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Rome Rome’s Founders The founding of Rome goes back to the very early days of civilization. It is so old, it is today known as “the eternal city.” The Romans believed that their city was founded in the year 753 BCE. Modern historians though believe it was the year 625 BCE. Kings governed early Rome, but after only seven of them had ruled, the Romans took power over their own city and ruled themselves. This will be discussed later in the reading. The City of Rome Ancient Roman People The Roman Empire was so big that there were a lot of different people with different cultures living in it, so you can’t really say there was one way of living in the Roman Empire. There were many different ways of living. Families living in the Roman Empire took many different forms. In general, there was more equality between men and women under Roman law than there was under the Greeks. But there was more equality in the western part of the Empire, in Europe and North Africa (including Egypt), than there was in the east, in West Asia. People of minority races or cultures probably were more comfortable under the Roman Empire than they were before or after. There were people of so many different cultures traveling around the empire interacting with each other that there seems to have been in general a lot of tolerance for other cultures. On the other hand, this contact did also cause tensions, which sometimes burst out into violent persecutions of minority groups. People were forced into slavery in every corner of the Roman Empire, from the beginning to the end, but again the kind of slavery and the way slaves were treated depended on where you were and also on when. In Italy and Sicily, for example, big farms were worked by enslaved field hands, who were very badly treated. But other slaves were house servants (nannies, nurses, cooks, laundry-women, stableboys, etc.). These were generally better treated. A lot of slaves also worked for the Roman government, or for private businesses, as managers, or running a shop, or in small factories. Still other slaves were criminals who had been sentenced to work in the mines or other hard labor as punishment. Even if they were freed people who had once been enslaved they still didn’t have the same rights as other people, but their children did, if they had been born free. All over the Roman Empire, many boys in cities seem to have gone to school. Some girls went to school, but most girls were not allowed to. Most countryside folk could not read or write. Very few people went to college, but those that did probably traveled far from home to do so. Girls and boys from rich families were not allowed to get romantic together. Most marriages among the upper classes were arranged by the parents. It was probably different, and more like today, for the poor. The Romans knew four classes of people. The division was very important to the Romans. The lowest class was the slaves. They were owned by other people. They had no rights at all. The next class was the plebeians. They were free people, but they had little say at all. The second highest class was the equestrians (also called knights). Their name means the “riders”, as they were given a horse to ride if they were called to fight for Rome. To be an equestrian you had to be rich. The highest level were the nobles of Rome. They were called patricians. All the real power in Rome lay with them. Roman Religion In some ways Roman religion was a lot like Greek religion, but in other ways it was very different. Like the Greeks, the Romans thought that there were many gods, and that these gods each controlled different parts of the world, such as storms, the ocean, marriage, blacksmithing, and so forth. The Romans were particularly interested in power. The chief of the gods, for the Romans, was Jupiter. He was the god of the sky and would throw lightning bolts when angry. For the Romans their emperors were gods, or something very close to gods, depending on who was asked. Generally in the eastern part of the Roman Empire, in Egypt, and Western Asia, people worshipped the emperors as gods. But in the western part, in Europe, people worshipped only the emperor’s guardian angel, not the emperor himself. The Forum In the earliest days of Rome the Forum was an uninhabited swamp, but soon the marshy plain at the bottom of the Palatine Hill was drained and the first paved street (Via Sacra) was built. The Via Sacra was to remain the most important street at the very heart of the city. The Forum, while it did change, was the center of Roman life. It was where politicians could be heard, and a huge market stood. With the growth of the empire and the increase in Rome’s population the old Forum became to small to cope with the sheer weight of numbers. In time other places were added, such as the Forum of Caesar, Augustus, Vespasian, Nerva, and Trajan. Nobles would move about on the Forum always followed by a group of clients, eager to please their patron and assure that he came to no harm. Many such nobles flaunted their wealth, adorned in costly clothes, expensive rings, and having with them exotic pets. And where there was such wealth, there were of course also many doubtful characters moving about, keen to reap the benefit of such riches. Quacks, soothsayers and charlatans of all shapes and sizes were all around. A Roman’s Identity and Honor It was with others that a Roman gentleman had to look for any confirmation of his ability and identity. In Roman society confirmation by others was sought as well as required. Be they the elders of his family, his patrons, his clients, army comrades, or even the people of Rome. No Roman could be his own judge, but could see himself only through the eyes of others. They looked not inwards, but to others to understand themselves. For it was the opinion of others that dictated the opinion a Roman ultimately held of himself. “A good man” was a man deemed worthy by others, a man deemed honorable. But so too, in Roman mind set honorable was only what was actually honored. Glory and honor were also measured only by the recognition it drew from others. Therefore, great noble deeds might be done, but without people knowing of them there was no glory, fame, or advantage. Also, to Romans the only advantage to be gained was to climb the social ladder. Any credit obtained by a Roman meant he could further his political fortunes; all in the hope of finally achieving that distant goal of having a seat in the Roman senate. Hence any achievement was blatantly bragged about to make absolutely sure everyone knew about it. Anyone too dignified to do the bragging oneself, simply found others who would do it for him or her. However, in a society in which so much depended on the light in which others saw you, their view could not only elevate you, but also could destroy you. Any news, be it good or bad, spread like wildfire in a society that spent much of the day gossiping in the public baths or at the Forum. Graffiti was scribbled on walls, and in the inns drunken songs might ridicule the high and mighty. In the theaters actors would, in their plays, praise or deride public figures of the day. As a result, Rome was a city of rumors, for the entertainment of the many and for the advancement of those whose worst fate could not be talked about. Roman Government The Roman senate was, at first, only meant to advise the king. However, with time the senate no longer needed a lifetime king. Instead the senate (also called the Republic) appointed a consul who ruled Rome for only one year. This was a wise idea because the consul tended to be very careful and not rule like a tyrant, because he knew that after the year he could be punished for bad rule. The Republic developed a government of many levels, each with its particular duties. Power was kept in the hands of the patricians. The working-class was represented, but had very little power. Slaves, foreigners, and women were not allowed to hold office. The first consul was Julius Caesar. The consul selected members of the Senate. The Senate’s decrees became law unless vetoed by the tribunes. The ten tribunes were only the workingclass who were elected officials. In theory, the tribunes could check the power of the senators and protect the rights of ordinary citizens. They had the power to veto Senate decrees. Tribunes were also by law immune from arrest. Consequently, many tribunes were assassinated when they stood in the way of a senator’s ambition. The Republic was certainly not a democracy and was not without its problems. The patricians spent a lot of time fighting among themselves, each trying to get just a little more power. During times of crisis, a powerful man could become a dictator. Despite these problems, more people had a voice in the government than ever before. By the time Julius Caesar was born, Rome looked down on any nation ruled by a monarch. Most citizens swore that Rome would never have another king. However, by 44 BCE many Romans were convinced that the ambitions of one man threatened their Republic. Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar was born (by caesarean section according to an unlikely legend) of Aurelia and Gaius Julius Caesar, a praetor. His family had noble, patrician roots, although they were neither rich nor influential in this period. His aunt Julia was the wife of Gaius Marius, leader of the Popular faction. In 68 BCE Caesar was elected quaestor and obtained a seat in the Senate; he married (and later divorced) Pompeia. Caesar supported Gnaeus Pompey and helped him get an extraordinary generalship against the Mediterranean pirates, and he later extended Pompey’s command to the war against King Mithridates in Asia Minor. Throughout 65 BCE Caesar was elected curule aedile and spent lavishly on games to win popular favor; large loans from Crassus made the expenditures possible. Then in 63 BCE Caesar spent heavily in a successful effort to get elected pontifex maximus (chief priest). In 62 BCE he was elected praetor. At this time Rome was a huge and very rich empire after the second Punic War, but the Senate did a poor job of running the republic. The Senate was designed to govern a city, not a growing empire. The senators often took bribes or were not careful about how they voted. Many Romans wanted a strong leader, and the ambitious Julius Caesar was an obvious choice. Caesar sought the office to consul in 60 BCE. He had recently returned from Spain where he served a year as governor. The two consuls at the time were Crassus and Pompey, the leaders of the war against the slave revolt. Rather than become involved in a struggle, Caesar convinced Crassus, Pompey, and the Roman Senate to name him a third consul. This coalition of three equal rulers later become known as the First Triumvirate. When Caesar’s yearlong term as consul ended, he used his influence to get himself appointed governor of Gaul. Gaul was a territory northwest of the Italian peninsula. He led an army that captured most of Western Europe. Caesar’s successes on the battlefield made him the most popular man in Rome. In 49 BCE, the Senate ordered Caesar to return to Rome, but to leave his army behind. Caesar feared that his opponents would destroy him, so he ignored the order and marched his army back to Rome. Caesar’s orders clearly told him not to bring his army across the Rubicon River. When he marched the army across the river, he knew he faced an important decision. Caesar knew that if he obeyed the Senate and disbanded his army, his career would be over; but if he marched his troops across the river, the Senate would order Pompey and his army to retaliate. Caesar’s army seized control of Italy while Pompey and his army fled to Greece. Caesar hunted Pompey and defeated his army. Pompey then escaped to Egypt with Caesar in pursuit. When Caesar arrived in Egypt, the ten-year-old king of Egypt presented Caesar with Pompey’s decapitated head. On March 26 however, Caesar fought against and killed the king of Egypt. It was at this time Caesar and Cleopatra became partners. In June of 47 BCE Caesar left Alexandria, having established Cleopatra as a client ruler in alliance with Rome. Either right before or soon after Caesar left Egypt, Cleopatra bore a son, whom she named Caesarion. During August of the same year, Caesar met and immediately overcame Parnaces in Asia Minor. He later publicized the rapidity of this victory with the slogan veni, vidi, vici (I came, I saw, I overcame). The Roman people admired Caesar as a war hero and a strong leader. In 46 BCE they elected him dictator of Rome. In that time, dictators were temporary rulers elected in times of crisis, but Caesar was elected because of his popularity. The last Roman dictator had been elected almost 150 years earlier. Caesar used his power to make many changes in Rome, often without approval from the Senate. A year after his election as dictator, the Roman people elected Caesar “dictator for life.” Please remember Julius Caesar was never a “Caesar.” This, obviously, outraged the Senate, causing his death. After Caesar’s Death A year after Caesar’s murder, the Senate selected Octavian, Lepidus, and Marc Antony to lead the Republic in the Second Triumvirate. Octavian was Caesar’s teenage grandnephew. Caesar’s will stipulated that Octavian would become his adopted son. Marc Antony and Lepidus were generals in Caesar’s army. Octavian wanted complete control of Rome. When Lepidus retired, Octavian’s only rival was Marc Antony. Marc Antony led the Roman army in Egypt, where he met and fell in love with Cleopatra. Antony and Cleopatra hoped to oust Octavian and rule together, but Octavian used the relationship between Antony and the unpopular Cleopatra to his advantage. The Roman people supported Octavian when he declared war on Antony and Cleopatra. Octavian’s forces defeated Antony and Cleopatra’s ships in 31 BCE. When Marc Antony noticed Octavian forces drawing near he committed suicide. According to legend, when Cleopatra heard of Marc Antony’s death, Cleopatra wrapped an asp (venomous snake) around her arm and the bite ended Cleopatra’s life. With the death of Marc Antony in 31 BCE Octavian become the sole ruler of Rome. Octavian restored peace and order to Rome. The Roman people gave Octavian the name of Augustus, which means “respected one.” He also took the title of Caesar in honor of Julius Caesar. He ruled for forty-one years, and after his death was deified by many Roman citizens. After Augustus many emperors would rule Rome. Some examples are Nero (who was considered insane) Diocletian (who split the empire in two pieces), Constantine (first Christian emperor), and Justinian (the last emperor). The Fall of Rome The Roman Empire in the end was overrun by millions of barbarians from the north and east of Europe. It is believed to have happened two or three times in history that huge migrations took place across Europe, where peoples moved to settle in new territories. These great migrations proved too much for the Romans to stem. Their armies were designed to defeat other armies, not entire folks and peoples flooding toward them. The collapse was completed when Rome itself was conquered by the Visigoth Odoacer and his men in the year 476 AD. Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar William Shakespeare based Julius Caesar on written accounts of Roman history, especially Plutarch’s Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans. Shakespeare may also have been familiar with Lives of the Caesars, a collection of biographies written by Gaius Tranquillus Suetonius. Nevertheless, Shakespeare changed many historical facts to fit his fictional play.