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Unit 1- Basics of Anatomy Anatomy – (Greek – to cut up) - the study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another • ____________ or macroscopic • Microscopic • Developmental Physiology – (Greek – study of nature) - the study of the _________________________ of the body’s structural machinery; explains physical & chemical processes that direct body activities • Regional – all structures in one part of the body (such as the abdomen or leg) • Systemic – gross anatomy of the body studied by system • Surface – study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin Microscopic Anatomy • Cytology – study of the cell • Histology – study of ___________________ Developmental Anatomy • Traces structural changes throughout life • _______________________________ – study of developmental changes of the body before birth Branches • Pathological anatomy – study of structural changes caused by ___________________________ • Radiographic anatomy – study of internal structures visualized by specialized scanning procedures such as X-ray, MRI, and CT scans • Molecular biology – study of anatomical structures at a subcellular level Physiology • Considers the operation of specific organ systems • _______________ – kidney function • Neurophysiology – workings of the nervous system • Cardiovascular – operation of the heart and blood vessels • Focuses on the functions of the body, often at the cellular or molecular level • Understanding physiology also requires a knowledge of physics, which explains • electrical currents • blood ___________________________ • the way muscle uses bone for movement Complementary • Function always reflects _________________ • What a structure can do depends on its specific form • Core theme - Structure (anatomy) determines what ______________________ (physiology) can take place; if structure changes, the function must also change Organization 1. Chemical – atoms combine to form molecules which combine to form cells 2. Cellular – smallest unit of life; human composed of 60-100 trillion cells; combine to form tissues 3. Tissue – groups of cells that perform a common function; four types = epithelial, connective, muscular, & __________________________ 4. Organ – composed of two or more tissue types that perform a specific function; most contain all 4 tissue types 5. Organ system – group of organs that cooperate to accomplish a common ___________________; ex. circulatory system, digestive system, etc. 6. Organismal – highest level of structural organization; all systems of body working together Necessary Life Functions 1. Maintaining boundaries – the internal environment remains distinct from the external environment Cellular level – accomplished by plasma membranes Organismal level – accomplished by the skin 2. ___________________________ – structure & functions is determined by genetics 3. Movement – locomotion, propulsion (peristalsis), blood, breathing, molecules, and contractility 4. Responsiveness – ability to monitor internal or external conditions and ______________ to changes 5. Digestion – breakdown of ingested foodstuffs; process by which complex substances are converted to simpler forms so that they can be absorbed through intestinal wall & transported by blood 6. Metabolism – all the chemical reactions that occur in the body; releases energy, creates body heat, enables cells to synthesize & secrete molecules 7. Excretion – removal of _____________ produced by metabolism 8. Reproduction – cellular and organismal levels 1. Cellular – an original cell divides and produces two identical daughter cells 2. Organismal – sperm and egg unite to make a whole new person 9. Growth – increase in size of a body part or of the organism 10. Differentiation – result in structurally and functionally ________________ organs Nutrients – needed for energy and cell building Oxygen – ________% of air; needed for release of energy during cellular respiration and for metabolic reactions Water – min. 60% of body weight; provides the necessary environment for chemical reactions Normal body temperature – necessary for chemical reactions to occur at life-sustaining rates Atmospheric pressure – required for proper breathing and ___________ exchange in the lungs Homeostasis • Homeostasis – ability to ________________________ a relatively stable internal environment in an everchanging outside world • The internal environment of the body is in a dynamic state of equilibrium • Chemical, thermal, and neural factors interact to maintain homeostasis; necessary for survival and good health; its loss results in illness or disease • Variables produce a change in the body • The three interdependent components of control mechanisms: • Receptor (sensor) – ___________________ to a stimuli (environmental change) by sending information to the control center • Control center – determines the set point at which the variable is maintained; usually consists of brain, spinal cord, or endocrine gland; assesses multiple stimuli, determines deviations from standard set points, and produces a response by increasing or decreasing the activity of the effector • Effector – muscles or glands; provides the means to ________________ to stimuli Negative Feedback • In negative feedback systems, the output shuts ___________ the original stimulus • Most control systems involve negative feedback systems which act to reduce or stop the initial stimulus; ex. maintenance of body temperature - antagonistic actions – opposite actions, allow for fine tuning of homeostatic conditions • Example: Regulation of room temperature Positive Feedback • In positive feedback systems, the output ______________________ or exaggerates the original stimulus • Rare in humans; works against homeostasis • Example: Regulation of blood clotting • Ex. Oxytocin during ________________ stimulated by pressure on cervix; causes greater uterine contractions & more pressure on cervix Homeostatic Imbalance • Disturbance of homeostasis or the body’s normal equilibrium • Overwhelming the usual negative feedback mechanisms allows destructive _________________________feedback mechanisms to take over Directional Terms • Superior and inferior – _________________ and away from the head, respectively • Anterior and posterior – toward the ______________ and back of the body • Medial, lateral, and intermediate – toward the midline, away from the midline, and between a more medial and lateral structure • Proximal and distal – closer to and farther from the ___________________ of the body part • Superficial and deep – toward and away from the body surface • The thorax is ____________________ to the abdomen. • The kidneys are ______________________ to the intestine. • The navel is on the ______________________ side of the body. • The legs are __________________________ to the trunk. • The heart is ___________________________ to the lungs. • The skin is _______________________ to the muscles. • The ears are__________________________ to the nose. • The knee is ________________________ to the foot. • The brain is ______________________ to the cranium. • The hand is _______________________ to the elbow. Anatomical postion = • Body erect, feet parallel, eyes forward, arms at side, palms ____________________, fingers downward Body Regions 1. Head – facial and cranial regions 2. Neck – _______________________ region 3. Trunk (torso) – thorax and abdomen 4. Upper extremity – shoulder, arm, hand 5. Lower extremity – hip, leg, foot Body Planes • Sagittal – divides the body into __________________ and _______________ parts • Midsagittal or medial – sagittal plane that lies on the ______________________ • Frontal or coronal – divides the body into anterior and posterior parts • Transverse or horizontal (cross section) – divides the body into superior and inferior parts • Oblique section – cuts made diagonally • Body Planes – cuts to view internal structures 2 Principle Body cavities –internal cavities that confine organs that have related functions 1. Dorsal (posterior) cavity protects the nervous system, and is divided into two subdivisions 2. 3. 4. 5. _______________ cavity – within the skull; encases the brain Vertebral cavity – runs within the vertebral column; encases the spinal cord _____________ (anterior) cavity houses the internal organs (viscera), and is divided into two subdivisions Thoracic - chest cavity; includes mediastinum, pleural & pericardial cavities Abdominopelvic - may be divided into abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity Thoracic cavity is subdivided into two pleural cavities, the mediastinum, and the pericardial cavity 1. Pleural cavities – each houses a ____________________ 2. Mediastinum – contains the pericardial cavity; surrounds the remaining thoracic organs 3. Pericardial cavity – encloses the _______________ The abdominopelvic cavity is separated from the superior thoracic cavity by the dome-shaped ___________________________ It is composed of two subdivisions 1. Abdominal cavity – contains the stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and other organs 2. Pelvic cavity – lies within the pelvis and contains the bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum 1. Body membranes – thin layers of connective and epithelial tissue that cover, separate, and support viscera and line body cavities 2. Mucous membranes – secrete thick liquid substance called mucus; lubricates or protects organs; lines cavities that _______________ or ___________________ the body 3. Serous membranes – line thoracic and adominopelvic cavities and cover visceral organs; secrete watery serous fluid; include: pleurae (lung), pericardial (heart) membrane, and peritoneal (abdominal) membranes Ventral Body Cavity Membranes Parietal serosa lines internal body walls Visceral serosa covers the internal _________________ Serous fluid separates the serosae Other Cavities • Oral and digestive – mouth and cavities of the digestive organs • Nasal –located within and posterior to the nose • _______________________ – house the eyes • Middle ear – contains bones (ossicles) that transmit sound vibrations • Synovial – joint cavities Clinical Procedures 1. Inspection – observing body for swelling, rashes, needle marks, irregular breathing, etc. 2. Palpation – applying fingers with firm __________________________ to surface of body to feel lumps, tender spots, body landmarks, etc. 3. Percussion – tapping sharply on body walls to detect vibrations; used to locate excess fluid or organ abnormalities 4. Auscultation – listening to _____________________ of various organs; breathing, heartbeat, etc. 5. Reflex testing – observing automatic response to stimulus