Download An Age of Empires: Rome and Han China 753 B.C.E. * 330 C.E.

EMPIRES:
ROME AND HAN
CHINA
753 B.C.E. – 330
C.E.
Rome’s Creation of a Mediterranean Empire
753 B.C.E-330 C.E.
Geography
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Rome’s central location contributed to success in unifying Italy and lands around Mediterranean sea
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Italian peninsula and island of Sicily make a natural bridge almost linking Europe and North Africa
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Italy a crossroads in the med.
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Rome a crossroads within Italy
Tiber River and doble ring of seven hills give natural protection
Many hills and mountains
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Passes through the Apennines and Alps allowed merchants and armies tot travel overland
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Well forested, providing timber
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Many navigable rivers
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Region of Etruria in NW rich in iron and other metals\
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Ample arable land in coastal plains and river valleys
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Extremely fertile volcanic soil
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Sustained larger pop than possible in Greece
Mild Mediterranean climate
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Long growing season and conditions that contributed to wide crop variety
Founding of Rome
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Legend of Romulus
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Merging of many hilltop
communities, forming urban
nucleus shortly before 600 B.C.E
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Drained swamp on site of the
future Roman Forum
Agriculture essential economic
activity
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Founded Rome in 753
Raised by she-wolf
Land basis of wealth
Social status, pol. privilege,
and fundamental values
related to landownership
Senatorial calss
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Small # of families that own
large plots of land
Heads of wealthy families
were members of the Senate
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Major pol. Role in Roman state
Before the Republic
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753-507 B.C.E seven
kings of Rome
First was Romulus;
Last the tyrannical
Tarquinius Superbus
 In 507 members of
senatorial class led by
Brutus “the Liberator”
got rid of Tarquinius
Superbus ( they didn’t
think he was all that
Superbus)
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Establish a res publica
The Roman Republic
507-31 B.C.E and the Senate
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Sovereign power resided
mostly in male, wealthy class
Slate of civic officals elected
annually
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Two consuls
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Hierarchy of state officials
evolved
Presided over meetings of
Senate and asseblies
Commanded army on
military campaigns
The Roman Senate
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Technically an advisory
counsil
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Made policy and governed
Senators nominated sons
for offices and villed
vacanies in senate from
ranks of former officials
Members served for life
Family
and Society
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Basic unit of roman society
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Contained many generations and
domestic slaves
Paterfamilias
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Head of family is oldest living male
(absolute power)
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Hierarchical
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Invested with auctoritas: the ability to
inspire and demand obedience from
inferiors
Used inequality for mutual benefits
and obligations
Patron/client relationship
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Patron: man of wealth, Client: man
who looked to patron for protection
and help
A senator could be patron to dozens
or hundreds
Patron provided clients with legal
advice, representation, physical
protection, and loans
Client expected to support in
battle, political arena, help in land,
and contribute to daughter’s dowry
Women
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Played no public role
Never stopped being a child in
eyes of law
Could not own property or
represent self in legal matters
Under authority of paterfamilias
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First of her family, hten her
husbands
However, less constrained then
women in greek world
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Came to gain more personal
protection and some economic
reedom
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New type of marriage: left
woman under juristiction of
father and free after his death
Strong women influenced
husbands or sons to help
shape roman history
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Tales of self-assured and
assertive queen-moters and
consorts
Religion and Pax Deorum
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Forces known as Numina
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Vesta, Janus, Penates
examples of smaller gods;
Jupiter, and mars
examples of greater gods
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Deities in hills, caves,
grottoes, and springs
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Came into contact with
Greeks of southern Italy
and took over/adopted
myths and gods
Offerings of cakes and
liquids to win favor of
spirits
Pax Deorum: peace of the
gods
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Covenant betweeen gods
and Roman state
Priests performed
sacrifices and rituals to
win favor
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Gods in turn would bring
success to Roman state
EXPANSION IN ITALY AND THE
MRome
EDITERRANEAN:
was at the center of a huge empire consisting of most of the areas surrounding
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the Mediterranean and reached its peak in the 2nd and 3rd centuries B.C.E.
Romans seized any opportunity they came across to expand their boundaries.
Continuous tension between the pastoral hill tribes of the Apennines and the coastal
plains agriculturists sparked Rome’s conquest of Italy.
Rome gained power by helping to protect the wealthy cities of Campania from the hill
tribes and had extended their “protection” over most of the peninsula by 290 B.C.E.
Unlike the Greeks, the Romans gained the favor of conquered areas by extending
political, legal, and economic privileges of Roman citizenship to them.
Rome’s sheer numbers were able to survive greater casualties which aided its
military conquests.
From 262 to 202 B.C.E., Rome fought and conquered the Carthaginians then gained
Sicily, Sardania, and Spain as its first overseas provinces.
From 200 to 246 B.C.E., Rome fought and conquered the major Hellenistic kingdoms
in the eastern Mediterranean.
The conquest of Gual’s Celtic people was Rome’s first expansion into areas outside
the Mediterranean.
Rome dispatched a member of The Senate every year to its provinces to function as
governor. This system eventually collapsed due to the general inadequacy of the
governors to govern.
THE FAILURE OF THE REPUBLIC:
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Rome’s great size caused the eventual downfall of the Republican system of government.
Changes in Italy were caused by the long amounts of time that peasant farmers were required
to serve in the military and the fact that those in the lower classes saw little of the wealth that
came from new conquests. This resulted in peasant farms being replaced by latifundia, broad
estates or ranches.
These latifundia owners replaced the growing of wheat (the staple food of Italy) with the
grazing of cattle and the growing of more profitable crops, like grapes.
Peasants who had lost their farms to the latifundia were forced into extreme poverty.
The Senate’s loss of authority was partially caused by a change in the composition of the
Roman army. The problem of the shortage in land-owning peasants to serve in the military was
solved by Gaius Marius, who decided to accept men who did not own property into the army.
These men were promised farms once they completed their duties.
Various ambitious generals with loyal armies fought for control of Rome. Octavian, or
Augustus, won, replaced the Roman Republic with the Roman Principate, and conquered Egypt
and parts of the Middle East and Central Europe.
Theoretically, emperors were chosen by the Senate, but they were actually chosen by the army.
Beginning in the 2nd century C.E., emperors selected a grown man as the next leader and
raised him as his son.
The equites were Italian merchants and landowners, just under the senatorial class. They
became a key element in running Rome and did it with honesty, consistency, and efficiency.
An Urban Empire
80% of pop living in the borders of the empire
performed agriculture
Empire was administered through towns and
cities and greatest benefits were to the urban
populace
The number of people living in urban centers
varied
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Largest cities had huge strains on the limited
technological capabilities of the ancients
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Providing enough food and water, as well as removing
sewage was problematic
Upper class lived in town-houses on the seven
hills
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Centered around atrium: courtyard
Frescoes on walls (paintings on wet plaster)
Lower class lived in crowded slums
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Wooden tenements subject to frequent fires
Much of their time spent outdoors
Cities towns and settlements on edge of frontier
forts mimicked the capital in political
organization, layout, and appearance
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Town counsel land two annually elected officials
from wealthy families of community kept law and
order, and collected taxes.
This municipal aristocracy served interests of
Rome
Situation of urban poor superior to that of rural
poor
Urban Empire Cont.
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Countryside life same as always had been
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Process by which ownership of land become more
concentrated in fewer hands was restored in era of
emperors
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Wealth concentrated in cities but based on agriculture
Manufacture and trade prospered and enhanced by pax
romana
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Landowners needed to find new source of labor
Independent farmers decreased- replaced by “tenant
farmers”
Landowners hired foremen to manage farms
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Was temporarily reversed during civil wars that
brought end to Roman Republic
After era of conquest ended in early 2nd cent. C.E.,
slaves no longer cheap and plentiful
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Most of time, rural communities had to fend for
themselves against bandits, wild animals, etc.
People away from urban centers had little direct
contact with roman gov.
Safety and stability guaranteed by roman might
Foodstuff had to be exchanged only locally
City dependent on import of grain from Sicily and
Egypt
Centers of trade moved from Italy outward
Romanization
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The spread of the Latin language and roman
way of life
Evolution of Portuguese, Spanish, French,
Italian and Romanian from Latin
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Language of conquerors taken over by
common people as well
Switch to Latin and adoption of cultural
havits chosen by the inhabitance of the
conquered people
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Benefits from adopting roman culture
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Towns sprang up and acquired features of
Roman urban life
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Magnets for ambitious members of
indigenous people
Citizenship extended to people living outside
of Italy
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Facilitated dealings with roman administration
Merchants who spoke Latin could get contracts
to supply military and could be understood all
over
Aura of success around the language and
culture
At first men who completed 26 term sevice
in military units
Granted for good service
212 Caracalla granted citizenship to all
free, adult, male people in empire
Even emperors eventually hailed from Spain,
Gaul and North Africa
Rise of Christianity
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Judea put under direct roman rule in 6 C.E.
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Among Jews, opposition to Roman rule sprang
up
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Jesus, a young carpenter from northern Israel
was offended by Jewish leaders’ concern with
money and power
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Had most success converting non-Jews
In 66 C.E. revolt in Roman Judea that lasted till
73
Christianity diverged more from Jewish roots
Early Christians vulnerable to persecution by
roman officials because they refused to worship
the emperor as a sign of disloyalty
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Attracted attention of Jewish authorities in
Jerusalem by his prescribed return to personal
faith and spirituality
Imprisoned, and executed by crucifixion
Followers continued spreading his teachings
among Jews
Paul, a Jew from tarsus in southeast Anatolia
converted and spread the word
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Many waited for the Messiah who would liberate them
from Romans
However movement continued to gain strength
and attract converts
General religious tendency of the age
TECHNOLOGY AND TRANSFORMATION:
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The Romans’ engineering expertise included the building of roads, fortification walls,
aqueducts, bridges, siege works and ballistic weapons.
Aqueducts are long conduits that carried water using gravity. They are either elevated or
underground.
The Romans used arches and concrete in their architecture of vaulted and domed interior
spaces.
Rome’s vast lands made it difficult to defend. Augustus even recommended that the next
leaders not expand the boundaries further, so the Roman army switched from offense to
defense. Parthia was Rome’s one neighbor that could actually be considered a threat.
The Roman state prospered for two and a half centuries, up until the third-century crisis
(235 to 284 C.E.). This crisis consisted of political, military, and economic problems and
many short-lasting rulers that nearly destroyed Rome. Germanic tribes attacked during
this period, so many Roman cities began building protective walls.
Economic issues were plentiful and were caused by political and military emergencies
and greedy rulers that took extra for themselves. This resulted in a return to a barter
economy, which then caused decreased trade, which then caused the disappearance of the
aristocracy.
Most people moved from the cities to the country during this time period.
Diocletian rose to power and caused the restoration of Rome. During his twenty year
reign, he created government regulation of prices and vocations, which caused the
creation of the black market. It also caused a growing lack of loyalty to the government.
Constantine succeeded Diocletian and united the entire empire under his rule. He
converted to Christianity after a successful battle and supported the Christian church,
but was tolerant of other religions. His conversion caused the conversion of many Romans
seeking the government’s favor. Constantine also moved the capitol from Rome to
Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople. Most people consider Constantine’s rule
the end of Roman history because of the fundamental changes in Rome he caused.
The origins of Imperial China 221 B.C.E. 220C.E.
Resources and Population
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Great diversity in topography, climate, plant and animal life, and
human population
Agricultural production was primary source of wealth and taxes
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Main tax: % of annual yield of the fields, used to support gov,
and officials
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Large pop in capitals: (first Chang’an and later Luoyang)
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Intensive ag, spread in the Yangzi River Valley,
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Human labor also a fundamental commodity
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Census carried out periodically
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Vast majority of pop lived in eastern portion of the country
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Transporting S crops to north became important
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First steps to create canals
River valley regions that could support dense populations
At first largest concentration was in Yellow River Valley and In North
China Plain, But began to shift to the Yangzi Rigver valley by early Han
times
Governments took advantage of expanding population
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Able-bodied men expected to give one month of labor a year
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Two mandatory years of military service
Han Chinese gradually expanded at the expense of other ethnic
groups
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tended to move into regions suitable for the kind of ag they
were used to
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In places not suitable for their preferred ag, (steppe and desert)
not able to displace other groups
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Pop growth in core regions and land shortage motivated the
push into new areas
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Gov would sometimes organized opening of new areas
Kingdoms also invited Chinese settlers to exploit their skills and learn
their technologies
Hierarchy, Obedience, and Belief
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Social organization, values, language, and other
elements of culture was spread into new regions as
Han Chinese expanded
Basic unit of society was the family
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Included all living generations as well as the
ancestors
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Viewed as a living, self-renewing organism,
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Fundamental source of values was doctrine of
Confucius
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Head of family=father
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Domestic hierarchy parallels social hierarchy as
a whole
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Basic values of Chinese society: loyalty,
obedience to authority, respect for elders and
ancestors, honor, and appropriate conduct
Women
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Confucianism stressed impropriety of women
participating in public life
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“woman’s duties are to cook the five grains, heat
the wine, look after her parents in law, make
clothes, and that is all!”
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Arranged marriages
Worship of nature
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State erected and maintained shines to lords of
rain and winds
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Feng shui : earth divination
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Sons were necessary to “ensure immortality”
Consulted to determine best location and orientation
for buildings and graves
Graves filled with useful things for the afterlife
THE FIRST CHINESE EMPIRE:
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The hostility of the divided eastern China was referred to as the Warring
States Period (480 to 221 B.C.E.). Qin overcame all the warring states and
created a unified China.
Shi Huangdi (literally “First Emperor”) was the first Qin ruler and Li Si was
his advisor and prime minister. They were able and ruthless and created a
government with superior organizational skills and a totalitarian structure.
They also replaced Confucianism with Legalism, to justify their actions.
The Qin government abolished primogeniture and slavery to promote
standardization, which resulted in a unified Chinese civilization. The Qin
imposed standard weights, measures, and coinage, a uniform law code, and a
common system of writing.
The Qin caused the building of canals, barricades, and thousands of miles of
roads. Subjects were forced into giving their time, and often their lives, to the
building of these projects. After Shi Huangdi’s death, the subjects rebelled and
destroyed the Qin dynasty.
THE LONG REIGN OF THE HAN:
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Liu Bang established the Han dynasty. The Han left much of the Legalist
structures of government, but added elements of Confucianism.
Han military expansion into Fujian, Guangdong, Vietnam, Manchuria, North
Korea, Mongolia, and Xinjiang was carried out under Emperor Wu in the later
2nd century.
Chang’an in the Wei Valley was the capital of Early Han and became the
model of urban planning. The more centrally located Luoyang was the capital
of Later Han.
There was a high contrast in the lives of the wealthy living in the capital to
those of the poor living in the capital.
The Emperor was considered the “Son of Heaven” and was chosen by the
Mandate of Heaven. The emperor was thought of as a divinity on earth, but
was kicked out if natural disasters or successful revolutions occurred, as these
were considered proof that Heaven had withdrawn its support of the emperor.
A prime minister and a civil service director ran the central government along
with nine other ministers. The Han government used local officials to carry out
all day-to-day business in the empire. These officials were taken from the
gentry class, which was just below the aristocrats in terms of wealth. The
gentry class adopted a form of Confucianism and eventually became a sort of
new aristocracy.
An imperial university was located outside of Chang’an and graduated
students entered various levels of government service.
Many common people in the Han period adopted Daoism, a clear opposite of
the upper class’ ritualistic Confucianism.
Technology and Trade
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Advent of bronze tools around 1500 B.C.E gave powerful
push in effort to clear forests of the North China Plain
and open more land fro ag.
1000 yrs later iron arrives
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Qin took full advantage
Mastered technique of liquefying iron and pouring into
molds
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Use of crossbow and cavalry helped military beat the
attacks of nomads from the steppe regions
Watermill used long before it appeared in Europe
Han rulers continues Qin project of road building
Construction of canals
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Improved and connected network of navigable rivers
Development of a horse collar that did not choke the
horses
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Resulted in harder, more durable weapons and tools
Could pull heavier loads
Development of long-distance commerce
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Silk most important export ever
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Silk value could increase a hundredfold by time it reached
destination
Gov. tried to control silk road and its profits by launching
campaigns into central Asia
The Decline of the Han Empire
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Pressure of non-Chinese peoples raiding
from across the frontier or moving into
prosperous lands of the empire eventually
led to the decline of Han authority.
The differences between the farmers in Han
lands and the herders in nearby nomadic
tribes gave rise to suspicions and
stereotyping
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Military broke down
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Major external threat in Han period came
from the Xiongnu (Turkic peoples)
Chinese developed cavalry forces equal to
the nomads
Developed a tributary system in which
nomad rulers accepted Chinese supremacy
In the end, this worsened economic troubles
of later Han times
Foreign soldiers not loyal to Han state
Factional intrigues within ruling clan.
Official corruption and inefficiency, uprisings
of peasants, spread of banditry, unsuccessful
reform movements, attacks by nomads, and
ambitions of rural warlords, all contributed
to the weakening of Han control
After 220 C.E. China entered a period of
political fragmentation
IMPERIAL PARALLELS:
SIMILARITIES
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One similarity between the Roman and Han empires is the patriarchal nature of
families. These families also valued honor, respect, obedience, and had a strong
sense of duty.
Each empire relied heavily on agriculture as its source of wealth and peasants as its
source of military labor.
The first leaders of both empires first came to power by overcoming the aristocratic
families and giving land back to small farmers.
Each empire began as a small, ethnically homogenous area, then spread to create a
large, diverse land filled with various peoples and cultures. Each empire then
created cultural unity.
Due to their widespread lands, the Roman and Han empires had to rely heavily on
local officials to carry out local transactions and business.
Cities in both empires were modeled after their capitals, Rome and Chang’an.
However, most people lived in the countryside.
Both empires had difficulty defending their vast borders from jealous neighbors and
built many defensive walls. The cost of these fortifications damaged the economy,
which resulted in decreased loyalty from their subjects. Rome and Han China’s
central governments finally collapsed when their borders were breached.
IMPERIAL PARALLELS:
DIFFERENCES
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While the imperial model of Han China was reestablished in later eras, the
Roman Empire was never as unified again.
The Chinese individual was considered only a small part of a much larger
social group and had a deep respect for his ancestors. Legalism and
Confucianism also played a key role in the interactions and relationships of
Han China. Unlike China, the Roman’s organization of society was not
modeled after the family unit and focused much less on respect for
ancestors.
In the Roman empire, individuals had more opportunity to rise in wealth
and status, and the individual was valued more as a person. In contrast,
China’s merchant class was often belittled and constrained by the
government.
The Roman emperors were chosen by the army or the Senate and were
respected as a divinity. The Chinese emperors were chosen by the Mandate
of Heaven and were thought of as the Son of Heaven.
The spread of Christianity through the Late Roman Empire went against
traditional beliefs regarding the divinity of the emperor. However, the
spread of Buddhism in Han China was more easily accepted into their
culture, due to its similarity to Chinese values and beliefs.
Conclusion
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Both Roman and first
Chinese empires arose
from relatively small
states
Able to subdue neighbors
because of discipline and
military toughness
 Ultimately unified
widespread territories
under strong central
governments
 Fell to a combination of
external pressures and
internal divisions
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