. (He understands that he
must work very hard.)
Number A word is singular in number if it refers to just one person, place, thing,
idea, or action and plural in number if it refers to more than one person, place,
thing, idea, or action. (The words she, hat, and eats are singular. The words
they, hats, and eat are plural.)
O
Object of a preposition The object of a preposition is the noun or pronoun that
follows a preposition. (We climbed over the fence.)
Object of a verb The object of a verb receives the action of the verb. (They moved
mountains.)
P
Participial Phrase. See Phrase.
Participle A participle is a verb form. It is often used as part of a verb phrase (had
danced). It can also be used as a verbal that functions as an adjective (the
shining star).
The present participle is formed by adding -ing to the present form of a verb.
(Skating rapidly, we circled the rink.)
The past participle of a regular verb is formed by adding -d or -ed to the
present form. (Astonished, they opened the gift.)The past participles of
irregular verbs do not follow this pattern.
Passive voice. See Voice.
Past tense. See Verb tense.
Perfect tenses. See Verb tense.
Person The person of a pronoun depends on the noun to which it refers.
A first-person pronoun refers to the person speaking. (I jumped.)
A second-person pronoun refers to the person spoken to. (You sat.)
A third-person pronoun refers to some other person(s) or thing(s) being
spoken of. (They sang.)
Personal pronoun. See Pronoun.
Phrase A phrase is a group of related words that lacks both a subject and a verb.
(gracefully leaping)
An adjective phrase modifies a noun or a pronoun. (The label on the bottle has
faded.)
An adverb phrase modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. (Come to the
fair.)
An appositive phrase identifies or provides further information about a noun or
pronoun that directly precedes the phrase. (Leili Moghtader, a retired
teacher, looked after the lighthouse.)
A gerund phrase consists of a gerund with its objects and modifiers.
(Capturing the king was the object of the game.)
An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive along with its modifiers and
objects. (I hope to see him again.)
A participial phrase consists of a participle and its objects and modifiers.
(Turning the corner, they headed home.)
A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, its object, and any modifiers,
or words that describe the object. (The woman with the large hat watched
the race.)
A verb phrase consists of a main verb and one or more helping verbs. (might
have ordered)
Possessive A noun or pronoun that is possessive shows ownership or relationship.
(Aisha's job, her sister)
Possessive noun. See Noun.
Possessive pronoun. See Pronoun.
Predicate The predicate of a sentence tells what the subject is or does. (The deer
ran away quickly.) See also Complete predicate; Simple predicate.
Predicate adjective. See Adjective.
Predicate nominative A predicate nominative is a noun or pronoun that follows a
linking verb and renames or explains the subject. (Joan is a computer operator.
The winner of the prize was he.)
Predicate pronoun. See Noun.
Preposition A preposition is a word that relates its object to another part of the
sentence or to the sentence as a whole. (Blanca read about the book.)
Prepositional phrase. See Phrase.
Present tense. See Verb tense.
Pronoun A pronoun replaces a noun or another pronoun. Some pronouns allow a
writer or speaker to avoid repeating a proper noun. Other pronouns let a writer
show a situation in which some information is not known.
A demonstrative pronoun singles out one or more persons or things. (this
boat)
An indefinite pronoun refers to an unknown or unidentified person or thing.
(Someone called.)
An intensive pronoun emphasizes a noun or pronoun. (She herself performed
the surgery.)
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An interrogative pronoun asks a question. (Who took my wrench?)
A personal pronoun shows a distinction of person. (I spoke. You heard. He
won.)
A possessive pronoun shows ownership. (Your story is in the folder. Are
these notes his?)
A predicate pronoun follows a linking verb and renames the subject (The
owners of the store were they.)
A reflexive pronoun reflects an action back on the subject of the sentence.
(Ashley treated herself to a soda.)
A relative pronoun relates a subordinate clause to the word it modifies in the
main clause. (We gave our reasons, which were very strong.)
Pronoun-antecedent agreement. See Agreement.
Pronoun forms
The subject form of a pronoun is used when the pronoun is the subject of a
sentence or follows a linking verb as a predicate pronoun. (He subtracted. It
is she.)
The object form of a pronoun is used when the pronoun is the direct or indirect
object of a verb or verbal or the object of a preposition. (I gave her a clue.
She sat with them.)
Proper adjective. See Adjective.
Proper noun. See Noun.
Punctuation Punctuation clarifies the structure of sentences.
Q
Quotation A quotation consists of words from another speaker or writer.
A direct quotation is the exact words of a speaker or writer. (Martin said, "The
homecoming game has been postponed")
A divided quotation is a quotation separated by words that identify the
speaker. ("The homecoming game," said Martin, "has been postponed.")
An indirect quotation reports what a person said without giving the exact
words. (Martin said that the homecoming game had been postponed)
R
Reflexive pronoun. See Pronoun.
Regular verb. See Verb.
Relative pronoun. See Pronoun.
Run-on sentence A run-on sentence consists of two or more sentences written
incorrectly as one. (I talked he listened.)
S
Sentence A sentence expresses a complete thought.
A compound-complex sentence contains two or more independent clauses
and one or more dependent clauses. (I would like to be an archaeologist,
but I have never visited an ancient site, although I have had opportunities.)
A complex sentence contains one main clause and one or more subordinate
clauses. (Open the windows before you go to bed. If she falls, I'll help her
up.)
A compound sentence is made up of two or more independent clauses joined
by a conjunction, a colon, or a semicolon. (The ship finally docked, and the
passengers quickly left.)
A simple sentence consists of only one main clause. (My friend volunteers at a
nursing home.)
Sentence fragment A sentence fragment is a group of words that is only part of a
sentence. (As I walked; Was coming to the door)
Simple predicate A simple predicate is the key word in the predicate of a sentence.
(The boat sailed off into the sunset.)
Simple subject A simple subject is the key noun or pronoun in the subject. (The
huge animal attacked.)
Split infinitive A split infinitive occurs when a modifier is placed between the word
to and the verb in an infinitive. (to quickly speak)
Subject The subject is the part of a sentence that tells whom or what the sentence
is about. (Gena drove.)
Subject-verb agreement. See Agreement.
Subjunctive mood. See Mood.
Subordinate clause. See Clause.
Subordinating conjunction. See Conjunction.
T
Transitive verb. See Verb.
U
Unidentified reference An unidentified reference usually occurs when the word it
they, this, which, or that is used. (In California they have good weather most of
the time.)
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V
Verb A verb expresses an action, a condition, or a state of being. (swim, is, seems)
The subject of an active verb performs the action of a sentence. (Ricardo
soared.)
The subject of a passive verb receives the verb's action or expresses the
result of an action. (The story was told.)
A helping verb is used with the main verb; together they make up a verb
phrase. (has gone)
A linking verb expresses a state of being or connects the subject with a word
or words that describe the subject. (The ice feels cold.) Linking verbs: be,
become, feel, grow, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, taste.
A main verb expresses action or state of being; it appears with one or more
auxiliary verbs. (will be staying)
The progressive form of a verb shows continuing action. (She is knitting.)
The past tense and past participle of a regular verb are formed by adding -d
or -ed. (sail, sailed) Irregular verbs do not follow this pattern. (grow, grew,
grown)
The action of a transitive verb is directed toward someone or something,
called the object of a verb. (Leo washed the windows.) An intransitive
verb has no object. (The leaves scattered)
The action of a transitive verb is directed toward someone or something, called the
object of a verb. (Leo washed the windows.) An intransitive verb has no
object. (The leaves scattered.)
Verbal A verbal is formed from a verb and acts as another part of speech, such as
a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.
Verb phrase. A verb phrase cosnists of a main verb and one or more helping
verbs. (should have been working)
Verb tense Verb tense shows the time of an action or the time of a state of being.
(go, went, am, seemed)
The present tense places an action or condition in the present. (We walk down
the street.)
The past tense places anaction or condition in the past. (They left.)
The future tense places an action or condition in the future. (They will go.)
The present perfect tense describes an action in an indefinite past time or an
action that began in the past and continues in the present. (has observed,
have danced)
The past perfect tense describes one action that happened before another
action in the past (had wondered, had analyzed)
The future perfect tense describes an event that will be finished before
another future action begins. (will have fallen)
Voice The voice of a verb depends on whether the subject performs or receives the
action of the verb.
In the active voice the subject of the sentence performs the verb's action. (We
knew the answer.)
In the passive voice the subject of the sentence receives the action of the
verb. (The team has been eliminated.)
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Speaking and Listening Handbook
Good communicators do more than just talk. They use specific techniques to
present their ideas effectively, and they are attentive and critical listeners.
1 Organization and Delivery
In school, in business, and in any community, one of the best ways to present
information is to deliver it in person— speaking directly to a live audience.
Audience and Purpose
When preparing and presenting a speech, your goal is to deliver a focused,
coherent presentation that both conveys your ideas clearly and also relates to
the background and interests of your audience. By
understanding your audience, you can tailor your speech to them appropriately and
effectively.
Know your audience What kind of group are you presenting to—fellow
classmates? an entire school assembly? a group of teachers? What are
their interests and backgrounds? Understanding their different points of
view can help you address each group in the most appropriate way.
Understand your purpose Keep in mind your purpose for speaking. Are you
trying to persuade the audience to do something? Are you presenting the
audience with some latest research? Perhaps you simply want to entertain
them by sharing a story or experience.
Organize effectively As you prepare your presentation, it's important to
arrange the information—details, reasons, descriptions, and examples—
effectively and persuasively. Think about your audience and the best way to
organize the information so that they understand, absorb, and are
interested by it.
Writing Your Speech
If you are writing your speech beforehand, rather than working from notes or
memory, use the following guidelines to help you:
Prepare an outline Try to base your speech on a chosen pattern of
organization. A standard outline would include a compelling introduction, a
concise preview or summary, clear transitions between paragraphs, a logically
developed and well-supported body, and an effective conclusion. The
organization of the speech—whether it was persuasive, comparison-contrast, or
process description, for example—would be most obvious in the body of the
speech.
SAMPLE OUTLINE #1
Process Description
I. Introduction
(Get audience interested and state thesis.)
(Use transition to link to body.)
II. Body
A. Step 1 of process (Use transition.)
B. Step 2 of process (Use transition.)
C. Step 3 of process (Use transition to link to conclusion.)
III. Conclusion (Summarize process and suggest reasons to follow process.)
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SAMPLE OUTLINE #2
Persuasive Speech
I. Introduction
(Get audience interested and state thesis.)
(Use transition to link to body.)
II. Body
A. First argument (Use transition.)
B. Second argument (Use transition.)
C. Third argument (Use transition.)
III. Conclusion (Restate thesis and suggest further action.)
Create a unified speech Do this first by organizing your speech into
paragraphs, each of which develops a single main idea. Then make sure that
just as all the sentences in a paragraph support the main idea of the paragraph,
so all the paragraphs in your speech support the main idea of the speech.
Use effective language Make your presentation interesting and lively by using
precise, vivid language; action verbs; sensory details; and colorful modifiers.
Avoid the passive voice.
Use appropriate language The subject of your speech—and the way you
choose to present it—should match both your audience and the occasion. For
example, if you were telling a funny story to a group of friends, your speech
might be informal and lighthearted. However, for formal presentations it is
important to use appropriate grammar, word choice, enunciation, and pacing.
Provide evidence Include relevant facts, statistics, and incidents; quote
experts to support both your ideas and your opinions. Elaborate—or provide
specific details, perhaps with visual or media displays—to clarify what you are
saying.
Emphasize points To help your audience in following the main ideas and
concepts of your speech, be sure to draw attention to important points. You can
do this with your voice, using effective rate, volume, pitch, and tone. You can
also do this with nonverbal elements, such as eye contact, facial expressions,
hand gestures, and props—all of which can help engage your audience's
interest and hold their attention.
Use audience feedback Pay attention to how your audience responds to your
presentation. Do they look confused? Rearrange words and sentences to clarify
meaning. Are they yawning? Liven it up with more effective voice and gesture.
Rehearsing in front of a practice audience is a great opportunity for feedback,
after which you can reconsider and modify your final presentation to be more
effective.
Prepare/Practice/Present
Confidence is the key to a successful presentation. Use these techniques to help
you prepare and present your speech to your class.
Prepare
Review your information Reread your written report and review your
background research—you'll feel much more confident during your speech.
Organize your notes Jot down a minimum of key points or prepare an entire
script. Consider using numbered index cards for each main point or paragraph
of your speech. Be sure to include your most important evidence and examples.
Plan your visual aids If you are planning on using visual aids, such as slides,
posters, charts, graphs, video clips, overhead transparencies, or computer
projections, now is the time to design them and decide how to work them into
your speech.
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Practice
Rehearse Rehearse your speech several times, possibly in front of a practice
audience. If you are using visual aids, practice handling them. Adapt your rate
of speaking, pitch, and tone of voice to your audience and setting. Time
yourself to ensure that your speech does not run too long.
Evaluate your performance When you have finished each rehearsal, evaluate
your performance. How did you do? Did you slow down for emphasis, pause to
let an important point sink in, or use gestures for emphasis? Make a list of
aspects of your presentation that you will try to perfect for your next rehearsal.
Present
Begin your speech In order to break the tension of the opening moments, try
to look relaxed and remember to smile!
Make eye contact Eye contact with audience members will help you establish
the feeling of personal contact, and it will also help you determine if the
audience understands your speech.
Remember to pause A slight pause after important points will provide
emphasis and give your audience time to think about what you are saying.
Maintain good posture Stand up straight and avoid nervous movements that
may distract the audience's attention from what you are saying. Use expressive
body language Capture the attention of your audience through body language
as well as through speech. Lean forward when you make an important point;
move your hands and arms for emphasis. Your body language will show that
you really believe in what you are saying.
2 Oral Interpretation
An oral interpretation is a way to show an audience what a piece of written work
means to you—whether it's yours or someone else's. The piece you interpret
may be a story, poem, speech, or soliloquy. If you choose to read a scene from
a play with several other speakers, your oral interpretation is called a dramatic
reading.
Oral Reading
When you perform an oral reading, you use appropriate voice, facial expressions,
and gestures to create a special world for your audience and bring the literature
to life. There are many different types of pieces to choose from:
Story This may be a brief selection from a short story or novel. You may
present a monologue, a long speech offered by a single character or narrator in
the piece. You may also present a dialogue, in which you take on the roles of
two or more characters. Use voice and gesture to help your audience
experience and understand the scene.
Soliloquy This is a dramatic monologue from a story or play. It represents the
unspoken thoughts of a single character, heard only by the audience and not by
other characters in the scene. Use an expressive voice to help an audience
understand a character's inner thoughts, emotions, and feelings.
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Poem Unless the poem is very long, you are likely to present the piece in its
entirety (4-6 stanzas). As with a story, you may assume the voice of the poem's
narrator if there is one. Recite the words of a poem effectively, using your voice
to create mood and evoke emotion from your audience.
Speech Unless the speech is short, you are likely to select a brief passage
from it. Choose the most powerful and dramatic part of the speech. Put yourself
in the position of the speech's original orator, using voice and gesture to deliver
the words passionately and persuasively.
Dramatic Reading
When several speakers participate in the reading of a play or other work divided
into parts, it is called a dramatic reading. Use the following techniques in your
dramatic reading:
Prepare Rehearse your material several times. Become familiar with the
humorous and most dramatic parts of your script. Come up with a special voice
that fits the personality of your character.
Project As you read your lines, aim your voice toward the very back of the
room. This will allow everyone to hear you.
Perform React to the other characters as if you were hearing their lines for the
first time. Deliver your own lines with the appropriate emotion. Use your whole
body, as well as your hands and face, to express your emotions.
GUIDELINES HOW TO ANALYZE YOUR ORAL INTERPRETATION
Did you speak clearly, enunciating each word carefully?
Did you control your volume, projecting without shouting?
Did you pace yourself, varying your rate of speech appropriately to express
emotion, mood, and action?
Did you use different voices for each character?
Did you stress important words or phrases?
Did you use voice, tone, and gesture to enhance meaning?
3 Narrative Presentations
When you make a narrative presentation, you tell a story or present a subject using
a story-type format. A good narrative keeps an audience both informed and
entertained. It also allows you to deliver a message in a unique and creative
way.
Establish a setting Think about a definite context and setting for your story.
Where does the action take place? Is the narrative biographical or
autobiographical? Choose a clear, coherent incident, event, or situation that the
audience can relate to.
Create a plot What happens in your story? Is it funny? tragic? suspenseful?
How do you want the events to unfold? Over what period of time? A standard
plot line includes exposition (to draw the audience in), a central conflict (the
reason the story is told), rising action (to create tension), a climax (the height of
action), and a denouement (to show the final outcome).
Determine a point of view Is a narrator telling the story? Who is the main
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character of the story? What is his or her point of view or attitude? Show how
the incident, event, or situation of your narrative specifically affects the
character.
Use effective language Include well- chosen sensory details and concrete
language to develop the plot and the character. Let your audience touch, taste,
hear, and smell what's happening in the story.
Employ narrative devices Use a range of descriptive strategies to keep your
narrative interesting: relevant, believable dialogue; specific action that forwards
the plot; language that builds up tension or suspense in a scene; appropriate
physical and background description; comparison or contrast of characters.
Focus on the delivery Once you've created your narrative, your next
responsibility is to make the story come alive in presentation. Remember, it's
not just what you say but how you say it. Speak clearly and confidently. Pace
yourself and pause for emphasis. Use a range of voices, movements, gestures,
and expressions to convey different emotions and moods.
GUIDELINES HOW TO ANALYZE YOUR NARRATIVE PRESENTATION
Did you choose a context that makes sense and contributes to a believable
narrative?
Does your plot flow well and create the right mood for your audience?
Is your character—and his or her point of view—realistic and memorable?
Did you use sensory language that allows your audience to experience the
story?
Did you use a range of narrative devices to keep your audience interested?
Did you deliver your speech effectively and persuasively?
4 Oral Responses to Literature
An oral response to literature is a personal, analytic interpretation of a writer's story,
poem, or drama. It demonstrates to an audience a solid and comprehensive
understanding of what that piece means to you.
Select carefully In choosing a piece for your oral response, think about the
assignment, your interest, and the audience. Choose something that affects
you deeply and about which you feel strongly.
Exhibit understanding Develop an interpretation exhibiting careful reading,
understanding, and insight. Direct your reader to specific words, sentences, or
paragraphs that are rich with meaning. Explore how they make you feel, what
they make you think about, and why they are particularly important to the piece.
Organize clearly Organize the selected interpretation around several clear
ideas, premises, or images. How do they relate to the piece as a whole? What
insight and meaning do they provide? Use examples and textual evidence to
give weight to your interpretation.
Draw relationships Show how the writer's words and techniques specifically
affect you. Then draw supported inferences about how and why a literary work
can affect an audience in general. Support your judgments through references
to the text, other works and authors, and personal knowledge.
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GUIDELINES HOW TO ANALYZE YOUR ORAL RESPONSE
Did you choose an interesting piece that you enjoy, understand, and feel
strongly about?
Did you engage in in-depth analysis and demonstrate an understanding of what
the piece means to you?
Did you direct your audience to specific parts of the piece that support your
interpretation?
Did you present your ideas in a clear, well- organized manner?
Did you discuss how literature and its audience affect each other?
Did your enthusiasm for the piece come through in your delivery?
5 Research Presentations
A research presentation is an informative, investigative presentation based on your
own research work. After you pose relevant questions to guide your research,
you will organize your information and attempt to explain, teach, and enlighten
an audience about a particular subject.
Target your audience Think about what your audience may already know
about the subject. Taking their background into consideration, develop a
focused, organized presentation.
Introduce the topic Grab your audience's attention by posing an interesting,
relevant question or stating a fascinating fact.
Propose a definite thesis and framework Concisely explain to your audience
the purpose of your presentation, the argument you are proposing, and how
you went about collecting the information to support it.
Present your research Share all important pieces of information gained from
your research that support your thesis: evidence, statistics, ideas, concepts,
and direct quotations. Paraphrase and summarize all relevant perspectives on
the topic, as appropriate.
Cite your sources Use a variety of primary and secondary sources during your
research. Distinguish the nature and value of each.
Use visual aids Enliven your presentation by organizing and recording your
information on charts, maps, and graphs.
GUIDELINES HOW TO ANALYZE YOUR RESEARCH PRESENTATION
Did you think about your audience's previous knowledge on the subject?
Did you hook your audience with an interesting question or fact?
Did you propose a definite thesis and framework for your presentation?
Did you present your research clearly and concisely?
Did you cite a variety of sources and use effective presentation aids?
6 Persuasive Presentations
When you deliver a persuasive presentation, you offer a thesis or clear statement
on a subject, provide relevant evidence to support your position, and attempt to
convince the audience to accept your point of view.
Do your research In order to develop a well-defined thesis on a subject—one
that makes a clear and knowledgeable judgment—you need to know enough
about the subject in the first place. Learn
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about all perspectives on the topic so that you can make an informed and
intelligent decision.
State your position Present your position on the subject clearly, confidently,
and enthusiastically.
Support your position Distinguish between fact and opinion. Demonstrate that
your thesis is well-supported by fact. Use strong, supportive evidence to back
up your position. Arm yourself with detailed evidence, examples, and
reasoning.
Provide a strong defense Consider your audience's own biases and opinions
on the subject. What kind of questions or doubts might they have? Prepare
effective counterarguments and address them before they are even raised.
Deliver effectively Engage your audience. Give them something to think about
by posing challenging questions. Make them aware of a problem and how it
might affect them or someone they know. Maintain a convincing yet reasonable
tone that demonstrates that you really believe in what you are saying.
GUIDELINES HOW TO ANALYZE YOUR PERSUASIVE PRESENTATION
Did you present a clear statement or argument?
Did you support your thesis with convincing, well-articulated facts?
Did you use sound logic in developing the argument?
Did you anticipate and answer audience concerns?
Did you hold the audience's interest with effective voice, facial expressions, and
gesture?
7 Active Listening for Information
Active listeners listen carefully and with purpose. They think about what they hear—
before, during, and after any presentation— whether it's a speech, a class
lecture, or even a television program.
Before Listening
Keep an open mind Don't prejudge the speaker. Listen to what he or she has
to say, and then evaluate it critically but fairly.
Prepare yourself Review what you know about the speaker's topic. Then think
of questions you'd like to ask or information you'd like to learn more about.
Listen with purpose Try to match how you listen with why you are listening.
Situation
Reason for Listening
How to Listen
Your friend tells a funny
For enjoyment, to provide
story about her pet gerbil. your friend with an audience
Maintain eye contact; show you
understand; react to the story.
You're listening to a
speech, "Wolves of the
Tundra."
For enjoyment; to learn
some- thing new
Think about what you already
know; listen for ideas that add to
your knowledge.
Your mother explains
why you can't keep an
alligator as a pet.
To understand her point of
view; to find opportu- nities
to share your own ideas
Listen carefully; respond positively
to valid points; listen for
opportunities to state your own
reasons.
You and your friends are
trying to arrange a trip to
a concert.
To solve a problem
Identify goals and problems; listen
closely to one another's ideas and
build on them.
You are watch- ing a
television program about
cooking or carpentry.
To follow directions
Listen for words such as first,
second, next, and finally; take
notes that you can refer to later.
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While Listening
Block out distractions Keep your eyes on the speaker, focus your mind, and
ignore outside interference.
Look for signals of main ideas See the Guidelines box below.
Take notes, if appropriate Jot down phrases, main ideas, or questions that
occur to you.
Look for relationships between ideas Note comparisons and contrasts,
causes and effects, and problems and solutions.
Identify tone, mood, and gestures To aid in your comprehension, note how
the speaker uses word choice, voice pitch, posture, and gestures to convey
meaning.
TIP If you are listening to an oral interpretation, be sure to analyze both the
speaker's language choice and delivery. Recognize how and why a speaker's
personal interpretation can influence or affect your own understanding of a
subject.
GUIDELINES HOW TO RECOGNIZE MAIN IDEAS
Did you listen for ideas presented first or last?
Did you listen for ideas repeated several times for emphasis?
Did you note statements that begin with phrases such as "My point is ..." or
"The important thing is .. "?
Did you pay attention to ideas presented in a loud voice or with forceful
gestures?
In a multimedia presentation, did you note points the speaker had reproduced
on a chart or on any other visual aid?
After Listening
Review notes taken Make sure you understand what was said.
Ask questions Ask the speaker probing questions to elicit more information.
Demand additional evidence to support claims and conclusions made. Clarify
anything that was unclear or confusing.
Summarize, paraphrase, and evaluate Restate the speaker's ideas in your
own words. Clarify your reasons for agreeing or disagreeing.
Respond to the speaker Respond to persuasive statements with questions,
challenges, or affirmations. Ask relevant questions concerning the speaker's
content, delivery, and purpose.
GUIDELINES HOW TO EVALUATE WHAT YOU HEAR
What is the purpose of the talk, and does the speaker achieve it?
In an oral interpretation of literature, how effective was the speaker's language
choice? delivery?
Does the information make sense? Does it contradict anything you already
know?
Are ideas presented in an interesting and logical way?
Are points supported with facts and details?
Do you still have any questions after hearing the talk?
Do you agree with what the speaker said? Why or why not?
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8 Critical Listening
As you listen to a speaker's ideas, you will want to analyze, evaluate, and critique
those ideas. Use the following critical listening strategies as you listen to a
public speaker:
Determine the speaker's purpose Identify the speaker's purpose in giving the
speech. Is the speaker trying to inform? to persuade? to express thoughts or
feelings? to entertain? Learn to evaluate a speaker's credibility. His or her
speech may be slanted by hidden agendas or personal biases.
Listen for the main idea Figure out the speaker's main message before
allowing yourself to be distracted by seemingly convincing facts and details.
Distinguish between fact and opinion Know the difference between opinion
statements, such as "I think/I believe," and factual statements, such as
"Statistics show" or "It has been proved!'
Recognize the use of rhetorical devices Some speakers use special
techniques to accomplish different purposes when they express their ideas.
Noting these techniques as you listen will enable you to identify these
purposes. For example, a speaker may use repetition of certain words or
phrases, which allows him or her to emphasize ideas and draw your attention to
something important. The speaker may also pose rhetorical questions,
questions that you are not expected to respond to, to involve you in the topic.
The speaker may use a third device such as an allusion, an indirect reference
to something, for the purpose of pleasing and making a connection to a listener
who recognizes the reference.
Recognize the use of persuasive devices Beware of techniques used to
persuade you to accept a particular opinion. Persuasive devices—such as
inaccurate generalizations, either/or reasoning, and bandwagon or snob
appeal—may represent faulty reasoning and provide misleading information.
Interpret the effect of visuals Image makers—such as graphic artists,
illustrators, and photojournalists—are skilled at communicating information
through visuals. How do visuals combined with speech alter or affect your
impressions and opinions on a subject? Are you aware of their influence?
GUIDELINES HOW TO LISTEN CRITICALLY
Are you aware of the speaker's purpose in addressing you?
Does the speaker seem confident in his or her knowledge of the subject?
Does the speaker convince with concrete evidence rather than creative
rhetoric?
Are you able to distinguish between personal opinions and verifiable facts?
Does the speaker use faulty or misleading persuasive devices?
Do you recognize how the use of visuals can alter your understanding or
impressions of a speech?
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9 Recognizing Persuasive Devices
An important part of critical listening is the ability to recognize persuasive devices—
techniques used to persuade you to accept a particular opinion. Persuasive
devices may represent faulty reasoning and provide misleading information.
They are often used in advertising and in propaganda. Some persuasive
devices that you should learn to recognize:
Inaccurate generalization A generalization is a broad statement about a
number of people or things, such as "Maps are hard to read." Although some
generalizations are true, others are too broad to be true. The statement "All
teenagers like junk food" is an example of an inaccurate generalization.
Either/or A writer may try to convince an audience that there are only two
choices or ways of looking at something, when in fact there may be many. The
statement "If you don't join the glee club, you have no school spirit" is an
example of either/or reasoning.
Bandwagon A bandwagon statement appeals to people's desire to belong to a
group. For example, a statement like "Everyone at your school already has this
hot new watch" is a bandwagon device.
Snob appeal This technique appeals to people's need to feel superior to other
people. A statement like "You deserve the best, so buy this jacket" relies on
snob appeal.
10 Conducting Interviews
Conducting a personal interview can be an effective way to get information.
Select your interviewee carefully. Identify who has the kind of knowledge and
experience you are looking for.
Research any information by or about the person you will interview. The
background details will help you focus.
Prepare a list of questions. Create open- ended questions that can't be
answered simply with a "yes" or "no." Arrange your questions in order of
significance, from most important to least important.
Ask your questions clearly and listen carefully. Give the person that you are
interviewing plenty of time to answer.
Listen interactively and flexibly. Be prepared to follow up on a response you find
interesting, even if it was not on your initial list of questions.
Avoid arguments. Be tactful and polite.
Take notes to help in your write-up of the interview. Jot down main ideas or
important statements that you can quote.
Summarize your notes while they are still fresh in your mind.
Send a thank-you note to the interviewee afterward.
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1 Getting Information Electronically
Electronic resources provide you with a convenient and efficient way to gather
information.
1.1 Online Resources
When you use your computer to communicate with another computer or with
another person using a computer, you are working "online" Online resources
include commercial information services and information available on the
Internet.
Commercial Information Services You can subscribe to various services that
offer information, such as the following:
up-to-date news, weather, and sports reports
access to encyclopedias, magazines, newspapers, dictionaries, almanacs, and
databases (collections of information)
forums, or ongoing electronic conversations among people interested in a
particular topic
Internet
The Internet is a vast network of computers. News services, libraries, universities,
researchers, organizations, and government agencies use the Internet to
communicate and to distribute information. The Internet includes two key
features:
World Wide Web, which provides information on specific subjects and links you
to related topics and resources (such as the linked Web pages shown below)
Electronic mail (e-mail), which makes possible communication among e-mail
users worldwide
What You'll Need
To access online resources, you need a computer with a modem to link you to
the Internet. Your school computer lab or resource center may be linked to the
Internet or to a commercial information service.
To use CD-ROMs, you need a computer system with a CD-ROM drive.
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1.2 Navigating the Web
With access to the World Wide Web, you can find virtually any piece of information
once you know how to look for it. Here are some tips to get you started and
keep you going.
Choose a Search Engine or a Directory
A search engine combs through Web sites looking for your topic. A directory
allows you to search within a collection of sites that are grouped by subject,
such as Reference, Sports, or Entertainment.
Enter Key Words
Once you've chosen a starting point, enter the key word or words that describe
your topic. By using more than one word, you can narrow your search. For
example, using the key word "baseball" will find a variety of sites with
information on baseball, whereas the key words "Dodgers baseball" will help
you find sites with information on a specific team.
Investigate Your Options
Once you receive the results of your search, scan the site listings and their
summaries to see which ones look promising. If you click on a site and it's not
useful, you can always back up and try again. The sites at the top of the list
usually will be more relevant to your search than those found farther down.
Tips for Getting the Most from Your Searching
Note the source Because anyone can put information on the Web, it's wise to
check where the information comes from. For example, sites produced by
government agencies or educational institutions tend to be more reliable than
the personal Web pages of individuals.
Refine your search If you're not getting the results you want, search again,
using more or different key words.
Explore other avenues Different search engines may produce different results,
and the same goes for directories.
Link around Many Web sites have links to other sites with related content that
you might not find by searching on your own.
1.3 CD-ROM
A CD-ROM (compact disc—read-only memory) stores data that may include text,
sound, photographs, and video.
Almost any kind of information can be found on CD-ROMs, which you can purchase
or use at the library, including
encyclopedias, almanacs, and indexes
other reference books on a variety of subjects
news reports from newspapers, magazines, television, or radio
museum art collections
back issues of magazines
literature collections
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1.4 Library Computer Services
Many libraries offer computerized catalogs and a variety of other electronic
resources.
Computerized Catalogs
You may search for a book in a library by typing the title, author, subject, or key
words into a computer terminal. When you find the book you're looking for, the
screen will display the kind of information shown here, including the book's call
number and whether it is on the shelf or checked out of the library. You may
also be able to search the catalogs of other libraries.
Other Electronic Resources
In addition to computerized catalogs, many libraries offer electronic versions of
books or other reference materials. They may also have a variety of indexes on
CD-ROM, which allow you to search for magazine or newspaper articles on any
topic you choose. Ask your librarian for assistance in using these resources.
1.5 Evaluating Sources
Be a discriminating consumer of information by evaluating the credibility of a
source, the reliability of its information, and its value in answering your research
needs.
Credibility of Sources
You must determine the credibility and appropriateness of each source in order to
write an effective report or speech. Use these criteria to evaluate print and
electronic sources. (For more information on evaluating sources, see page R52
in the Writing Handbook.)
CRITERIA HOW TO EVALUATE A SOURCE
Is the writer an authority?
Is the source reliable and unbiased?
Is the source up-to-date?
Is the source appropriate?
Distinguishing Fact from Opinion As you gather information, it is important to
recognize facts and opinions. A fact can be proved true or false. You could
verify the statement "Congress rejected the bill" by checking the Congressional
Record. An opinion is a judgment based on facts, such as the statement
"Congress should not have rejected the bills' To evaluate an opinion, check for
evidence presented logically to support it.
Recognizing Bias
A bias does not automatically make a writer's point of view unreliable. However,
recognizing bias can help you evaluate a source. Recognizing that the author of
an article about immigration is an immigrant himself will help you understand
that author's bias. To avoid relying on information that may be biased, check an
author's background and gather a variety of viewpoints.
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2 Word Processing
Many word-processing programs allow you to draft, revise, edit, and format your
writing and to produce neat, professional-looking papers. They also allow you to
share your writing with others.
2.1 Prewriting and Drafting
A computer makes it easy to experiment with different ways of expressing and
organizing your ideas. You can use it to keep an electronic journal or portfolio,
to organize your notes in files, or to access templates for special writing
formats. It allows you to store multiple drafts of a paper and even to add
graphics to clarify and enhance your message. You may want to create a
separate file to use as a writing notebook. Keep all of your story starters, ideas
to research, and other writing ideas in this file.
2.2 Revising and Editing
Improving the quality of your writing becomes easier when you use a wordprocessing program to revise and edit.
Revising a Document
Most word-processing programs allow you to make the following kinds of changes:
add or delete words
move text from one location in your document to another
undo a change you have made in the text
save a document with a new name, allowing you to keep old drafts for
reference
view more than one document at a time, so that you can copy text from one
document and add it to another
Editing a Document
Many word-processing programs have the following features to help you catch
errors and polish your writing:
The spell checker automatically finds misspelled words and suggests possible
corrections. Even if you use a spell checker, you should still proofread your
draft carefully to make sure you've used the right words. For example, you may
have used there or they're when you meant to use their.
The grammar checker spots possible grammatical errors and suggests ways
you might correct them.
The thesaurus suggests synonyms for a word you want to replace.
The dictionary will give you the definitions of words so that you can be sure
you have used words correctly.
The search and replace feature searches your whole document and corrects
every occurrence of something you want to change, such as a misspelled
name.
2.3 Formatting Your Work
Format is the layout and appearance of your writing on the page. You may choose
your formatting options before or after you write.
Formatting Type
You may want to make changes in the typeface, type size, and type style of the
words in your document. For each of these, your word-processing program will
most likely have several options to choose from.
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These options allow you to
change the typeface to create a different look for the words in your document
change the type size of section headings in the paper or the entire document
change the type style when necessary; for example, use italics or underlining
for the titles of books and magazines
Formatting Pages
Not only can you change the way individual words look; you can also change the
way they are arranged on the page. Some of the formatting decisions you make
will depend on how you plan to use a printout of a draft or on the guidelines of
an assignment.
Set the line spacing, or the amount of space you need between lines of text.
Double-spacing is commonly used for final drafts.
Set the margins, or the amount of white space around the edges of your text.
A one-inch margin on all sides is commonly used for final drafts.
Create a header for the top of the page or a footer for the bottom if you want to
include such information as your name, the date, or the page number on every
page.
Determine the alignment of your text. The screen on this page shows your
options.
WRITING TIP Keep your format simple. Your goal is to create not only an attractive
document but also one that is easy to read. Your readers will have difficulty if
you change the type formatting frequently.
TECHNOLOGY TIP Some word-processing programs or other software packages
provide preset templates, or patterns, for writing outlines, memos, letters,
newsletters, or invitations. If you use one of these templates, you will not need
to adjust the formatting. Other software programs will help you set up
spreadsheets for applications such as budgeting or tracking expenses.
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2.4 Working Collaboratively
Computers allow you to share your writing electronically. Send a copy of your work
via e-mail or put it in someone's drop box if your computer is linked to other
computers on a network. Then use the feedback of your peers to help you
improve the quality of your writing.
Peer Editing on a Computer
The writer and the reader can both benefit from the convenience of peer editing "on
screen," or at the computer.
Be sure to save your current draft and then make a copy of it for each of your
peer readers.
You might have your peer readers enter their comments in a different typeface
or type style from the one you used for your text.
Ask each of your readers to include his or her initials in the file name.
If your computer allows you to open more than one file at a time, open each
reviewer's file and refer to the files as you revise your draft.
TECHNOLOGY TIP Some word-processing programs allow you to leave notes for
your peer readers in the side column or in a separate text box. If you wish,
leave those areas blank so that your readers can write comments or questions.
Peer Editing on a Printout
Some peer readers prefer to respond to a draft on paper rather than on the
computer.
Double- or triple-space your document so that your peer editor can make
suggestions and changes between the lines.
Leave extra-wide margins to give your readers room to note their reactions and
questions as they read.
Print out and photocopy your draft if you want to share it with more than one
reader.
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3 Using Visuals
Tables, graphs, diagrams, and pictures often communicate information more
effectively than words alone do. Many word-processing and publishing
programs allow you to create visuals to use with written text.
3.1 When to Use Visuals
Use visuals in your work to illustrate complex concepts and processes or to make a
page look more interesting.
Although you should not expect a visual to do all the work of written text, combining
words and pictures or graphics can increase the understanding and enjoyment
of your writing. Many word- processing and publishing programs allow you to
create and insert graphs, tables, time lines, diagrams, pictures, and flow charts
into your document.
An art program allows you to create border designs or to draw an unusual character
or setting for narrative or descriptive writing. You may also be able to add clip
art, or premade pictures, to your document. Clip art can be used to illustrate an
idea or concept in your writing or to enliven a page.
What You'll Need
A graphics program to create visuals
Access to clip-art files from a CD-ROM, a computer disk, or an online service
3.2 Kinds of Visuals
The visuals you choose will depend on the type of information you want to present.
Tables
Tables allow you to arrange facts or numbers into rows and columns so that your
reader can compare information more easily. In many word-processing
programs, you can create a table or database by choosing the number of
vertical columns and horizontal rows you need and then entering information in
each box, as the illustration shows.
TECHNOLOGY TIP A spreadsheet program provides you with a preset table for
your statistics and performs any necessary calculations. It can also present
tabular information in graphs and charts.
Graphs and Charts
You can sometimes use a graph or chart to help communicate complex information
in a clear visual image. For example, you could use a line graph to show how a
trend changes over time, a bar graph like the one at the right to compare
statistics from different years, or a pie chart to compare percentages. You might
want to explore displaying data in several formats before deciding which will
work best for you.
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Other Visuals
Art and design programs allow you to create visuals for your writing. Many
programs include the following features:
drawing tools that allow you to draw, color, and shade pictures
clip art that you can copy or change with drawing tools
page borders that you can use to decorate title pages, invitations, or brochures
text options that allow you to combine words with your illustrations
tools for making geometric shapes in flow charts, time lines, and diagrams
that show a process or sequence of events
3.2 Evaluating Visual Messages
When you view images, whether they are cartoons, advertising art, photographs, or
paintings, there are certain elements you should look for.
CRITERIA HOW TO ANALYZE IMAGES
Is color used realistically? Is it used to emphasize certain objects? To evoke a
specific response?
What tone is created by color and by light and dark in the picture?
Do the background images intentionally evoke a positive or negative response?
What is noticeable about the picture's composition—that is, the arrangement of
lines, colors, and forms? Does the composition emphasize certain objects or
elements in the picture?
For graphs and charts, does the visual accurately represent the data?
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4 Creating a Multimedia Presentation
A multimedia presentation is a combination of text, sound, and visuals such as
photographs, videos, and animation. Your audience reads, hears, and sees
your presentation at a computer, following different "paths" you create to lead
the user through the information you have gathered.
4.1 Features of Multimedia Programs
To start planning your multimedia presentation, you need to know what options are
available to you. You can combine sound, photos, videos, and animation to
enhance any text you write about your topic.
Sound
Including sound in your presentation can help your audience understand
information in your written text. For example, the user may be able to listen and
learn from
the pronunciation of an unfamiliar or foreign word
a speech
a recorded news interview
a music selection
a dramatic reading of a work of literature
Photos and Videos
Photographs and live-action videos can make your subject come alive for the user.
Here are some examples:
videotaped news coverage of a historical event
videos of music, dance, or theater performances
charts and diagrams
photos of an artist's work
photos or video of a geographical setting that is important to the written text
TECHNOLOGY TIP You can download photos, sound, and video from Internet
sources to your computer. This process allows you to add elements to your
multimedia presentation that would usually require complex editing equipment.
Animation
Many graphics programs allow you to add animation, or movement, to the visuals in
your presentation. Animated figures add to the user's enjoyment and
understanding of what you present. You can use animation to illustrate
what happens in a story
the steps in a process
changes in a chart, graph, or diagram
how your user can explore information in your presentation
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4.2 Planning Your Presentation
To create a multimedia presentation, first choose your topic and decide what you
want to include. Then plan how you want your user to move through your
presentation.
Imagine that you are creating a multimedia presentation about the great jazz
musician Duke Ellington. You know you want to include the following items:
text about his influence on jazz
a portrait of him
a recording of him playing a song
a photograph of him leading his band
a videotape of his band in concert, audio included
a recording of a radio interview with him
text of interesting anecdotes from his concert tours
You can choose one of the following ways to organize your presentation:
a step-by-step method with only one path, or order, in which the user can see
and hear the information
a branching path that allows users to make some choices about what they will
see and hear, and in what order
A flow chart can help you figure out the path a user can take through your
presentation. Each box in the flow chart shown here represents something
about Ellington for the user to read, see, or hear. The arrows on the flow chart
show a branching path the user can follow.
When boxes branch in more than one direction, it means that the user can choose
which item to see or hear first.
4.3 Guiding Your User
Your user will need directions to follow the path of your multimedia presentation.
Most multimedia authoring programs allow you to create screens that include text or
audio directions that guide the user from one part of your presentation to the
next. In the example here, the user can choose between several paths, and
directions on the screen explain how to make the choice.
If you need help creating your multimedia presentation, ask your school's
technology adviser or your classmates, or consult your software manual.
WRITING TIP You usually need permission from the person or organization that
owns the copyright on materials if you want to copy them. You do not need
permission, however, if you are not making money from your presentation, if
you use it only for educational purposes, and if you use only a small percentage
of the original material.
R123
Analyzing Text Features
Reading a Magazine Article
A magazine article is designed to catch and hold your interest. Learning how to
recognize the items on a magazine page will help you read even the most
complicated articles. Look at the sample magazine article as you read each
strategy below.
Strategies for Reading
A Read the title and other headings to get an idea of what the article is about.
Frequently, the title presents the article's main topic. The smaller headings
introduce subtopics related to the main topic.
B Note text that is set off in some way, such as an indented paragraph or a
passage in a different typeface. This text often summarizes the article.
C Study visuals—photos, pictures, maps. Visuals help bring the topic to life and
enrich the text.
D Look for special features, such as charts, tables, or graphs, that provide more
detailed information on the topic or on a subtopic.
E Pay attention to terms in italics or boldface. Look for definitions or explanations
before or after these terms.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Use the sample magazine page and the tips above to help you answer the following
questions.
1. What is the article's main topic? What two subtopics does the article cover?
2. Which paragraph summarizes the article?
3. What is the subject of the chart?
4. How many boldfaced terms are explained in the chart? 5. What is steer
wrestling?
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MODERN COWBOYS
If you think cowboys rode off into the sunset in the 1890s, think again. American
cowboys are alive and well and living in the western United States and Canada.
Although life has changed greatly for cowboys—long cattle drives are a thing of
the past, for instance—roping and riding still go with the territory.
At Work Many cowboys today work on cattle ranches. Like the cowboys of the Wild
West, modern cowhands work long hours in all kinds of weather. However,
unlike old-time cowboys, today's ranchers use machines for many of their jobs.
Cowboys still use their horses to rope calves and do other work. But the
livestock are often carried in trucks across the large, fenced-in ranches. And
when a cow wanders far from the herd, cowboys sometimes use a helicopter to
round up the stray.
At Play Rodeos are rooted in the Old West. After working on a cattle drive,
cowboys competed and showed off their skills in roping and riding. Today, the
rodeo recalls the spirit of these cowboys. The events at a rodeo are divided into
two main groups: rough stock events and timed events. Rough stock events
include riding bucking horses or bulls. Timed events include calf roping and
steer wrestling.
TYPICAL RODEO EVENTS
Bareback Bronc Riding For 8 seconds, the rider spurs the horse as it bucks.
Saddle Bronc Riding The rider uses a saddle and must stay on the horse for 0" or
10 seconds.
Bull Riding The rider tries to stay on the bull for 8 seconds (no spurring needed).
Calf Roping The rider chases the calf on horseback, ropes it, and then gets off the
horse to tie up the calf.
Steer Wrestling The cowboy grabs the steer's horns and wrestles the animal to the
ground.
Team Roping A team of two rope and tie a steer.
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Reading a Textbook
The first page of a textbook lesson introduces you to a particular topic. The page
also provides important information that will guide you through the rest of the
lesson. Look at the sample textbook page as you read each strategy below.
Strategies for Reading
A Preview the title and other headings to find out the lesson's main topic and
related subtopics.
B Look for a list of vocabulary terms. These words will be identified and defined
throughout the lesson.
C Read the main idea or objectives. These items summarize the lesson and
establish a purpose for your reading.
D Notice text on the page that is set off in some way. For example, text placed in a
tinted, or colored, box may be from a primary source that gives firsthand
knowledge about the topic.
E Examine visuals, such as photos and drawings, and their captions. Visuals can
help the topic come alive.
F Find words set in special type, such as italics or boldface. Also look for material
in parentheses. Boldface is often used to identify the vocabulary terms in the
lesson. Material in parentheses may refer you to another page or visual in the
lesson.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Use the sample textbook page and the tips above to help you answer the following
questions.
1. On what part of the country does the lesson focus?
2. What vocabulary terms are defined in the lesson?
3. What is the main idea that is developed in the lesson?
4. Review the excerpt from the primary source. Who wrote the excerpt?
5. Who was Nat Love?
6. Which vocabulary term refers to the area from the Missouri River to the Rocky
Mountains?
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---see sample
R127
Understanding Visuals
Reading Graphs
Graphs are used to present facts and statistics. Bar graphs and circle graphs are
useful for making comparisons. Use the following strategies along with the
examples below to help you read graphs.
Strategies for Reading
A Read the title to help you understand what the graph is about.
B In bar graphs, look at the data on the horizontal line and the data on the vertical
line to find a value or estimate.
C In circle graphs, read the headings to learn what each percent number stands for.
D Compare the information from circle graphs and bar graphs to see how they
relate. Sometimes they will give the same information. Other times one will give
additional information.
E Check the credit to see if the information is up to date and from a respected
source.
The following graphs show the results of a survey conducted by Zillions, the
consumer magazine for children. More than half the participants ages 8 to 14
said they do not get an allowance although some do get spending money. What
other observations can you make?
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Answer the following questions using the graphs and tips.
1. Which graph shows data on the amount of allowance kids get?
2. How many kids do not get an allowance?
3. According to the bar graph, how much more allowance does a 13 year-old get
than a 10 year-old?
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Reading a Transit Map
It's important to know how to read a map so you can find your way around without
becoming lost. Look at the example below as you read each strategy in this list.
Strategies for Reading
A Scan the title to know the main idea of the map.
B Interpret the key, or legend, to find out what the symbols on the map stand for.
C Study geographic labels to understand specific places on the map.
D Notice the scale and pointer, or compass rose, to determine distance and
direction.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Use the map to answer the following questions.
1. What is the purpose of this map?
2. What do the symbols mean together?
3. Which three stations are between 40th and 25th on the Purple Line?
4. Are any of these three stations accessible to commuters who use wheelchairs? If
so, which station(s)?
5. Does the Red Line run north and south or east and west? Name another train
line that runs in the same direction as the Red Line.
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Reading a Diagram
Diagrams combine pictures with a few words to provide a lot of information. Look at
the example on the opposite page as you read each of the following strategies.
Strategies for Reading
A Look at the the title to get a quick idea of what the diagram is about.
B Study the images closely to understand each part of the diagram.
C Look at the captions and the labels for more information.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
The diagram on the following page shows balanced and unbalanced forces. Study
the diagram, then answer the following questions using the strategies above.
1. What is this diagram about?
2. What do the black arrows represent in these pictures?
3. What are the two forces in the picture showing unbalanced forces?
4. In the second picture, why does the car rise up from the ground?
5. Which two pictures show the same set of forces?
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Balanced and Unbalanced Forces
Newton's First Law of Motion: As long as the forces on an object balance
each other, the object's motion will not change.
The force of gravity pulling down on the car is balanced by the force of the ground
pushing up on the car. The car remains at rest.
Newton's Second Law of Motion: When an unbalanced force acts on an
object, the object will accelerate in the direction that the unbalanced force
points.
The force of the crane pulling up on the car is greater than the force of gravity
pulling down on it. The car begins to rise.
Once again, the force of gravity pulling down on the car is balanced by the force of
the ground pushing up on it. The car is again at rest.
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Recognizing Text Structures
Main Idea and Supporting Details
The main idea in a paragraph is its most important point. Details in the paragraph
support the main idea. Identifying the main idea will help you focus on the main
message the writer wants to communicate. Use the following strategies to help
you identify a paragraph's main idea and supporting details.
Strategies for Reading
Look for the main idea, which is often the first sentence in a paragraph.
Use the main idea to help you summarize the point of the paragraph.
Identify specific details, including facts and examples, that support the main
idea.
Searching for E.T.
Scientists on Project Phoenix search for extraterrestrials—beings from another
planet. The scientists use radio telescopes to track radio signals from outer
space. The telescopes are pointed at nearby, sun-like stars that are thought to
be orbited by planets. So far, no clear signals have been received. However,
scientists hope that the telescopes will finally help answer the question: Is
anyone out there?
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Read the following paragraph. Then copy the diagram below, and add the
paragraph's main idea as well as three supporting details.
Nothing can escape the gravity of a black hole. A meteor passing near the hole is
sucked in and crushed. Gases from a dying star are drawn toward the hole.
Even light cannot resist its pull.
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Problem and Solution
Does the proposed solution to a problem make sense? In order to decide, you
need to look at each part of the text. Use the following strategies to read the
text below.
Strategies for Reading
Look at the beginning or middle of a paragraph to find the problem.
Find out why the problem is important.
Look for the proposed solution.
Identify the details that support the proposed solution.
Think about whether the solution is a good one.
A Garden for Market Street?
Anyone who has walked along Market Street has seen the big empty lot next to the
public library. This lot has been empty for two years now, and it is ugly and
dangerous. Paper trash and broken bottles cover the ground, and nothing
grows there but tough nasty weeds. And who knows what kind of rodents might
be crawling around in the dirt?
According to the mayor, the owner has long since deserted the property, and no
one has any plans to build on it. This is valuable land, and it's right in the middle
of town! The citizens should do something with it.
A community nature garden would be a great thing for the city. Teachers and
students could share what they've learned about local plant wildlife. Other
residents could volunteer to help plant the trees, grasses, and wildflowers.
When finished, the garden would be both educational and lovely—a great
improvement over the weedy lot!
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Read the text above and answer the questions.
1. What is the proposed solution to the problem?
2. Give at least one detail that supports the solution.
3. Do you agree with the solution? Explain why or why not.
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Sequence
It's important to understand the sequence, or order of events, in what you read. It
helps you know what happens and why. Read the tips below to make sure a
sequence is clear to you. Then look at the example on the opposite page.
Strategies for Reading
Read through the passage and think about what its main steps, or stages, are.
Look for words and phrases that signal time: today, Saturday, later, or 9:30.
Look for words and phrases that signal order: first, next, then, before, at last,
after, or finally.
The article on the next page describes how a sixteen-year-old spent her day as a
movie extra. Use the information from the passage and the tips above to
answer the questions.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
1. List some words and phrases that signal time.
2. List some phrases in the article that signal order.
3. Use the information from the article to copy and complete this timeline. Make
sure to include signal words in your sentences.
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I Was a Movie Extra
On a recent Saturday, Nicole M., 16, . . . spent the day as a movie extra. . . . She
found out that life as an extra isn't exactly glamorous, but she did have fun.
Here is her story . . .
I was one of nearly 600 extras who appeared in a fire-drill scene for the movie
"Newport South.".. .
At 6:45 A.M. the day of filming, I reported to the set, an abandoned school building.
. . . My day started off with registration and wardrobe check. . . . I was assigned
to one of four sections: A, B, C or D (I landed in D, along with some of my
friends). . . . After that, I was told to find my section and to sit there. My friends
and I waited and waited. At 7:45 A.M., caterers arrived with doughnuts,
lemonade, coffee, and hot chocolate. After munching down chocolate
doughnuts, we waited again—till 9:30 A.M.
Finally, it was time for our big scene. A guy wearing a headset explained to us what
we had to do, then directed us to one of four stairwells. We were smooshed:
About 75 people stood shoulder to shoulder. It was 20 minutes before we got
the signal to move, and we poured out of the school and headed for the football
field. . . .
Before the scene was shot, it was stressed upon us not to look at the cameras. But
it was stressed so much it was hard NOT to look. . . .
So, after that first take, we shot the scene two more times, then we got a snack. We
had five minutes to use the washroom, eat, and do anything else we needed to.
Then it was back to our stairwells. . . .
By 1:30 P.M., the shooting was done, and we all gathered in the gym. . . . I reported
to wardrobe and returned my jacket. After standing in line to get paid, my
friends and I left—feeling tired, cold, wet, hungry and a bit grouchy.
from The Chicago Tribune
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Cause and Effect
A cause is an event that brings about another event. An effect is something that
happens as a result of the first event. Identifying causes and effects helps you
understand how the events are related. The strategies below can help you find
causes and effects in any reading.
Strategies for Reading
Look for an action or event that answers the question "What happened?" This is
the effect.
Look for an action or event that answers the question "Why did it happen?" This
is the cause.
Identify words that signal causes and effects, such as because, as a result,
therefore, cause, and since.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Use the cause-and-effect passage on the next page to help you answer the
following questions. Notice that the first cause and effect in the passage are
highlighted.
1. What phrase explains what happened because the Sultana was carrying so
many people. Is this a cause or an effect?
2. List some words in the passage that signal causes and effects. The first one is
highlighted for you.
3. Use the causes and effects in the last two paragraphs to copy and complete the
following diagram.
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The Sinking of the Sultana
On April 25, 1865, about two weeks after the end of the Civil War, a steamboat
called the Sultana was traveling up the Mississippi River. The ship had set out
from Vicksburg, Mississippi, and was going to Cairo, Illinois. Many passengers,
including hundreds of ex-prisoners of war, had boarded the ship. Since no one
had taken a roll call, the exact number is not known. However, historians guess
that there were about 2,300 people on board. That number is about six times as
many people as the ship was built to carry. Because the Sultana was carrying
so many people, it was going slowly.
The load also caused the ship's steam boilers to leak several times over the next
two days. The boilers were repaired, but the strain was too much. Early on April
27, the boilers exploded after the ship had sailed just a few miles north of
Memphis, Tennessee. As a result of the explosion, hundreds of passengers
were killed instantly.
Many others drowned or died in the fire that started when hot coals burst from the
boiler. Some of the victims who died in the fire were trapped below deck.
Others, especially those who had been prisoners of war, were too weak to try to
swim in the icy river.
In all, about 1,700 people died. That number is about 200 more than died aboard
the Titanic 47 years later. The sinking of the Sultana was—and still is—the
greatest seafaring disaster in American history. However, the newspapers at
that time were still covering the death of Abraham Lincoln and his funeral train.
Therefore, the tragedy was barely reported.
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Comparison and Contrast
Comparing two things means showing how they are the same. Contrasting two
things means showing how they are different. Comparisons and contrasts are
often used in science and history books to make a subject clearer. Use these
tips to help you understand comparison and contrast in reading assignments,
such as the article on the opposite page.
Strategies for Reading
Look for direct statements of comparison and contrast: "These things are
similar because... " or "One major difference is...
Pay attention to words and phrases that signal comparisons, such as also,
both, is the same as, and in the same way.
Notice words and phrases that signal contrasts. Some of these are however,
still, but, and on the other hand.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Read the essay on the opposite page. Then use the information from the essay and
the tips above to answer the questions.
1. List some words and phrases that signal comparisons. The first one is highlighted
for you.
2. List some words and phrases that signal contrasts. The first one is highlighted for
you.
3. A Venn diagram shows how two subjects are similar and how they are different.
Copy this diagram, which uses information from the essay to compare and
contrast the United States and Bosnia. Add at least two similarities and two
differences.
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My Two Homes: Bosnia and the U.S.
by Elvisa Pandzic
My family and I came to America because of the war in Bosnia. . . . I had to catch
my breath when I first set eyes on Chicago. It was spectacular— like a dream,
with its tall buildings and shiny cars. Everything was moving so fast! Still, I often
thought of Cazin, where I was born.
I missed the slow pace of small- town life. That and the lack of cars. Most people
had no need to travel to a place they couldn't walk to. I especially missed the
mountains and hills. Nothing can replace those big beautiful meadows and the
forests that took your breath away with their wonderful green smells. . . .
Another big difference is the school system. When I started school in Chicago I was
very confused—all the rules were different. In Bosnia, schools are strict and
students give their teachers a lot of respect. We used to stand up when a
teacher entered the classroom and when we had to answer a question. In
American schools, students may talk without even being called on. This is not
entirely bad, in my opinion. I like how students can express themselves freely.
Another thing that has taken some time getting used to is the grading system.
In Bosnia, all the grades are given in numbers, not letters. In Bosnia a grade of
A is equal to 5, B to 4, C to 3, D to 2, and F to 1. At least the dress code in my
new school is almost the same as in Bosnia. In both places you can wear blue
jeans to school. . . .
I have been living in Chicago for about two years and I am adjusting well, but I still
miss Bosnia, my first home. I look forward to a time of peace when I can return.
I know I will never return to my "old" life, but there is one thing I do know. Wherever
I end up, I will celebrate the best of both worlds.
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Argument
An argument is an opinion backed up with reasons and facts. Understanding an
argument will help you make informed decisions about an issue. Use the
following strategies to help you understand an argument.
Strategies for Reading
Look for words that signal an opinion: I think; I feel; they claim, argue, or
disagree.
Look for reasons, facts, or expert opinions that support the argument.
Ask yourself if the argument and reasons make sense.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Read the argument on the next page, and then answer the questions below.
1. List some words that signal an opinion.
2. List the two opinions in this argument.
3. Give an example of a statement that is not supported by reason.
4. The writer gives reasons for and against television. Copy and complete the chart
below using the argument. One answer has been given for you.
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Television: Good or Bad?
Many people believe that life before television was happier than life today. In those
days, people read books and newspapers for information. Families spent more
time together. They talked, ate meals together, and shared chores. Many
children used their imaginations to write and tell stories, and they participated in
outdoor activities instead of spending hours in front of the television. People
were not violent because they did not watch violent programs.
Others disagree. They claim that television has many advantages as an educational
tool. It keeps people informed about important current events and issues.
Television programs can help children learn valuable social skills such as
cooperation and kindness. It can teach children how people live, work, and deal
with misfortune. Some public television programs also promote activities such
as visits to museums, libraries, bookstores, and zoos.
Both arguments are endless. The only thing we can say for sure is that we need
more studies to show whether television is good or bad, or a little bit of both.
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Reading in the Content Areas
Social Studies
Your social studies textbook uses words and graphics to help you learn about
people and places today and throughout history. As you read the tips below,
look at the sample page on the right.
Strategies for Reading
A First, look at any headlines or subheads on the page. These give you an idea of
what each section covers.
B Carefully read the text and think about ways the information is organized.
Social studies books are full of sequence, comparison and contrast, and cause
and effect.
C Make sure you know the meaning of any boldfaced or underlined vocabulary
terms. These terms often appear on tests.
D Next, look closely at any sidebar articles or graphics. Think about how they
relate to the main text.
E Read any study tips in the margins or at the bottom of the page. These let you
check your understanding as you read.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
The textbook page at right describes some of the effects of the Civil War on
Northerners and Southerners. Use information from that page and from the tips
above to answer the questions.
1. What two subjects does the page cover?
2. Name the two vocabulary terms and define them.
3. What was a Confederate soldier's monthly pay in 1864?
4. What does it mean to subjugate someone?
5. Copy and complete the diagram.
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Economic Effects of the War
Many people suffered economic hardship during the war. The suffering was severe
in the South, where most battles were fought, but the North also experienced
difficulties.
Food shortages were very common in the South, partly because so many farmers
were fighting in the Confederate army. Moreover, food sometimes could not get
to market because trains were now being used to carry war materials. The
Confederate army also seized food and other supplies for its own needs.
Another problem, especially in the South, was inflation—an increase in price and
decrease in the value of money. The average family food bill in the South
increased from $6.65 a month in 1861 to $68 by mid-1863. Over the course of
the war, prices rose 9,000 percent in the South.
Inflation in the North was much lower, but prices still rose faster than wages,
making life harder for working people. Some people took advantage of wartime
demand and sold goods for high prices.
Overall, though, war production boosted Northern industry and fueled the economy.
In the short term, this gave the North an economic advantage over the South. In
the long term, industry would begin to replace farming as the basis of the
national economy.
During the war, the federal government passed two important economic measures.
In 1861, it established the first income tax—a tax on earnings. The following
year, the government issued a new paper currency, known as greenbacks
because of their color. The new currency helped the Northern economy by
ensuring that people had money to spend. It also helped the Union to pay for
the war.
Some Southerners in the border states took advantage of the stronger Union
economy by selling cotton to Northern traders, in violation of Confederate law.
"Yankee gold," wrote one Confederate officer, "is fast accomplishing what Yankee
arms could never achieve—the subjugation of our people."
Resistance by Slaves
Another factor that affected the South was the growing resistance from slaves. To
hurt the Southern economy, slaves slowed their pace of work or stopped
working altogether. Some carried out sabotage, destroying crops and farm
equipment to hurt the plantation economy.
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Science
Reading in science will be easier when you understand how the explanations,
drawings, and special terms work together. Use the strategies below to help
you better understand your science textbook. Look at the examples on the
opposite page as you read each strategy in this list.
Strategies for Reading
A Preview the title and headings on the page to see what science concepts will be
covered.
B Look for boldfaced and italicized words that appear in the text. Look for
definitions of those words.
C Many science textbooks discuss scientific concepts in terms of everyday
events or experiences. Look for these places and consider how they improve
your understanding.
D Look for references to numbered figures in the text.
E Then look in the margin for these figures, which are diagrams or pictures with
captions. See how they illustrate and explain the text.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Use the sample science page to help you answer the following questions.
1. What science concept will be covered in this lesson? Where on the page did you
find this information?
2. Define the term light year.
3. How old is the light from Polaris when it reaches the Earth?
4. What is the everyday experience used to help explain parallax?
5. Read the discussion of parallax in the text and look at Figure 6-9. What appears
to happen to the close star's position between July and January? What actually
happens to the star's position during that time?
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Star Distances
All of the stars that you see at night are part of the Milky Way galaxy. The Milky
Way contains about 200 billion stars. On a clear night, you might think that you
can see millions of stars. Actually, you see only about 3000 stars with your
unaided eye. To understand why so few stars are visible, think about how you
see a flashlight from a distance. At 1 meter, the flashlight is bright. At 50
meters, it appears dimmer. If the flashlight were far enough away, it would be
too faint to see. For the same reason, you cannot see most of the stars in the
Milky Way because they are too far away.
Astronomers measure distances to stars using the speed of light. Light travels at
300 000 kilometers per second. At this rate, sunlight takes 8 minutes to reach
your eyes. Thus, the distance to the sun is 8 light-minutes. Distances to stars
are measured in light-years. A light-year is the distance that light travels in one
year, about 9.5 trillion kilometers. The nearest star, Proxima Centauri, is 4.2
light-years from Earth. 0 The distance to Polaris is 680 light-years. When you
look into space, you look into the past. The light you see from Polaris left the
star long before Columbus set sail for America.
Figure 6-9 shows how to measure distance to a star by 0 measuring its parallax.
Parallax is the apparent shift in an object's position that is caused by the motion
of the observer. You can see the parallax of your finger if you look at it only with
your left eye and then only with your right eye. Your finger seems to move
compared to the background. Try observing the parallax again with your finger
closer to your eyes. How does the parallax change? You can observe the
parallax of nearby stars with a telescope. The closer a star is, the greater is its
parallax.
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Mathematics
Reading a mathematics textbook requires different skills than reading history,
literature, or science. The tips below can help you learn these skills. As you
read the tips, look at the sample mathematics page on the right.
Strategies for Reading
A First, look at the lesson title and any subheads on the page, so you know what
topics will be covered.
B Find the goals or objectives for the lesson. These will tell you the most important
points to know.
C Read explanations carefully. Sometimes the same concept is explained in more
than one way to make sure you understand it.
D Look for special features such as study or vocabulary tips. These provide more
help or information.
E Study any worked-out solutions to sample problems. These are the key to
understanding how to do the homework assignment.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Use the sample mathematics page and the tips above to help you answer the
following questions.
1. How is a multi-step equation solved?
2. What are the vocabulary words that will be studied in this lesson?
3. Where will the question "How hot is Earth's crust?" be answered?
4. How many steps are required to solve and check a linear equation?
5. In Example 1, how do you isolate the variable?
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--- see samples
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Reading Beyond the Classroom
Reading an Application
Reading and understanding an application will help you fill it out correctly and
avoid mistakes. Use the following strategies to help you understand any
application. Look at the example on the next page as you read each strategy.
Strategies for Reading
A Begin at the top. Scan the application to see what the different sections are.
B Look for special instructions for how to fill out the application.
C Notice any request for materials that must be attached to the application.
D Watch for sections you don't have to fill in or questions you don't have to
answer.
E Look for difficult or confusing words or abbreviations. Look them up in a
dictionary or ask someone what they mean.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Imagine that you want to participate in the student science fair. Read the application
on the next page. Then answer the following questions.
1. On the application, how many different sections are there?
2. What grade levels must students be in to participate in the science fair?
3. What are all of the materials that must be submitted along with the application?
4. In the last section, which category number would you write if you had a botany
project?
5. What name should be written in the Team Member Information section?
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--- see sample
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Reading a Web Page
If you need information for a report, project, or hobby, the World Wide Web can
probably help you. The tips below will help you understand the Web pages you
read. As you look at the tips, notice where they match up to the sample Web
pages on the right.
Strategies for Reading
A Notice the page's Web address, or URL. You may want to write it down in case
you need to access the same page at another time.
B The title of the page is usually at or near the top. It will give you an idea of what
the page covers.
C Look for menu bars along the top, bottom, or side of the page. These guide you
to other parts of the site that may be useful.
D Most pages have links to related pages. Links are often underlined words.
E Many sites have interactive areas, such as a guest book, where you can tell the
site's creators what you think of their work.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Read the two Web pages on the right-hand page. The top one is a search engine
that shows responses to a student's question. The bottom one is a site linked to
one of those responses. Then use the information from the sites and the tips
above to answer the questions.
1. List the Web address of both pages.
2. On the "LookQuick" page, what three terms did the student ask the search
engine to find?
3. On the "Gold Rush" site, which link you would click on if you wanted to learn
about people who immigrated to California to take part in the gold rush?
4. Which link you would click on to tell the creators of "Gold Rush!" your opinion of
their site?
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--- see sample
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Glossary of Literary and Reading Terms
Act An act is a major unit of action in a drama or a play. Each act can be further
divided into smaller sections called scenes. The Diary of Anne Frank has two
acts.
See page 260. See also Scene.
Alliteration Alliteration is a repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of
words. Writers use alliteration for emphasis and to give their writing a musical
quality. Note the repetition of the s and f sounds in the following lines:
And beneath, from the pebbles, in passing a spark
Struck out by a steed flying fearless and fleet . . .
—Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, "Paul Revere's Ride"
See pages 189, 647.
Allusion An allusion is a reference to a famous person, place, event, or work of
literature. In "The Bet," writer Anton Chekhov alludes to Byron and
Shakespeare when he describes the lawyer's reading material during the last
two years of confinement.
Analogy An analogy is a point-by-point comparison between two dissimilar things
in order to clarify the less familiar of the two. For example, an author might draw
an analogy between an unfamiliar setting and one with which readers are
familiar.
See also Extended metaphor, Metaphor, Simile.
Analysis Analysis is the process of breaking something down into its elements so
that they can be examined individually.
In analyzing a poem, for example, one might consider such elements as form,
rhyme, rhythm, figurative language, imagery, mood, and theme.
Anecdote An anecdote is a brief account of an interesting incident or event that
usually is intended to entertain or to make a point. In "Flying," Reeve Lindbergh
tells several anecdotes about her flying experiences as a young girl.
See pages 118, 208.
Antagonist In a story, an antagonist is a force working against the protagonist, or
main character; an antagonist can be another character, society, a force of
nature, or even a force within the main character. In "The King of Mazy May,"
the claim- jumpers are antagonists.
See page 148.
See also Protagonist.
Audience The audience of a piece of writing is the particular group of readers that
the writer is addressing. A writer considers his or her audience when deciding
on a subject, a purpose for writing, and the tone and style in which to write.
Author An author is the writer of a literary work.
Author's perspective An author's perspective is an author's beliefs and attitudes
as expressed in his or her writing. These beliefs may be influenced by the
author's political views, ethnic background, education, or religion. In Something
to Declare, Julia Alvarez writes from the perspective of a woman who was born
in
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the Dominican Republic and who emigrated as a young child to the United
States.
Author's purpose An author's purpose is his or her reason for creating a particular
work. The purpose can be to entertain, to explain or inform, to express an
opinion, or to persuade. An author may have more than one purpose for writing,
but usually one is most important.
See pages 118, 417, 622, 779, 851.
Autobiography An autobiography is a form of nonfiction in which a person tells the
story of his or her life. All But My Life is an example of an autobiography. An
autobiography is usually book length because it covers a long span of time.
Forms of autobiographical writing include personal narratives, journals,
memoirs, diaries, letters, and oral histories.
See pages 102, 522.
See also Memoir, Oral history.
Ballad A ballad is a poem that tells a story and is meant to be sung or recited. Folk
ballads, written by unknown authors and handed down orally, usually depict
ordinary people in the midst of tragic events or adventures of love and bravery.
"John Henry" is an example of a folk ballad.
See page 647.
Bias In a piece of writing, an author's preference for one side of an issue over
another is called bias.
Biographer See Biography,
Biography A biography is the story of a person's life that is written by someone
else. The subjects of biographies are often famous people, as in Lincoln: A
Photobiography and Harriet Tubman: Conductor on the Underground Railroad.
A biographer is one who writes, composes, or produces a biography.
See pages 102, 756, 776.
Cast of characters In the script of a play, a cast of characters is a list of all the
characters in the play, often in order of appearance. The list is usually found at
the beginning of the script. There is a cast of characters at the beginning of The
Diary of Anne Frank.
Cause and effect Two events are related as cause and effect when one event
brings about, or causes, the other. The event that happens first is the cause;
the one that follows is the effect. In "The Dinner Party," the placing of a bowl of
milk on the verandah causes a desired effect—removing the snake from the
dining room.
See pages 32, 262, 263.
Character A character is a person, an animal, or an imaginary creature in a literary
work. In general, a work focuses on one or more main characters. Minor
characters are less important characters who interact with the main characters
and with one another while moving the plot along and providing background for
the story. In "Raymond's Run," Squeaky is the main character. Gretchen,
Rosie, and Mary Louise are minor characters.
See pages 19, 102, 148, 261, 329, 330, 652, 839.
Character development Characters that grow or change during a story are said to
undergo character development. A character that changes significantly is called
a dynamic character; one that changes only a little or not at all is said to be a
static character. Main characters often develop the most. In "The Treasure of
Lemon Brown," for example, Greg is a dynamic character who changes during
the course of the story.
See pages 19, 330, 334, 441.
Characterization Characterization consists of all the techniques writers use to
create characters. There are four basic methods of developing a character:
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1. The writer may describe a character's physical appearance. In "Stop the Sun,"
the writer describes the main character: "Terry Erickson was a tall boy, 13,
starting to fill out with muscle but still a little awkward!'
2. A character's nature may be revealed through his or her own speech, thoughts,
or actions. In "The Moustache," Mike feels a sense of dread when he
approaches the nursing home where his grandmother lives, and he tells the
reader how this makes him feel: "... I felt guilty about it. I'm loaded with guilt
complexes!'
3. A character's nature may be revealed by what other characters think or say about
the character. The narrator's feelings about the orphan boy in "A Mother in
Mannville" help the reader to understand the type of person the boy is: "His
name was Jerry ... I could picture him at four, with the same grave gray-blue
eyes and the same— independence? No, the word that comes to me is
'integrity."
4. The writer can make direct comments about a character's nature. In "Checkouts,"
the author explains why the main character likes to shop for groceries: "She
loved it in the way some people love to drive long country roads, because doing
it she could think and relax and wander."
See pages 220, 331.
Chronological order Chronological order is the order in which events happen in
time. In some stories, events are related in chronological order. In other stories,
events are presented out of sequence.
See page 159.
Clarifying The reader's process of pausing occasionally while reading to quickly
review what he or she understands is called clarifying. By clarifying as they
read, good readers are able to draw conclusions about what is suggested but
not stated directly.
See pages 443, 715, 829, 879.
Classic A classic is an enduring work of literature that continues to be read long
after it was written. A classic deals with emotions, behaviors, and truths shared
by human beings of every age, ethnicity, and culture. "The Bet" is considered a
classic.
Climax In the plot of a story or a play, the climax, or turning point, is the point of
maximum interest. The climax usually occurs toward the end of a story, after
the reader has understood the conflict and become emotionally involved with
the characters. At the climax, the conflict is resolved and the outcome of the
plot becomes clear. The climax of "Raymond's Run," for example, occurs when
Squeaky wins the race.
See pages 18, 260, 293, 439, 447. See also Plot.
Comedy A comedy is a dramatic work that is light and often humorous in tone and
usually ends happily with a peaceful resolution of the main conflict. The MillionPound Bank Note is an example of a comedy.
Comic relief Comic relief is a humorous scene that is inserted into a serious work
of fiction or drama to provide relief from the seriousness felt by the audience. A
scene introduced for comic relief, because of the contrast it provides, can also
add to the seriousness of the action. In Still Me, Christopher Reeve provides
comic relief when he breaks the intense silence that greets his first public
appearance with a funny anecdote about his English teacher.
Comparison The process of identifying similarities is called comparison. Writers
use comparisons to make ideas and details clearer to the reader. In "Stop the
Sun," for example, the father's terrified breathing is
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compared with the panting of "some kind of hurt animal."
See page 296.
See also Metaphor, Simile.
Conclusion See Drawing conclusions.
Conflict Conflict is a struggle between opposing forces. In an external conflict, a
character struggles against another person or some outside force. Gerda
Weissmann Klein's struggle for survival in the excerpt from All But My Life is an
example of an external conflict. An internal conflict, on the other hand, involves
a struggle within a character. In "Flowers for Algernon," Charlie experiences
inner conflict about his disability.
See pages 18, 260, 348, 439-441, 447, 488, 551, 753.
See also Plot.
Connecting A reader's process of relating the content of a literary work to his or her
own knowledge and experience is called connecting. In "The Moustache," for
example, readers might connect with Mike's feelings as he interacts with his
grandmother.
See pages 4, 21, 48, 333, 334, 553, 623, 839.
Connotation A word's connotation is the idea and feeling associated with the word,
as opposed to its dictionary definition. For example, the word mother, in
addition to its basic meaning ("a female parent"), has connotations of love,
warmth, and security.
See page 669.
See also Denotation.
Context clues Context clues are hints or suggestions that may surround unfamiliar
words or phrases and clarify their meaning. A context clue can be a definition, a
synonym, an example, a comparison or contrast, or any other expression that
enables readers to infer the word's meaning.
See page 301. Contrast The process of pointing out differences between things is
called contrast. In "Flying," Reeve Lindbergh contrasts her flying experiences
with those of her sister and brothers.
See page 296.
Couplet A couplet is a rhymed pair of lines in a poem.
Listen, my children, and you shall hear Of the midnight ride of Paul Revere, . .
.
—Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, "Paul Revere's Ride"
Deductive order In nonfiction, the structure of a text may be organized using
deductive order. A text that is organized deductively begins with a
generalization and advances with facts and evidence to a conclusion.
See also Inductive order, Structure.
Denotation A word's denotation is its dictionary meaning.
See page 669.
See also Connotation.
Description Description is writing that helps a reader to picture scenes, events, and
characters. To create descriptions, writers often use imagery—words and
phrases that appeal to the reader's senses—and figurative language.
We lived in the dark green hills of Pittsburgh where the smoke from J. L. Steel
dusted our clothes gray and blanketed the sky, causing sunsets to streak
bright pink and orange.
—Jewell Parker Rhodes, "Block Party"
See pages 574, 622.
See also Figurative language, Imagery, Sensory details.
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Dialect A dialect is a form of language that is spoken in a particular place or by a
particular group of people. Dialects may feature unique pronunciation,
vocabulary, and grammar. Some of the dialogue in The Million-Pound Bank
Note features the dialect of working-class Londoners.
Pardon me, Guv'ner, but aren't you the gentleman what owns the million-pound
bank note?
—Mark Twain, dramatized by Walter Hackett, The Million-Pound Bank Note
Dialogue The words that characters speak aloud are called dialogue. Writers use
dialogue to bring characters to life and to give readers insights into the
characters' qualities, personality traits, and reactions to other characters. In
most literary works, dialogue is set off with quotation marks.
See pages 261, 331.
Drama A drama, or play, is a form of literature meant to be performed by actors
before an audience. In a drama, the characters' dialogue and actions tell the
story. The written form of a play is known as a script. A script usually includes
dialogue, a cast of characters, and stage directions that give specific
instructions about performing the play. The person who writes the play is known
as the playwright, or dramatist.
See page 259.
See also Act, Cast of characters, Comedy, Dialogue, Prop, Scene, Stage, Scenery,
Tragedy.
Drawing conclusions Combining several pieces of information to make an
inference is called drawing a conclusion. A reader's conclusions may be based
on the details presented in a literary work, on his or her previous inferences, or
on a combination of these.
See pages 131, 348, 553, 554, 592.
Dynamic character see Character development
Epic An epic is a long narrative poem about the adventures of a hero whose
actions reflect the ideals and values of a nation or a group. Epics address
universal concerns, such as good and evil, life and death, and other serious
subjects.
Essay An essay is a short work of nonfiction that deals with a single subject. A
formal essay is highly organized, thoroughly researched, and serious in tone.
An informal essay is lighter in tone and usually reflects the writer's feelings and
personality. The excerpt from High Tide in Tucson is an example of an informal
essay.
See pages 103, 134.
Evaluating Evaluating is the process of judging the worth of something or
someone. A work of literature—or any of its elements—can be evaluated in
terms of such criteria as entertainment, believability, originality, and emotional
power.
Exaggeration An extreme overstatement of an idea is called exaggeration and is
often used for purposes of emphasis or humor. For example, in "The Tell-Tale
Heart," the narrator exaggerates when he says, "I heard all things in the heaven
and in the earth."
See page 794.
See also Hyperbole.
Exposition In fiction, the structure of the plot normally begins with exposition. In the
early part of the story, the exposition sets the tone, establishes the setting,
introduces the characters, and gives the reader important background
information. In "The Treasure of Lemon Brown," the exposition leads up to the
time when Greg meets Lemon Brown in the abandoned building.
See pages 18, 260, 439.
See also Plot.
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Extended metaphor An extended metaphor is a figure of speech that compares
two essentially unlike things at some length. An extended metaphor may
introduce a series of metaphors representing different aspects of a situation.
For example, the poem "0 Captain! My Captain!" begins with a metaphor in
which President
Abraham Lincoln is compared to the captain of a ship. The ship is a metaphor for
the United States. What other metaphors can you find in the first two lines of
the poem?
O Captain! my Captain! our fearful trip is done,
The ship has weather'd every rack, the prize we sought is won...
—Walt Whitman, "0 Captain! My Captain!"
See also Metaphor.
External conflict See Conflict
Fable A fable is a brief tale that teaches a lesson about human nature. Many fables
feature animals.
See page 904. See also Moral.
Fact and opinion A fact is a statement that can be proved, such as "Mars is the
fourth planet from the sun" An opinion, in contrast, is a statement that reflects a
writer's belief, but which cannot be supported by proof or evidence; for
example, "Mars is the most beautiful planet' Much nonfiction contains both facts
and opinions, and it is important for readers to distinguish between the two.
See pages 723, 829, 830.
Falling action Falling action is the part of the plot of a story that occurs after the
climax. During the falling action, sometimes called the resolution, conflicts are
resolved and loose ends are tied up.
See pages 18, 41, 260, 439. See also Plot.
Fantasy A work of literature that contains at least one fantastic or unreal element is
called fantasy. The setting of a work of fantasy might be a totally imaginary
world, or it might be a realistic place where very unusual or impossible things
happen.
See page 562.
Fiction Fiction is prose writing that tells an imaginary story. The writer of a fictional
work might invent all the events and characters in it or might base parts of the
story on real people or events. Fiction includes both short stories and novels. A
short story can usually be read in one sitting. Novels are longer and more
complex.
See also Historical fiction, Horror fiction, Novel, Short story.
Figurative language Writers use figurative language—expressions that are not
literally true—to create original descriptions. In Undaunted Courage, Stephen
Ambrose uses the words blanket and sea to describe a large flock of pelicans:
The captain looked up to see a blanket of white coming down the river. . . . On
close examination it turned out to be a sea of white feathers, over three
miles long and seventy yards wide.
See pages 190, 215, 249.
See also Metaphor, Personification, Simile.
First-person point of view see Point of view.
Flashback In a literary work, a flashback is an interruption of the action to present
events that took place at an earlier time. A flashback can provide information
that helps readers understand a character's current situation. In "The Bet," for
example, a flashback is used to present the banker's recollection of a party he
gave 15 years earlier.
See pages 285, 440, 475.
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Folklore The traditions, customs, and stories that are passed down within a culture
are known as its folklore. Folklore contains various types of literature, such as
legends, folk tales, myths, and fables.
See page 904.
Folk tale A folk tale is a simple story that has been passed from generation to
generation by word of mouth. The characters in folk tales might be animals,
people, or superhuman beings. Folk tales are told primarily to entertain rather
than to explain or teach a lesson. "The Souls in Purgatory" is a folk tale from
Mexico.
See page 904.
Foreshadowing Foreshadowing occurs when a writer provides hints that suggest
future events in a story. Foreshadowing creates suspense while preparing the
reader for what is to come. In The Hitchhiker, the mother's fears about her son's
trip foreshadow the trouble the son will have on his journey.
But you'll be careful, won't you? Promise me you'll be careful. Don't fall
asleep—or drive fast—or pick up any strangers on the road.
See pages 440, 552, 654.
Form A literary work's form is its structure or organization. The form of a poem
includes the arrangement of words and lines on the page. Some poems follow
predictable patterns, with the same number of syllables in each line and the
same number of lines in each stanza. Others, like "Southbound on the
Freeway," have irregular forms.
See pages 188, 390, 422.
Free verse Poetry without regular patterns of rhyme and rhythm is called free
verse. Some poets use free verse to capture the sounds and rhythms of
ordinary speech. The poem "the drum" is written in free verse.
daddy says the world is
a drum tight and hard
and i told him I'm gonna beat out my rhythm
—Nikki Giovanni, the drum"
See pages 188, 587.
Generalization A generalization is a broad statement about an entire group, such
as "Whales are larger than salmon." Not all generalizations are true. Some are
too broad or are not supported by sufficient evidence, like the statement "All
eighth graders like yogurt!'
See pages 202, 875.
Genre A type or category of literature is called a genre. There are four main literary
genres: fiction, nonfiction, poetry, and drama.
Haiku Haiku is a traditional form of Japanese poetry. A haiku normally has three
lines and describes a single moment, feeling, or thing. In a traditional haiku, the
first and third lines contain five syllables, and the second line contains seven
syllables.
Historical fiction Historical fiction is contemporary fiction that is set in the past.
Historical fiction may contain references to actual people and events of the
past. "War Party" is an example of historical fiction.
See page 737.
Horror fiction Horror fiction contains mysterious and often supernatural events that
create terror. "The Tell-Tale Heart" is an example of horror fiction.
Humor Humor is the quality that provokes laughter or amusement. Writers create
humor through exaggeration, sarcasm, amusing descriptions, irony, and witty
and insightful dialogue. "The Ransom of Red Chief" is an example of a
humorous work.
See page 794.
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Hyperbole Hyperbole is a figure of speech in which the truth is exaggerated for
emphasis or for humorous effect.
With his gang's help, he [Bill] put together the biggest ranch in the
Southwest. He used New Mexico as a corral and Arizona as a pasture. He
invented tarantulas and scorpions as practical jokes. He also invented
roping. Some say his rope was exactly as long as the equator; others
argue it was two feet shorter.
—Mary Pope Osborne, "Pecos Bill"
Idiom An idiom is an expression whose meaning is different from the sum of the
meanings of its individual words. The expression "break her date" in "The
Moustache" is an example of an idiom.
Imagery Imagery consists of words and phrases that appeal to readers' five
senses. Writers use sensory details to help readers imagine how things look,
feel, smell, sound, and taste.
After two days of gentle winter rains, the small pond behind my house is
lapping at its banks, content as a well-fed kitten.
—Barbara Kingsolver, High Tide in Tucson See pages 190, 215, 296, 367, 622.
Inductive order In nonfiction, the structure of a text may be organized using
inductive order. A text that is organized inductively begins with specific
evidence that leads to a general conclusion.
See also Deductive order, Structure.
Inference An inference is a logical guess based on evidence. Readers, by
combining the information a writer provides with what they know from their own
experience, can figure out more than the words say. For example, readers of
"Checkouts" can make inferences about what motivates the red- haired girl to
behave as she does.
See pages 191, 192, 220, 422, 794.
Informative nonfiction Informative nonfiction is writing that provides factual
information about real people, places, and events. Informative nonfiction
includes newspaper and magazine articles, textbooks, and encyclopedias.
See pages 104, 159, 638. See also Nonfiction.
Internal conflict See Conflict..
Interview An interview is a meeting in which one person asks another about
personal matters, professional matters, or both. The excerpt from The Last
Seven Months of Anne Frank is based on an interview with Anne Frank's friend
Hannah Elisabeth Pick-Goslar.
See pages 104, 515.
Irony Irony is a contrast between what is expected and what actually exists or
happens. In "The Ransom of Red Chief," for example, it is ironic that Red Chief
enjoys being kidnapped.
See page 69.
Legend A legend is a story handed down from the past about a specific person—
usually someone of heroic accomplishments. "Otoonah" is an Eskimo legend.
See page 904.
Limerick A limerick is a short, humorous poem composed of five lines. It usually
has the rhyme scheme aabba, created by two rhyming couplets followed by a
fifth line that rhymes with the first couplet. A limerick typically has a sing-song
rhythm.
There was an Old Man who supposed
That the street door was partially closed;
But some very large rats
Ate his coats and his hats,
While that futile Old Gentleman dozed.
—Edward Lear
See also Couplet.
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Literary nonfiction See Nonfiction.
Lyric poetry Lyric poetry is poetry that presents the thoughts and feelings of a
single speaker. Most poems, other than narrative poems, are lyric poems. Lyric
poetry can be in a variety of forms and cover many subjects, from love and
death to everyday experiences. "Knoxville, Tennessee" by
Nikki Giovanni is a lyric poem.
See page 417.
Main character See Character.
Main idea A main idea is the most important point that a writer wishes to express. It
can be the central idea of an entire work or a thought expressed in the topic
sentence of a paragraph.
See pages 105, 106, 408, 528.
Memoir A memoir is a specific type of autobiography. Like autobiography, a
memoir is about the author's personal experiences. However, a memoir does
not necessarily cover the author's entire life. "Block Party" is a memoir.
See pages 102, 106, 127. See also Autobiography.
Metaphor A metaphor is a comparison of two things that have some quality in
common. Unlike a simile, a metaphor does not contain an explicit word of
comparison, such as like or as. To what is the moon - being compared in the
following lines?
who knows if the moon's
a balloon,coming out of a keen city
in the sky—filled with pretty people?
—E. E. Cummings, "who knows if the moon's"
See pages 190, 215, 249, 779.
See also Extended metaphor, Figurative language.
Meter In poetry, meter is the regular pattern of accented (') and unaccented (‘')
syllables. Although all poems have rhythm, not all poems have regular meter. Each
unit of meter is known as a foot. The feet and the meter are marked in these
lines.
cannon to I right of them
cannon to I left of them
—Alfred, Lord Tennyson, "The Charge of The Light Brigade"
See page 189. See also Rhythm.
Minor character See Character.
Monitoring Monitoring is the attention readers pay to their comprehension as they
are reading. Monitoring helps readers to understand more clearly the meaning
of what they are reading.
See pages 21, 148, 443, 587.
Mood A mood, or atmosphere, is a feeling that a literary work conveys to readers.
In "The Woman in the Snow," for example, the description of the ghostly figure
and her baby in the snow creates an ominous and heart-wrenching mood. What
kind of mood is created in the following passage?
They sat down by the fire again. Outside, the wind was higher than ever, and
the old man started nervously at the sound of a door banging upstairs. A
silence unusual and depressing settled upon all three, which lasted until
the old couple rose to retire for the night.
—W. W. Jacobs, "The Monkey's Paw"
See pages 332, 621, 622, 624.
Moral A moral is a lesson that a story teaches. A moral is often stated directly at the
end of a fable. The following moral appears at the end of "A Fable" by Mark
Twain.
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MORAL, BY THE CAT
You can find in a text whatever you bring, if you will stand between it and the
mirror of your imagination. You may not see your ears, but they will be
there.
See also Fable.
Motivation A character's motivation is the reason why he or she acts, feels, or
thinks in a certain way. For example, young Laurence Yep in "The Great Rat
Hunt" is motivated by a desire to please his father.
See pages 19, 22, 331.
Myth A myth is a traditional story, usually of unknown authorship, that answers
basic questions about the world. Myths attempt to explain such things as
human nature, the origin of the world, mysteries of nature, and social customs.
See page 904.
Narrative Writing that tells a story is called a narrative. The events in a narrative
can be real or imagined. Narratives dealing with real events include biographies
and autobiographies. Fictional narratives include myths, short stories, and
novels.
See also Autobiography, Biography, Myth, Novel, Short story.
Narrative poetry Poetry that tells a story is called narrative poetry. Like fiction,
narrative poetry contains characters, settings, and plots. It might also contain
such elements of poetry as rhyme, rhythm, imagery, and figurative language.
"Paul Revere's Ride" is an example of narrative poetry.
See pages 197, 714, 716.
Narrator A narrator is the teller of a story. Sometimes a story's narrator is a
character who takes part in the action, such as Charlie in "Flowers for
Algernon." Other times, as in
"The Treasure of Lemon Brown," the story is narrated by an outside voice.
See also Point of view.
Nonfiction Writing that tells about real people, places, and events is called
nonfiction. Literary nonfiction is written to be read in much the same way as
fiction. Informative nonfiction is written mainly to provide factual information.
See page 101.
See also Autobiography, Biography, Essay, Informative nonfiction.
Novel A novel is a work of fiction that is longer and more complex than a short
story. In a novel, setting, plot, and characters are usually developed in great
detail.
See page 17. See also Fiction.
Onomatopoeia Onomatopoeia is the use of words whose sounds suggest their
meaning. The words bang and hiss are examples of onomatopoeia. In the
following lines, the word sweep is an example of onomatopoeia.
The only other sound's the sweep Of easy wind and downy flake.
—Robert Frost, "Stopping by Woods on
a Snowy Evening"
Opinion See Fact and opinion.
Oral history Oral histories are stories of people's lives related by word of mouth.
These histories usually include both factual material and personal reactions.
Paradox A paradox is a statement that seems to contradict itself but is,
nevertheless, true. All forms of irony involve paradox. For example, in "The
Ransom of Red Chief," it is both ironic and a paradox that Red Chief enjoys
being kidnapped.
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Parallelism Parallelism is the use of similar grammatical constructions to express
ideas that are related or equal in importance.
Paraphrasing Paraphrasing is the restatement of a text by readers in their own
words or in another form.
See page 715, 716.
Personification The giving of human qualities to an animal, object, or idea is
known as personification. In "Racing the Great Bear," the great bear is
personified when it takes on a human shape.
See pages 190, 804.
See also Figurative language.
Perspective See Author's perspective, Point of view.
Persuasion Persuasive writing is meant to sway readers' feelings, beliefs, or
actions. Persuasion normally appeals to both the mind and the emotions of
readers.
See page 103.
Play See Drama.
Playwright See Drama.
Plot A plot is the sequence of related events that make up a story. It is typical for a
plot to begin with an exposition that introduces the characters and the conflict
they face. Complications arise during the rising action as the characters
struggle with the conflict. Eventually, the plot reaches a climax, the turning point
of the story. In the falling action, or resolution, that follows, loose ends are tied
up, and the story is brought to a close.
See pages 18, 32, 80, 102, 260, 439, 447, 672, 680. See also Character, Climax,
Conflict, Exposition, Subplot.
Poetic Form See Form.
Poetry Poetry is a type of literature in which ideas and feelings are expressed in
compact, imaginative, and often musical language. Poets arrange words in ways
designed to touch readers' senses, emotions, and minds. Most poems are
written in lines, which may contain patterns of rhyme and rhythm. These lines
may, in turn, be grouped in stanzas.
See page 187.
See also Alliteration, Ballad, Free verse, Lyric poetry, Meter, Narrative poetry,
Rhyme, Rhythm, Stanza.
Point of view The perspective from which a story is told is called its point of view.
When a story is told from the first-person point of view, the narrator is a
character in the story and uses first-person pronouns, such as I, me, and we.
"War Party" is told from the first-person point of view. When a writer uses a
third-person point of view, the story is told by a narrative voice outside the
action, not by one of the characters. Third- person point of view uses thirdperson pronouns, such as he, she, it, and they. "The Treasure of Lemon Brown"
is told from the third-person point of view.
See pages 102, 106, 374.
Predicting Using what you know to guess what might happen is called predicting.
Good readers gather information and combine it with their own knowledge to
predict events.
See pages 4, 21, 22, 69, 105, 654, 737.
Primary source A primary source is a firsthand account of an event. Primary
sources include diaries, journals, letters, speeches, news stories, photographs,
and pieces of art. The journals of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, which
form the basis of Undaunted Courage, are examples of primary sources.
See pages 168, 723, 766.
Propaganda Text that uses false or misleading information to present a point of
view is called propaganda. Name-calling,
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snob appeal, and bandwagon appeal are three techniques of propaganda.
Prose Prose is the ordinary form of spoken and written language—that is, it is
language that lacks the special features of poetry.
Protagonist A protagonist is the central character or hero in a narrative or a drama,
usually the one with whom the audience tends to identify. Anne Frank is the
protagonist in The Diary of Anne Frank.
See page 148.
See also Antagonist.
Purpose See Author's purpose, Setting a purpose.
Questioning The process of raising questions while reading is called questioning.
Good readers ask themselves questions in an effort to understand characters
and events; they look for the answers as they read.
See pages 4, 21, 333, 390, 715, 756.
Radio play A drama written specifically to be heard on the radio is called a radio
play. Because the audience is not meant to see a radio play, sound effects are
often used to help listeners imagine the setting and the action. The Hitchhiker is
an example of a radio play. Notice how the stage directions in the following
lines from the script indicate the sound effects.
sound: automobile wheels humming over concrete road
See page 263.
Realistic fiction Realistic fiction is imaginative writing set in the real, modern world.
The characters act like real people who use ordinary human abilities to cope
with problems and conflicts typical of modern life. "The Treasure of Lemon
Brown" is an example of realistic fiction.
Repetition Repetition is a technique in which a sound, word, phrase, or line is
repeated for effect or emphasis. Note how the use of repetition in the following
lines emphasizes the speaker's faith:
Sing a song full of the faith that the dark past has taught us,
Sing a song full of the hope that the present has brought us . . .
—James Weldon Johnson, "Lift Every Voice and Sing"
See pages 189, 197.
See also Alliteration, Rhyme.
Resolution See Falling action, Plot.
Rhyme Rhyme is a repetition of sounds at the ends of words. Words rhyme when
their accented vowels and all letters that follow have identical sounds. Cat and
bat rhyme, as do weather and feather. The most common form of rhyme in
poetry is end rhyme, in which the rhyming words are at the end of lines. Rhyme
that occurs within a line is called internal rhyme. The following lines show both
end and internal rhyme:
The ship is anchor'd safe and sound, its voyage closed and done,
From fearful trip the victor ship comes in with object won .. .
—Walt Whitman, "0 Captain! My Captain!"
See pages 189, 197.
Rhyme scheme The pattern of end rhyme in a poem is called rhyme scheme. The
pattern is charted by assigning a letter of the alphabet, beginning with the letter
a, to each line. Lines that rhyme are given the same letter.
He'd have given me rolling lands,
Houses of marble, and billowing farms,
Pearls, to trickle between my hands,
Smoldering rubies, to circle my arms.
—Dorothy Parker, "The Choice"
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Rhythm Rhythm refers to the pattern or flow of sound created by the arrangement
of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of poetry. The accented, or
stressed, syllables are marked with while
unaccented, or unstressed, syllables are marked with ". A regular pattern of
rhythm is called meter. Note the stressed and unstressed syllables in the
following lines:
See pages 189, 197. See also Meter.
Rising action Rising action refers to the events in a story that move the plot
forward. Rising action involves conflicts and complications and usually builds
toward a climax, or turning point.
See pages 18, 41, 260, 439. See also Plot.
Satire Satire is a literary technique in which ideas or customs are ridiculed for the
purpose of improving society. Satire can be gently witty, mildly abrasive, or
bitterly critical. "A Fable" by Mark Twain is an example of satire.
See page 804.
Scanning Scanning is the process of searching through writing for a particular fact
or piece of information. When readers scan, their eyes sweep across a page
looking for key words that could lead to the information they want.
Scene In a play, a scene is a section presenting events that occur in one place at
one time. Act One of The Diary of Anne Frank has five scenes.
See page 260.
Scenery The painted backdrop or other structures used to create the setting for a
play is called scenery.
See page 260.
Science fiction Science fiction is prose writing in which a writer explores
unexpected possibilities of the past or the future by using scientific data and
theories as well as his or her imagination. Most science fiction creates a
believable world, although some works create a fantasy world that has familiar
elements. "Rain, Rain, Go Away" is an example of science fiction.
See pages 549, 554.
Script See Drama.
Secondary source A secondary source presents information compiled from or
based on other sources. Undaunted Courage is an example of a secondary
source because it is based on other sources, such as the journals of
Meriwether Lewis and William Clark.
See pages 723, 766.
Sensory details Words and phrases that help readers see, hear, taste, feel, or
smell what an author is describing are called sensory details. Note the sensory
details in these lines:
The rhododendron was in bloom, a carpet of color, across the mountainsides,
soft as the May winds that stirred the hemlocks.
—Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, "A Mother in
Mannville"
See page 215.
Sequence The order in which events occur or in which ideas are presented is
called sequence. In a narrative, events are usually presented in chronological
order—the order in which they happen. A writer might use clue words and
phrases, such as then, until,
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and finally, to help readers understand the sequence of events.
See pages 285, 440.
See also Chronological order.
Setting A setting of a story, poem, or play is the time and place of the action.
Sometimes the setting is clear and well defined; at other times, it is left to
readers' imaginations. Elements of setting can include geographic location,
historical period (past, present, or future), season, time of day, and the customs
and manners of a society.
See pages 17, 20, 59, 102, 280, 329, 332, 861.
Setting a purpose The process of establishing specific reasons to read a work is
called setting a purpose. Readers can look at a work's title, headings, and
illustrations to guess what the work might be about. Then they can use these
guesses to guide their reading and discover whether their ideas match the
actual content of the work.
See pages 565, 672, 680.
Short story A short story is a brief work of fiction that can generally be read in one
sitting. A short story usually focuses on one or two main characters who face a
single problem or conflict.
See page 17. See also Fiction.
Simile A simile is a comparison of two things that have some quality in common. In
a simile, the comparison is expressed by means of a word such as like, as, or
resembles.
The willow is like an etching, Fine-lined against the sky.
The ginkgo is like a crude sketch, Hardly worthy to be signed.
—Eve Merriam, "Simile: Willow and Ginkgo"
See pages 190, 215, 249.
Skimming Skimming is the process of reading quickly to find a main idea or to get
an overview of a work or a passage. It involves reading the title, the headings,
the words in special type, and the first sentence of each paragraph, along with
charts, graphs, and time lines.
Sound devices See Alliteration, Onomatopoeia, Repetition, Rhyme, Rhythm.
Spatial alignment The arrangement of ideas and images in a graphic pattern to
indicate their relationships is called spatial alignment.
Speaker The speaker is the voice that talks to the reader in a poem, like the
narrator in a work of fiction; the speaker in a poem is not necessarily the poet,
however. In "Child on Top of a Greenhouse" by Theodore Roethke, the
experiences related might or might not have happened to the poet. In "I
Stepped from Plank to Plank" by Emily Dickinson, since the poet uses the
pronoun I, the poem may well be autobiographical.
See pages 192, 422.
Specialized vocabulary The words
unique to a specific subject or profession make up a specialized vocabulary. The
excerpt from Wait Till Next Year, for example, contains terms related to
baseball.
See page 861.
Speech A speech is a talk given in public. "One Million Volumes" by Rudolfo Anaya
is an example of a speech.
SQ3R SQ3R is a method of text reading that combines reading and studying in five
steps:
S—Survey
Q—Question
R-1—Read
R-2—Recite
R-3—Review
See page 574.
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Stage A stage is the level and raised platform on which entertainers usually
perform.
Stage directions In the script of a play, the instructions to the actors, director, and
stage crew are called stage directions. Stage directions might suggest scenery,
lighting, music, sound effects, and ways for actors to move and speak. In The
Diary of Anne Frank, stage directions appear within parentheses and in italic
type.
(Dussel hurriedly takes off the raincoat, giving it to Mr. Kraler. Underneath is
his white dentist's jacket, with a yellow Star of David on it.)
See pages 260, 263.
Stanza A stanza is a grouping of two or more lines. A stanza is comparable to a
paragraph in prose. Each stanza may have the same number of lines or the
number of lines may vary. "The Other Pioneers" contains three stanzas.
See pages 188, 390.
Static character See Character development.
Stereotype A stereotype is a broad generalization or an oversimplified view that
disregards individual differences. Stereotypes can lead to unfair judgments of
people on the basis of ethnic background or physical appearance.
Story mapping A story map is a visual organizer that helps a reader understand a
work of literature. A story map helps a reader to keep track of setting,
characters, events, and conflicts.
See pages 443, 447.
Structure In nonfiction, the structure of a piece may be chronological or spatial
order, cause and effect, or comparison and contrast.
Also, ideas may be presented using inductive or deductive reasoning. Recognizing
a text's structure can help in finding the most important ideas as well as the
supporting facts and details.
Style A style is a manner of writing; it involves how something is said rather than
what is said. The style of the poem "Mother to Son," for example, might be
described as conversational—it reflects the speaker's usual informal way of
talking. Many elements contribute to style, including word choice, sentence
length, tone, and figurative language.
See page 202.
Subject The subject of a literary work is its focus or topic. In a biography, for
example, the subject is the person whose life story is being told. Subject differs
from theme in that theme is a deeper meaning, usually inferred by the reader,
whereas the subject is the main situation or set of facts described by the text.
Subplot A subplot is an additional, minor plot that involves a secondary conflict in
the story. The subplot may or may not affect the main plot.
See page 440. See also plot.
Summarizing Summarizing is the process of briefly recounting the main ideas of a
piece of writing in a person's own words, while omitting unimportant details.
See pages 283, 769.
Surprise ending An unexpected twist in the plot at the end of a story is called a
surprise ending. "The Ransom of Red Chief" is an example of a story with a
surprise ending.
See page 592.
Suspense Suspense is a feeling of growing tension and excitement. Writers create
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suspense by raising questions in readers' minds about what might happen.
See pages 552, 565.
Symbol A symbol is a person, a place, an object, or an action that stands for
something beyond itself. A flag, for example, can symbolize a state or country.
In "The Moustache," Mike's moustache symbolizes his desire to be an adult.
See pages 190, 367, 622.
Table of contents In most nonfiction books or in books arranged by chapter or
section, the contents of the book are shown in a table of contents. The table of
contents usually appears at the beginning of the book and lists chapter and
section titles and the page where each begins. Besides helping you to find
specific parts of the book, the table of contents can give you an overview of the
material covered by the book.
Tall tale A tall tale is a humorously exaggerated story about impossible events.
Often the main character in a tall tale has extraordinary abilities. "Pecos Bill" is
a tall tale.
Text organizers Text organizers include headings, tables of contents, and graphic
elements such as charts, tables, time lines, boxes, bullets, and captions.
See page 211.
Theme A theme is the meaning, moral, or message about life or human nature that
is communicated by a literary work. In many cases, readers must infer what the
theme is. One way of figuring out a theme is to examine the lesson learned by
the main character and to apply it to all people. For example, a theme of "The
Treasure of Lemon Brown" might be that every person has a treasure.
See pages 20, 48, 551, 827, 830.
Third-person point of view See Point of view.
Tone The tone of a work expresses the writer's attitude toward his or her subject.
Words such as angry, sad, and humorous can be used to describe different
tones. The poem "I'm Making a List," for example, can be said to have a
humorous tone.
See pages 332, 552, 621, 622, 769, 879.
Topic sentence See Main idea.
Tragedy A tragedy is a dramatic work that presents the downfall of a dignified
character or characters who are involved in historically or socially significant
events. The events in a tragic plot are set in motion by a decision that is often
an error in judgment. Succeeding events are linked in a causeand-effect
relationship and lead inevitably to a disastrous conclusion, usually death. The
play Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare is an example of a tragedy.
Turning point See Climax.
Urban legend A contemporary story that is told in many versions around the world
is called an urban legend. "The Girl in the Lavender Dress" is an urban legend.
See page 943.
Visualizing The process of forming a mental picture based on a written description
is called visualizing. Good readers use the details supplied by writers to picture
characters, settings, and events.
See pages 4, 21, 59, 134, 333, 367, 623, 624, 804.
Voice An author's or a narrator's voice is his or her distinctive style or manner of
expression. Voice can reveal much about the author's or the narrator's
personality—as does the voice of Squeaky, the narrator of "Raymond's Run."
See page 408.
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Glossary of Words to Know
In English and Spanish
A
abduction (ăb-dŭk'shən) n. kidnapping
rapto n. secuestro
abomination (ə-bŏm'ə-nā'shən) n. a hateful or disgusting thing
abominación n. cosa desagradable
abstracted (ăb-străk'tĭd) adj. lost in thought so as to be unaware of one's
surroundings; absent-minded, preoccupied
abstraido(a) adj. ensimismado(a)
absurd (əb-sûrd') adj. ridiculously unreasonable
absurdo(a) adj. opuesto(a) a la razón
accelerator (ăk-sĕl'ə-rā'tər) n. a device, especially the gas pedal of a motor vehicle,
for increasing speed
acelerador n. pedal de los automóviles que controla la velocidad
access (ăk'sĕs) n. the power to reach; to make use of; to get past barriers
acceso n. action de Ilegar o acercarse
accommodation (ə-kŏm'ə-dā'shən) n. a favor or convenience
favor n. ayuda, beneficio
acute (ə-kyoot') adj. sharp; keen
filoso(a) adj. cortante
ad-libbing (ăd-lĭb'ĭng) adj. speaking spontaneously, without preparation ad-lib v.
improvisado(a) adj. que habla espontaneannente, sin preparación
admonish (ăd-mŏn'ĭsh) v. to caution; warn
prevenir v. avisar, advertir
adversary (ăd'vər-sĕr'ē) n. an opponent
adversario n. oponente
affectation (ăfĕk-tā'shən) n. unnatural behavior, especially behavior intended to
impress others
afectación n. falta de naturalidad en la manera de hablar y de comportarse
affliction (ə-flĭk'shən) n. a condition of pain or suffering
aflicción n. tristeza
affluent (ăf'loo-ənt) adj. abundant; rich
rico(a) adj. con dinero y riquezas
ail (āl) v. to feel ill or be in pain
sentirse mal v. sentir dolor o aflicción
ajar (ə-jär') adj. partially open
entreabierto(a) adj. abierto(a) a medias
antic (ă'nt'ĭc) n. an odd or extravagant act or gesture; a prank
payasada n. action riclicula
appalled (ə-pôld') adj. horrified; shocked appall v.
asombrado(a) adj. asustado(a), impactado(a) asombrar v.
armada (är-mä'da) n. a fleet of warships; a large group of moving things
armada n. conjunto de fuerzas navales
arresting (ə-rĕs'tĭng) adj. capturing attention; striking
Ilamativo(a) adj. cautivante, que llama la atención
assailant (ə-sā'lənt) n. a person who attacks another
agresor(a) n. persona que ataca a otra
assert (ə-sûrt') v. to put forward in a forceful or insistent way
aseverar v. afirmar, hacer valer
assurance (ə-shoor'əns) n. a guarantee or pledge
garantia n. prenda, cosa que asegura y protege contra algün riesgo
audacity (ô-dăs'ĭ-tē) n. shameless daring or boldness
osadia n. atrevimiento
B
bade (bād) v. invited; directed; present tense—bid
dejó v. permitió; presente—dejar
banter (băn'tər) n. good-natured, playful talk
chanza n. dicho o conversation burlona
barren (băr'ən) adj. empty
yermo(a) adj. vacio(a), que no contiene nada
barricade (băr-kād') v. a structure set up to block a passage
barricada n. obstáculo hecho de varios materiales para bloquear el avance del
enemigo
battalion (bə-tăl'yən) n. a large body of organized people, especially troops; a great
number
batalkin n. grupo numeroso de gente; tropas militares
beckon (bĕk'ən) v. to signal to come by nodding or waving
hacer seiias v. Ilamar a alguien por medio de gestos
bellow (bĕ1'ō) v. to shout in a deep, loud voice
bramar v. gritar fuertemente
benefactor (bĕn'ə-făk'tər) n. a person who gives monetary or other aid
benefactor(a) n. persona que da ayuda, generalmente monetaria
benevolence (bə-nĕv'ə-ləns) n. kindness; goodwill
benevolencia v. simpatia, buena voluntad
benevolently (bə-nĕv'ə-lənt-1ē) adv. characterized by doing good; kindly
benevolentemente adv. de manera simpática y bondadosa
betrayal (bĭ-trā' ŭl) n. the act of being disloyal
traición n. acto de ser desleal
blunt (blŭnt) adj. abrupt; rudely straightforward or honest
contundente adj. directo(a), que da su parecer espontaneannente
board (bôrd) n. food or meals
comida n. alimentos que se ofrecen como parte del alojamiento
borne (bôrn) adj. carried bear v.
sufrido(a) adj. aguantar sufrir v.
boycott (boi' kŏt) v. to act together in refusing to use, buy, or deal with, especially
as an expression of protest
boicot n. dejar de negociar con una compaffla o persona a manera de protests
brandishing (brăn'dĭsh-ĭng) adj. waving something (such as a weapon) in a
threatening manner brandish v.
amenazante adj. que se muestra para amenazar a alguien amenazar v.
brazen (brā'zən) adj. marked by exaggerated fearlessness or boldness
desvergonzado(a) adj. descarado(a), desfachatado(a)
brusquely (brŭsk'lē) adv. in an abrupt, sudden manner
bruscamente adv. de golpe, de manera repentina
C
cajoling (kə-jō'lĭng) adj. urging gently; coaxing cajole v.
persuadido(a) adj. convencido(a) por otra persona a hacer algo persuadir V.
capricious (kə-prĭsh'əs) capricious (ke-prish'es) adj. unpredictable
caprichoso(a) adj. que actiia con capricho; capricho deseo egoista n.
capsize (kăp'sīz) v. to overturn or cause to overturn
volcar v. hacer que una cosa taiga
censorship (sen' sər-shĭp') n. the practice of banning writing, music, or visual
material that is considered improper or harmful
censura n. prohibiciOn de material escrito, visual o musical, considerado impropio
chant (chant) n. something sung or spoken in a rhythmic monotone
salmo n. cãntico o recitado de ritmo monOtono
circumstance (sûr'kəm-stăns) n. a condition; a financial situation
circunstancia n. condiciOn, situation final
clan (klăn) n. a group of families claiming a common ancestor; a group of relatives,
friends, or others having a common background or interest
clan n. grupo de familias que tienen un antepasado en comiin; grupo de familiares o
amigos que tienen antecedentes en comtln
clarity (klăr'ĭ-tē) n. the quality of being easily seen; clearness
claridad n. cualidad de ser visto fãcilmente; luminosidad
cliché (k1ē-shā') n. an overused expression that has lost its original quality or effect
cliché n. expresiOn repetida que ha perdido su significado original
clutch (klŭch) v. to grasp and hold tightly
agarrar v. tomar firmemente
coax (kōks) v. to persuade or try to persuade by gentle, persistent urging or flattery
engatusar v. persuadir de manera insistente y con halagos
collaborate (kə-lăb'ə-rāt) v. to work together on a project
colaborar v. trabajar juntos en un proyecto
commence (kə-mĕns') v. to begin; start
comenzar V. empezar
commend (kə-mĕnd') v. to speak highly of; to praise
recomendar v. hablar bien de alguien, alabar
commissioner (kə-mĭsh'ə-ner) n. a person authorized by a commission or special
group to perform certain duties
comisionado n. persona autorizada por una comisiOn o grupo especial para realizar
ciertas actividades
communion (kə-myoon'yən) n. close relationship in which deep feelings are
shared; intimacy
comuniOn n. relaciOn cercana en la que se comparten sentimientos; intimidad
compel (kərn-pĕl') v. to force or drive
compeler v. forzar, obligar, exigir
competent (kŏm'pĭ-tənt) adj. qualified; capable
competente adj. calificado(a); capaz
comply (kəm-plī') v. to act according to a command, request, or order
cumplir v. actuar de acuerdo a una orden o requerimiento
conceived (kən-sēvd') adj. thought of conceive v.
concebido(a) adj. pensado(a)
conflagration (kŏn'flə-grā'shən) n. a large, destructive fire
conflagraciOn n. incendio destructivo
consent (kən-sĕnt') n. agreement, acceptance, or approval
consentimiento n. acuerdo, aceptación, aprobación
consequence (kŏn' sĭ-kwĕns') n. importance
consecuencia n. importancia
console (kən-sōl) v. to comfort
consolar V. confortar
conspicuous (kən-spĭk' yoo-əs) adj. easy to notice; obvious
conspicuo(a) adj. sobresaliente, llamativo(a)
conspiracy (kən-spîrə-sē) n. a secret plan by a group to perform an illegal, wrongful, or rebellious act
conspiración n. plan secreto para Ilevar a cabo un acto ilegal o rebelde
contemplate (kŏn'təm-plāt') v. to look at something thoughtfully, carefully, and
thoroughly; to think about something at length
contemplar v. observar algo cuidadosamente, pensar profundamente
contempt (kən-tĕmpt') n. an attitude of despising; scorn
desdén n. actitud de desprecio
contrivance (kən-trī'vəns) n. something, as a machine, created to do a specific
thing
invention n. algo creado, como una nnáquina, para hater algo especifico
contrive (kən-trīv') v. to invent
inventar V. crear
converge (kən-vûrj') v. to come together from different directions
converger v. unirse al Ilegar de distintas direcciones
credulity (krĭ-doo'lĭ-tē) n. a tendency to believe too easily; gullibility
credulidad n. tendencia a creer de manera fácil
crevice (krĕv'ĭs) n. a crack
ranura n. rendija
cultivation (kŭl' tə-vā' shən) n. the act of preparing and improving the land; the
growing of crops
cultivo n. acto de preparar la tierra para cosechar
D
dear (dîr) adj. greatly valued; precious
estimado(a) adj. valioso(a), precioso(a)
decree (dĭ-krē') n. an official order
decreto n. orden official
deftly (dĕft'1ē) adv. move in a quick and skillful manner
hábilmente adv. con destreza
delegation (dĕl'ĭ-gā'shən) n. a group of people selected as representatives
delegación n. grupo de personas seleccionadas como representantes
demise (dĭ-mīz') n. an ending of existence
fallecimiento n. final de la existencia
derision (dĭ-rĭzh'ən) n. ridicule
burla n. desprecio
descendant (dĭ-sĕn'dənt) n. an offspring
descendiente n. el hijo, nieto o bisnieto de una familia
desolate (dĕs'ə-lĭt) adj. having few or no inhabitants; lifeless
desolado(a) adj. lugar con pocos o ningün habitante; sin vida
destiny (dĕs'tə-nē) n. an unavoidable lot in life; fate
destino n. lo que sucede inevitablemente en la vida, suerte
dexterity (dĕk-stĕr'ĭ-tē) n. skill or grace in using the hands
destreza n. habilidad en el use de las manos
diatribe (dī'ə-trīb') n. condemnation; bitter, abusive criticism
diatriba n. condena, discurso violento contra algo o alguien
diminish (dĭ-mĭn'ĭsh) v. to make smaller or less
reducir v. hacer algo más pequefio o en menor cantidad
discreet (dĭ-skrēt) adj. showing caution in speech and behavior
discreto(a) adj. que muestra cautela en el habla y el comportamiento
disgruntled (dĭs-grŭn' tld) adj. displeased and irritated
disgruntle v. malhumorado(a) adj. descontento(a), irritado(a) malhumorarse v.
disheveled (dĭ-shĕv'əld) adj. messy; untidy
desalitiado(a) adj. desarreglado(a), desprolijo(a)
disparagingly (dĭ-spăr'ĭ-jĭng-lē) adv. in a manner that shows a lack of respect
despectivamente adv. con falta de respeto
dispel (dĭ-spĕl') v. to drive away
desvanecer v. disipar, dispersar
diversion (dĭ-vûr'zhən) n. a distraction, entertainment, or relaxation
diversion n. distracción, entretenimiento
doleful (dōl'fəl) adj. sad; mournful
afligido(a) adj. triste, dolorido(a)
dry (drī) adj. direct and without emotion; matter-of-fact
seco(a) adj. sin emoción, frfo(a); directo(a)
dumbfounded (dŭm'foun'dəd) adj. speechless with shock or amazement
atónito(a) adj. sin habla, sorprendido(a)
E
eccentric (ĭk-sĕn'trĭk) adj. very unusual in behavior; odd
excentrico(a) adj. de comportamiento inusual; raro(a)
ecstasy (ĕk'stə-sē) n. intense joy or delight; bliss
éxtasis n. diversiOn y placer intensos
eloquence (ĕ1"ə-kwəns) n. an ability to speak forcefully and persuasively
elocuencia n. habilidad de hablar enérgica y persuasivamente
emigrant (ĕm'ĭ-grənt) n. a person who leaves one country or region to settle in
another
emigrante n. persona que deja un pais o regi6n para it a otra
encroach (ĕn-krōch') v. to intrude; trespass
usurpar v. traspasar los limites; inmiscuirse
endow (ĕn-dou') v. to supply; provide
dotar v. proveer, suministrar
enumeration (i-noo'mə-rā'shen) n. a list
enumeración n. lista
existence (ĭg-zĭs'təns) n. the fact or state of being real
existencia n. el hecho o el estado de ser real
expedition (ĕk'spĭ-dĭsh'ən) n. a group of people making a journey with a specific
purpose
expedición n. grupo de personas que realiza un viaje con un prop6sito especifico
exquisite (ĕk'skwĭ-zĭt) adj. excellent, flawless; having an intricate and beautiful
design or outcome
exquisito(a) adj. excelente, impecable; que tiene bello diseno o presencia
extricate (ĕk'strĭ-kāt') v. to free from a tangle or difficulty
desenredar v. liberar de un enredo o dificultad
exuberant (ĭg-zoo'bər-ənt) adj. vigorous and unrestrained
exuberante adj. vigoroso(a), abundante
F
falter (fôl'tər) v. to become unsteady or lose confidence; waver
tropezar v. perder el equilibrio, tambalear
Fastidious (fă-stĭd'ē-əs) adj. difficult to please
quisquilloso(a) adj. dificil de complacer
fate (fāt) n. a power that is supposed to determine the course of events
destino n. poder que determina el curso de los sucesos
fauna (fô'nə) n. animals, especially those characteristic of a particular region
fauna n. animates, especialmente aquellos caracteristicos de una regiOn en
particular
fetish (fĕt'ĭsh) n. an abnormal attention or attachment
fetichismo n. atención o apego anormal a un objeto; fetiche n. objeto al que
se le atribuyen poderes sobrenaturales
flank (flăngk) v. to attack the sides of something
flanquear v. atacar los lados del adversario
flora (flôr'ə) n. plants, especially those characteristic of a particular region
flora n. plantas, especialmente aquellas caracteristicas de una regi6n en particular
flotsam (flŏt'səm) n. floating wreckage or cargo after a shipwreck
pecio n. restos flotantes que quedan después de un naufragio
flounder (floun'dər) v. to make clumsy attempts to move or regain one's balance
caminar torpemente v. hacer intentos bruscos pars avanzar sin perder el equilibrio
flourishing (flûr'ĭ-shĭng) adj. thriving; prosperous flourish v.
floreciente adj. prOspero(a) florecer v.
foreboding (fôr-bōd' ĭng) n. a feeling that something, especially bad or harmful, is
about to happen
presagio n. sentimiento de que algo, especialmente malo o danino, va a suceder
forlorn (fər-lôrn') adj. sad and desperate because of abandonment
desamparado(a) adj. triste y alfigido(a) debido al abandono
founder (foun'der) v. to get stuck; break down
desplomarse v. caer, derrumbarse
fumigate (fyoo'mĭ-gāt') v. to use smoke or fumes in order to kill off rodents or
insects; to disinfect
fumigar v. deshacerse de insectos y animales darlinos usando gases y sustancias
quinnicas
G
gifted (gĭftĭd) adj. having natural talent or intelligence
dotado(a) adj. que tiene talento o inteligencia natural
gnarled (närld) adj. rugged and roughened, as from old age or work
rugoso(a) adj. con protuberancias, aspero(a); como si fuera viejo(a)
grimace (grĭm'ĭs) n. a facial expression of pain or disgust
mueca n. expresiOn facial de dolor o disgusto
H
haphazardly (hăp-hăz'ərd-1ē) adv. in a random manner
sin elección adv. al azar
hazel (hā'zəl) adj. a light brown or yellowish brown
avellanado(a) adj. de color castario claro
humane (hyoo-mān') adj. merciful; showing the best qualities of humans
humano(a) adj. con humanidad
hypocritical (hĭp'ə-kr'ĭt'ĭ-kəl) adj. false or deceptive, like a person who is pretending
to be what he or she is not
hipócrita adj. falso(a)
hypothesis (hī-pŏth'ĭ-sĭs) n. a theory used as a basis for research
hipotesis n. teoria utilizada como base para una investigaciOn
I
ignite (ĭg-nīt') v. to cause to burn; kindle
encender v. prender fuego; alumbrar
immoral (ĭ-môr'əl) adj. contrary to what is considered to be correct behavior
inmoral adj. sin moralidad
impair (ĭm-pâr') v. to weaken; damage deteriorar v.
debilitar; danar
impart (ĭm-pärt') v. to make known; to give or reveal
impartir v. dar a conocer; dar un aviso
impel (ĭm-pĕl') v. to drive, force, or urge to action
impeler v. Ilamar o inducir a la acciOn
imperious (ĭm-pîr'ē-əs) adj. proud; overbearing
imperioso(a) adj. orgulloso(a), arrogante
impromptu (ĭm-prŏmp'too) adj. done on the spur of the moment; unplanned
improvisado(a) adj. sin planificar
improvise (ĭm'prə-vīz') v. to put together or act with little or no preparation or
planning
improvisado(a) adj. algo que se hace en el momento
impudent (ĭm'pyə-dənt) adj. offensively bold and disrespectful
descarado(a) adj. irrespetuoso(a), ofensivo(a)
impulse (ĭm'pŭls') n. a sudden wish or urge
impulso n. deseo repentino o urgente
impunity (ĭm-pyoo'nĭ-tē) n. freedom from injury or punishment
impunidad n. que no requiere castigo o perjuicio
inadequate (ĭn-ăd' ĭ-kwĭt)adj. not good enough for what is needed
inadecuado(a) adj. que no es suficientemente bueno(a) para lo que se necesita
inarticulate (ĭn' är-tĭk' yə-lĭt) adj. speechless; unable to speak effectively or
understandably
inarticulado(a) adj. sin habla; sin posibilidad de hablar o hacerse comprender
efectivamente
incessantly (ĭn-sĕs'ənt-lē) adv. continually, without interruption
incesantemente adv. continuamente, sin interrupción
indignantly (ĭn-dĭg' nənt-1ē) adv. angrily aroused by something mean, unjust, or
unworthy
indignantemente adv. con enojo ante algo malo, injusto o indigno
indomitable (ĭn-dŏm'ĭ-tə-bəl) adj. unable to be conquered
indomable adj. que no se puede conquistar o veneer
induce (ĭn-doos') v. to bring forth; cause inducir v. producir, causar
ineptitude (ĭn-ĕp'tĭ-tood') n. incompetence, clumsiness; displaying a lack of
judgment
inaptitud n. incompetencia
inert (ĭn-ûrt') adj. having no power to move or act; lifeless
inerte adj. sin poder para moverse ni actuar; sin vida
inevitable (ĭn-ĕv'ĭ-tə-bəl) adj. impossible to avoid or prevent
inevitable adj. que no puede prevenirse
instill (ĭn-stĭl') v. to supply gradually
verter gota a gota v. suministrar gradualmente
instinctive (ĭn-stĭngk'tĭv) adj. having a natural tendency; spontaneous
instintivo(a) adj. con tendencia natural; espontáneo(a)
intercession (ĭn'tər-sĕsh'ən) n. the act of asking for something that will benefit
someone else
intercesion n. action de pedir algo que favorecerá a otro
interminably (ĭn-tûr'mə-nə-blē) adv. without end
interminablemente adv. sin fin
introspective (ĭn'trə-spĕk'tĭv) adj. examining one's own thoughts, feelings, and
sensations
introspectivo(a) adj. el que examina sus propios pensamientos, sentimientos y
sensaciones
intuition (ĭn'too-ĭsh'ən)n. a sense of knowing not dependent on reason; an insight
intuition n. sentimiento de sabiduria que no depende de una razón; perspicacia
invulnerable (ĭn-vŭl'nər-ə-bəl) adj. impossible to hurt
invulnerable adj. que no se puede &liar
J
jubilation (joo' bə-lā' shən) n. rejoicing; a celebration or expression of joy
jübilo n. regocijo; celebración o expresión de alegria
judicious (joo-dĭsh'əs) adj. careful; showing sound judgment
juicioso(a) adj. cuidadoso(a); que muestra buen juicio
K
kindling (kĭnd'lĭng) n. pieces of dry wood or other material that can be easily lighted
to start a fire;
tinder Jena n. trozos de madera seta con los que se puede hater fuego fácilmente;
mecha
L
lapse (lăps) V. to sink or slip gradually
deslizarse v. resbalar o sumergirse gradualmente
lark (lärk) n. a carefree adventure
jolgorio n. diversion sin preocupación
lavish (lăv'ĭsh) adj. exceedingly generous; extravagant
derrochador(a) adj. excesivamente generoso(a); extravagante
learned (lûr'nĭd) adj. having a great deal of knowledge
culto(a) adj. que tiene muchos conocimientos
ledge (lĕj) n. a narrow shelf
repisa n. estante angosto
legitimate (lə-jĭt'ə-mĭt) adj. logical; genuine
legitimo(a) adj. lógico(a); genuino(a)
liable (lī'ə-bəl) adj. likely
probable adj. posible
litany (lĭt'n-ē) n. a repetitive recitation
letania n. recitado repetitivo
loathe (1ōth) v. to hate; to dislike someone or something greatly
detestar v. odiar; aborrecer a alguien o algo
logistics (lō-jĭs'tĭks) n. the management, planning, and carrying out of details in an
operation or a project
logistica n. manejo, plan y ejecución de detalles durante una operación o proyecto
longing (lông'ĭng) n. a strong desire
anhelo n. un deseo intenso
lumbering (Iŭm'bər-ĭng) adj. moving in a heavy, clumsy way
lumber v. pesado(a) adj. que se mueve de manera lenta y tbrpe avanzar
pesadamente v.
luminous (1oo'mə-nəs) adj. giving off light; shining
luminoso(a) adj. brillante, con mucha luz
MIEMEZIEWEREI
M
magnificence (măg-nĭf'ĭ-səns) n. greatness or richness; grand or impressive
beauty
magnificencia n. cualidad de nnagnifico
malicious (mə-lĭsh'əs) adj. showing ill will; spiteful
malicioso(a) adj. que muestra maldad; rencoroso(a)
malodorous (mă1-ō'dər-əs) adj. having a bad odor
maloliente adj. que tiene mal olor
meditation (mĕd'ĭ-tā'shən) n. the act of deep thinking or reflection
meditación n. acto de pensar profundamente o reflexionar
menace (mĕ'n'ĭs) n. a possible danger; a threat
amenaza n. un peligro posible
monotonous (mə-nŏt'n-əs) adj. repeating over and over, without variety
monótono(a) adj. que se repite continuamente, sin variation
mug (mŭg) n. the face
cara n. rostro
mutinous (moot'n-əs) adj. rebelling against a leader
motin n. rebelión en contra de un Ilder
N
naïveté (na'ēv-tā') n. a lack of sophistication; simplicity
ingenuidad n. falta de sofisticación; simplicidad
naturalist (năch'ər-ə-lĭst) n. a person who studies living things by observing them
directly
naturalista n. persona que estudia los seres vivientes observándolos directamente
nondescript (nŏn'dĭ-skrĭpt') adj. lacking in distinctive qualities; drab
indefinido(a) adj. con falta de cualidades distintivas; ordinario
notorious (nō-tôr'ē-əs) adj. well-known, particularly for disgraceful behavior
notorio(a) adj. conocido por todos, particularmente por comportamiento vergonzoso
nurseryman (nŭr'sə-rē-mən) n. person employed by a nursery, where plants are
grown for sale, transplanting, or experimentation
viverista n. persona a cargo de un vivero, donde cultiva plantas para su yenta,
trasplante o para experimentos
O
obsolete (ŏb'sə-1ēt') adj. out-of-date anticuado(a) adj.
pasado(a) de moda
ominous (ŏm'ə-nəs) adj. menacing; threatening
ominoso(a) adj. amenazante; siniestro(a)
opportunist (ŏp'ər-too'nĭst) n. a person who takes advantage of any opportunity to
achieve a goal, with little regard for moral principles
oportunista n. persona que saca provecho de cualquier oportunidad, sin principios
morales
oppression (ə-prĕsh' ən) n. the act of keeping someone down through harsh and
unjust use of power; the feeling of being heavily weighed down, either mentally
or physically
opresión n. acto de contener a alguien por medio de la crueldad y el abuso de
poder; sentimiento de estar agobiado(a), mental o fisicamente
optimism (ŏp'tə-mĭz'əm) n. a tendency to expect the best possible outcome or to
dwell on the most hopeful aspects of a situation
optimismo n. tendencia a esperar los mejores resultados posibles o de ver los
mejores aspectos de una situation
ostentatiously (ŏs' tēn-tā' shəs-lē) adv. with great show or exaggeration
ostentosamente adv. con mucha exageración
outskirts (out'skûrts') n. the region remote from the central district of a city or town
suburbios n. las regiones lejanas a un distrito central de una ciudad o pueblo
P
palatable (păl'ə-tə-bəl) adj. acceptable to the taste; able to be eaten
sabroso(a) adj. que tiene un sabor agradable; gustoso(a)
pandemonium (păn'də-mō' nēəm) wild confusion and noise; an uproar
pandemonio n. desorden y ruido; alboroto
paradox (păr'ə-dŏks') n. a statement that appears to be illogical but may nevertheless be true
paradoja n. una aserción que parece ilógica pero sin embargo podria ser verdadera
parched (pärchd) adj. extremely dry
reseco(a) adj. muy seco(a)
peer (pîr) v. to look intently, searchingly, or with difficulty
escrutar v. mirar atentamente
perceptible (pər-sĕp'tə-bəl) adj. capable of being observed; noticeable
perceptible adj. que se puede observar; notable
peril (pĕr'əl) n. danger
peligro n. riesgo; la posibilidad de que suceda algün mal
perilous (pĕr'ə-ləs) adj. full of danger
peligroso(a) adj. que puede ocasionar datio; arriesgado(a)
periscope (pĕrĭ-skōp') n. a tube-shaped optical device that lets one see into an
area beyond the area he or she is in; a periscope is used by submarines to see
above the surface of the water while remaining invisible
periscopio n. un tubo Optico que since para observar los objetos por encima de un
obstáculo que impide la vision directa. Los submarinos usan un periscopio para
ver sobre la superficie del mar mientras están sumergidos.
perpetual (pər-pĕch'oo-əl) adj. lasting for an indefinitely long time; continuing
without interruption
perpetuo(a) adj. eterno(a)
persist (pər-sĭst') v. to continue stubbornly
persistir v. seguir tercamente
perspective (pər-spĕk'tĭv) n. a point of view from which things can be correctly
understood or judged
perspectiva n. un punto de vista desde el que se puede entender o evaluar las
cosas correctamente
pervade (pər-vād') v. to be spread or to be present throughout
penetrar v. extender por; invadir
perverse (pər-vûrs') adj. turned away from what is right or good; improper
perverso(a) adj. que no es correcto(a) obueno(a); impropio(a)
petite (pə-tēt) adj. small and slender
pequefio(a) adj. chiquito(a) y delgado(a)
pious (pī'əs) adj. showing sincere devotion; reverent
beato(a) adj. con mucha reverencia
pivotal (pĭv'ə-tl) adj. being of central importance
fundamental adj. que tiene mucha importancia
plummet (plŭm'ĭt) v. to fall suddenly and steeply
desplomarse v. caer a plomo
prodigy (prŏd'ə-jē) n. a person with an exceptional talent
prodigio n. una persona que tiene un talento exceptional
proportional (prə-pôr'shə-nəl) adj. having a constant relation in degree or number
proportional adj. que tiene una relación constante de nivel o nümero
proposition (prŏp'ə-zĭsh'ən) n. a suggested plan
proposición n. un plan sugerido
proprietor (prə-prī'ĭ-tər) n. the owner of a business
propietario n. el duetio de un negocio
prospector (prŏs'pĕk'tər) n. one who explores an area for mineral deposits or oil
buscador n. una persona que explora una region para encontrar dep6sitos
minerales o petrOleo
provocation (prŏv'ə-kā'shən) n. something that irritates or stirs to action
provocación n. algo que irrita o que incita a Ia action
prudence (prood'ns) n. the quality of behaving with caution and good judgment
prudencia n. Ia calidad de actuar con cautela y buen juicio
pungent (pŭn'jənt) adj. sharp and intense, as an odor
acre adj. áspero(a) y picante al gusto o al olfato
Q
quintessential (kwĭn'tə-sĕn'shəl) adj. most typical or characteristic
depuradisimo(a) adj. más tipico(a) o caracteristico(a)
ponder (pŏn'dər) v. to think or to consider carefully and thoroughly
ponderar v. pensar cuidadosamente o considerar completamente
posterity (pŏ-stĕr'ĭ-tē)n. future generations
vuestras generaciones n. los hijos y nietos que heredan la posteridad
precarious (prĭ-kâr'ē-əs) adj. not secure; risky
precario(a) adj. que no es seguro(a); arriesgado(a)
precedent (prĕs'ĭ-dənt) n. an event that serves as an example for later actions
precedente n. un suceso que sirve de un ejemplo para acciones posteriores
predator (prĕd'ə-tər) n. an organism that lives by preying on other organisms
depredador n. un organismo que mata y come a otros organismos para vivir
predicated (prĕd'ĭ-kā-tĭd) adj. established; assumed
predicate v. fundado(a) adj. establecido(a); afirmado(a) fundar v.
preening (prē'nĭng) n. cleaning feathers with the beak preen v.
arreglo n. limpieza de las plumas con el pico arreglar v.
presumptuous (prĭ-zŭmp'choo-əs) adj. excessively bold, confident, or shameless
presuntuoso(a) adj. audaz, confiado(a) o sinvergiienza
principle (prĭn'sə-pəl) n. the code of good behavior; morality
principio n. base de buena conducta; moralidad
probe (prōb) v. to investigate or to explore by touch; searching
sondar v. investigar o explorar por tocar; buscar
procure (prō-kyoor) v. to obtain; acquire
procurar v. obtener; adquirir
R
rafter (răf'tər) n. a wooden beam that supports a roof
par n. viga de madera que sostiene un techo
ransom (răn'səm) n. a price or a payment demanded in return for the release of
property or a person
restate n. un precio o un pago que se pide por devolver una cosa o poner en
libertad a una persona
rapture (răp'chər) n. a feeling of ecstasy; great joy
entusiasmarse v. sentir mucha pasiem o animo por algo
rationalize (răsh'ə-nə-līz') v. to make self- satisfying but incorrect explanations
about one's behavior
encontrar una explicación v. justificar
ravage (răv'ĭj) n. serious damage; widespread destruction
devastador adj. que destruye totalmente
rebuke (rĭ-byook') n. a sharp scolding or criticism
reprimenda n. regatio; censura
recessed (rē' sĕsd) adj. indented or hollowed-out space recess v.
retirado(a) adj. que está en una depreskin o un espacio hueco retirar v.
recoil (rĭ-koil') v. to shrink back, as in fear or disgust
recular V. tener horror o asco a algo
refined (rĭ-fīnd') adj. having polished manners; cultured
fino(a) adj. tortes; culto(a)
refugee (rĕf'yoo-jē') n. one who leaves his or her home in search of protection or
shelter elsewhere, as in times of war
refugiado n. una persona que, a causa de guerras u opresiem, busca protección o
seguridad en un pais extranjero
regression (rĭ-grĕsh'ən) n. a return to a less developed condition
regresien n. un retroceso a una condiciem menos desarrollada
rehabilitation (rē'hə-bĭl'ĭ-tā'shən) n. the process of being restored to good health or
useful life through training or therapy
rehabilitation n. el proceso de restablecer la buena salud o una vida Citil a
traves del entrenamiento o la terapia
relay (rē' lā) n. a race in which each side uses several team members to complete
the race; each member has a turn to finish a set part of the race and is then
replaced by another team member to finish the next part, and so forth
carrera de relevos n. prueba deportiva en que los corredores de un mismo equipo
se sustituyen sucesivamente. Cada miembro corre una parte de la carrera y
luego se sustituye por otro miembro que corre Ia parte siguiente
remorse (rĭ-môrs') n. a bitter regret or guilt after having done wrong
remordimiento n. pens o culpa interns que queda despues de hater algo mal
renunciation (rē-nŭn'sē-ā'shən) n. a declaration in which something is given up
abdication n. ceder los derechos sobre algo
reproach (rĭ-prōch') v. to criticize; to blame
reprochar v. criticar; echar Ia culpa
reserve (rĭ-zûrv') n. self-restraint in the way one looks or acts
reserva n. discretion
resistance (rĭ-zĭs'təns) n. the act of fending off; an opposing force
resistencia n. Ia action de resistir; una fuerza de oposiciem
retort (rĭ-tôrt') n. a quick, sharp, or witty reply
replica n. una respuesta rSpida o aguda
R179
retribution (rĕt'rə-byoo'shən) n. punishment for bad behavior
punición n. castigo por comportamiento malo
reverently (rĕv'ər-ənt-lē) adv. in a way that shows awe and respect
con reverencia adv. de una manera que muestra temor o respeto
reverie (rĕv'ə-rē) n. a daydream
ensuerio n. una fantasia
revert (rĭ-vûrt') v. to return to a former condition, belief, subject, or practice
revertir V. volver a un estado, una creencia, un tema o una practica
revoke (rĭ-vōk') v. to withdraw or repeal revocar v. retirar o anular
S
savor (sā'vər) v. to take great pleasure in
gozar v. disfrutar
segregation (sĕg'rĭ-gā'shən) n. the process of separating others from a main body
or group; the policy and practice of separating one race from the rest of society
segregación n. el proceso de separar algunas personas de otras o de un grupo
principal; el sistema y la práctica de separar las personas de una raza del resto
de la sociedad
semblance (sĕm'bləns) n. an outward appearance
semblante n. apariencia
sensation (sĕn-sā'shən) n. a state of great interest and excitement
sensation n. un estado de mucho inter& y mucha emotion
sever (sĕv'ōr) v. to become separated; to be cut off from the whole
romperse v. separarse de algo; estar apartado(a) del todo
shrew (shroo) n. a mean, nagging woman
regaiiona n. una mujer cruel y molesta
sidekick (sīd'kĭk') n. a close friend
compariero(a) n. un(a) buen(a) amigo(a)
sinister (sĭn'ĭ-stər) adj. suggestive of evil or misfortune
siniestro(a) adj. que indica el mal o el infortunio
slight (slīt) n. an insult to one's pride or self-esteem
desaire n. un insulto al orgullo o al amor propio de alguien
slovenly (slŭv'ən-1ē) adj. lazy and careless; untidy
desaliiiado(a) adj. perezoso(a) y descuidado(a); desaseado(a)
sober (sō'bər) v. to make serious or solemn
moderar v. poner serio(a) o solemne
sovereignty (sŏv'ər-ĭn-tē) n. authority; rule
soberania n. autoridad; dominio
specialization (spĕsh'ə-l'ĭ-zā'shən) n. a focus on a particular activity or area of
study
especialización n. la action de dedicarse a una cosa o un terra especifico
specimen (spĕs'ə-mən) n. an individual that is taken to represent a group or whole
espécimen n. una muestra que se obtiene pars representar un grupo o un todo
speculate (spĕk'yə-lāt') v. to draw a conclusion without having firm evidence; guess
especular v. Ilegar a una conclusión sin tener conocimiento completo; adivinar
spirited (spĭr''-tĭd) adj. lively; vigorous
animado(a) adj. energico(a); vigoroso(a)
stampede (stăm-pēd') n. a sudden head long rush or flight of a crowd of people
espantada n. huida repentina de una multitud de personas
statistically (stə-tĭs'tĭ-klē) adv. in terms of the principles used to analyze numerical
data
segan las estadisticas adv. en cuanto a los métodos que se usan para analizar los
datos numéricos
stealthily (stĕthĭ-lē) adv. cautiously; secretly
furtivamente adv. secretamente
stifled (stī'fəld) adj. smothered stifle v.
sofocado(a) adj. ahogado(a) sofocar v.
stipulated (stĭp'yə-lā'tĭd) adj. arranged in an agreement stipulate v.
acordado(a) adj. negociado(a) acordar v.
stoop (stoop) n. a small porch, platform, or staircase leading to the entrance of a
building or house
portico n. un porche pequeno, una plataforma o una escalinata delante de un
edificio o una casa
subordinate (sə-bôr'dn-ĭt) adj. less important or lower in rank; secondary
subordinado(a) adj. menos importante o de rango más bajo; secundario(a)
sullen (sŭl'ən) adj. showing silent resentment; sulky
malhumorado(a) adj. resentido(a); malcontento(a)
summit (sŭm'ĭt) n. the highest point or part; the top
cima n. el punto de mayor elevación; el vértice
surmount (sər-mount') v. to get to the top of; climb
superar v. Ilegar a la parte de arriba; escalar
surreptitiously (sûr' əp-tĭsh' əs-1ē) adv. in a sneaky way; secretly
subrepticiamente adv. solapadamente; a escondidas
surveying (sər-vā'ĭng) adj. looking over carefully; inspecting survey v.
examinando V. mirando con cuidado; inspeccionando
swoon (swoon) v. to faint
desvanecerse v. desmayarse
syndrome (sĭn'drōm') n. a group of symptoms that characterizes a disease or
psychological disorder
syndrome n. un grupo de sintomas que caracteriza una enfermedad o un problema
psicológico
T
tackle (tăk'əl) v. to take on a problem or a challenge; to wrestle with an opponent
atacar v. asumir y hacerle frente a una dificultad o un reto; luchar con un adversario
tandem (tăn'dəm) adj. one behind the other
(en) tandem adv. uno delante del otro
tangible (tān'jə-bəl) adj. able to be seen or touched; material
tangible adj. que se puede ver o tocar; material
tedious (tē'dē-əs) adj. boring; tiresome because of length, slowness, or dullness
tedioso(a) adj. aburrido(a); molesto(a) a causa de duración, lentitud o monotonia
teem (tēm) v. to be full of; to abound
abundar v. estar Ileno(a) de algo
tentatively (tĕn'tə-tĭv-lē) adv. with uncertainty or hesitation
a tientas adv. tanteando sin certidumbre
tethered (tĕth'ərd) adj. tied to the ground or to another object tether v.
atado(a) adj. asegurado(a) a la tierra o a otro objeto atar v.
transition (trăn-zĭsh'ən) n. a change from one stage to another
transition n. el proceso de cambiar de un estado a otro
tremor (trĕ'm'ər) n. a shaking or a vibrating movement; a nervous trembling or
quivering
temblor n. movimiento rápido e involuntario
U
unappeasable (ŭn'ə-pē'zə-bəl) adj. impossible to calm or satisfy
implacable adj. que no se puede calmar o satisfacer
V
vacuous (văk'yoo-əs) adj. showing a lack of intelligence or thought
vacuo(a) adj. caracterizado(a) por una falta de inteligencia o reflexión
vagrant (vā'grənt) adj. wandering from place to place; moving in a random way
andariego(a) adj. que va de lugar en lugar
valor (văl'ər) n. courage; bravery
valor n. coraje; valentia
varmint (vär'mĭnt) n. a wild animal that is considered undesirable or troublesome,
such as a fox, a rabbit, or a rodent
sabandija n. un animal considerado indeseable o molesto, como un zorro, un
conejo o un roedor
vault (vôlt) v. to jump or leap
saltar v. impulsar el cuerpo sobre algo
vehemently (vē'ə-mənt-lē) adv. with intense emotion
con mayor vehemencia adv. con más intensidad
vex (vĕks) v. to disturb; annoy
confundir v. desorientar
vile (vīl) adj. disgusting; hateful; unpleasant
vil adj. repulsivo(a); odioso(a); desagradable
vindictiveness (vĭn-dĭk'tĭv-nĭs) n. a desire for revenge
carácter vengativo n. la cualidad de ser rencoroso
vocation (vō-kā'shən) n. job; profession
vocation n. empleo; profesión
W
wallow (wŏl' ō) v. to roll the body about, as an elephant in water or mud; to indulge
in or to take great pleasure and delight in
revolcarse v. voltearse por el suelo, como un elefante en el agua o el barro; darse
gusto
widow (wĭd' ō) n. a woman whose husband has died and who has not remarried
viuda n. una mujer que ha Perdido a su esposo y que no ha vuelto a casarse
Y
yaw (yô) v. to swerve off course momentarily or temporarily
desviarse v. perder la ruta momentáneamente o temporariament
Z
zeal (zēl) n. great enthusiasm; a devotion to a cause, an ideal, or a goal
celo n. gran entusiasmo; dedication a un ideal o una meta