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Chapter 7
Ancient Rome
Rome’s history spans nearly 1000 years. They are often considered the world’s first
super power. Unlike most ancient cultures, the Roman’s had the unique ability to
encompass, govern and assimilate cultures different than theirs. The Romans were also
very good at political propaganda. Even the history of their origins pre ordains their rise
to power: one myth is that the Romans are descendents Aeneas, a Trojan priest, who
escaped from Troy with help from the goddess Venus, and she in turned gave birth to his
sons. Another myth is that Rome was founded by Romulus and Remus, the twin sons of
the god Mars with a mortal woman. The Romans obviously thought of themselves as
descendants of the gods.
But than likely the Romans ancestors were a Neolithic people who settled in Latium,
south of the Tiber River, and Palatine (Rome). By the beginning of the 6th century this
area would become a major transportation and trading center. At first they had a king
and a governing body called a senate. The last monarchs of Rome were from an Etruscan
family called the Tarquins in 509 BCE. After the overthrow of the monarchy, the Roman
Republic would begin and rule for roughly 450 years. This is system of government that
is considered to be more representative of the citizens.
The Romans would start their empirical aspiration in the republic years. It is obvious in
their art and architecture that the Greeks were a main influence. Romans did have their
own unique religion, however much like the Etruscans would adopt the Greek pantheon
of gods into their religious beliefs. The worship of gods, past rulers and allegiance to
current rulers made religion an official duty. The Romans wuld continue to accept and
adopt the religious practices of the people they conquered which would develop into
mystery cults.
The transition from an agrarian society to a commercial one was achieved though the
Romans superior military strength. By 275 BCE they would rule the entire Italy
peninsula, defeated Carthage in the Punic War of 264 BCE- 174 BCE. By the end of the
1st century BCE they controlled the Western Mediterranean, Greece and Macedonia and
defeated all of Gaul (France).
The official date of the Roman Empire is a bit sketchy and depends on who is writing the
history. Some historians consider Julius Caesar as the first Caesar and others count
Augustus as the true first Caesar. But by the first century AD Rome would experience a
explosion of growth and power and it would at this time that Rome would earn its title as
the world’s first super power.
Roman Domestic Architecture
What is known of Roman domestic
architecture is derived from the
remains of Pompeii. Pompeii was
destroyed when Mount Vesuvius
erupted and spewed ashes on the city.
The ashes killed everything in its path,
but also kept the city and its
inhabitants perfectly preserved.
Pompeii was laid out like a typical
Roman city: temples and government
buildings surround a forum, shops and
houses lined straight paved roads,
protective wall enclosed city. The
houses were built behind commercial areas. A typical home had small rooms laid out
around one or two open courts, a corridor from the entrance led to an atrium (an Etruscan
influence), beyond the atrium was
the tablium which is a reception
room or could be an office. Larger
homes’ tablium would open to a
garden that is surrounded by a
colonnaded walkway (peristyle).
One could enter the private areas of
the home from the peristyle garden.
Interior of Roman homes are made
of smooth plaster with very few
actual architectural features. The
interior walls were painted with a
pigment solution of lime and soup
and maybe wax (encaustic). Artists
than simulate marble textures on the
walls, and would add architectural
elements to extend the room and created shallow stage area.
In a reconstructed room from villa Boscoreale the walls are painted to create a panoramic
view. This use of intuitive perspective inspires a theatrical element in the home. The
rear wall is a grotto scene with traditional imagery of satyrs and centaurs, on the side wall
theatrical masks are painted as decoration.
Roman Public Architecture
The fact is that Romans were really good at assimilating and expanding on the knowledge
and skills of other cultures “technology”. Another reason for their success is that they
could build fast and cheap. Unlike other ancient culture, the
Romans used concrete which compared to mud bricks and
marble was a lot faster and cheaper to set up. Another reason
for the enduring success of Rome is that they excelled at
engineering and being able to create services for city dwellers.
The Pont du Gard located near Nimes in France. Stands 162
feet above the Nimes
River and spans some
900 feet. This 3 story
arcaded aqueduct was
used to carry water to Roman cities. The top tier
carried water over 100 gallons of water. This unique
use of the arch displays the Romans’ ability to
expand on the uses of the arch. Romans have often
been credited with inventing the arch. Actually the
arch was used in Near East and Etruscan
architecture. The arch is made from wedge shaped
stones called voussoirs. The voussoirs are buttressed against each other on either side of
the center stone called a keystone. From the single arch the Romans would continue to
build and improve architectural engineering techniques and use them in building public
architecture. The Maison Carree built at the Forum in Nimes, France. This “Square
House” is larger than the republic temple of Portunus. Dedicated to Augustus grandsons
the more elaborate Corinthian column is appropriate for Nimes, a very wealthy
providence of Roman Empire. Typical example of Roman imperial religious
architecture: technological advance, conservative design, with refined sculptural details.
The Forum
commercial and
Rome. All the
were located in this
forum was built in
would continuously
time. The forum
facelift during
last and largest
forum was started
by Hadrian. Each
the Roman Forum, either a Basilica, markets, or another forum.
Romanum was a major
administrative hub of
important buildings
central location. The
the early republic and
be expanded throughout
was given a major
Augustus reign and the
imperial building at the
by Trajan and finished
Emperor would add to
Market Gate Miletos Turkey: Roman emperors knew that by providing
public facilities in outer regions of Rome was a way to gain popularity within
the empire. The Markets of Trajan, located in Miletos (Turkey) is considered
to be an engineering and architectural marvel. Built by the Emperor Trajan in
120 CE, the gate was later added by Hadrian. The size of the market was built
to accommodate some 150shopes and offices. Elements of the basilica, such
as the 2nd story clerestory windows and the main hall are a groin vaulted
space. The market gates features 3 arched openings, each arch framed by
columns (lower level Composite order, with ionic capitals, second level
Corinthian order). Columns on second level support a broken pediment. Very elaborate
design for a market, more of a propaganda piece that reinforces the power and glory of
Rome.
The empire would provide monumental bath houses. Baths were for recreational
purposes, open to the public, like a gymnasium with sunbathing and exercising area,
saunas, libraries (like a modern day YMCA).
The Baths of Caracalla was definitely a
propaganda move on the part of Emperor
Caracalla whose reign is often described as
authoritarian and autocratic. Caracalla co
ruled with his brother Geta, but had him
killed and removed or destroyed all of Geta’s
images.
Most bath houses were located in Rome and
they were basically all laid out in a grid plan.
The Caracalla baths covered over 5 acres of
land. Bath facilities were grouped around a main building to better make use of
underground furnaces, so that one could easily move form hot to cold bathing areas.
Other facilities placed on each side of main bathing area.
One of the
most famous
Ancient Rome
is the Flavian
Amphitheatre,
commonly
known as the
Colosseum.
Built on top of
the Golden
palace of Nero, the name “Coliseum” is after a colossus statue of Nero that was rumored
to be casted in gold. Building began under Emperor Vespasian in 72, but completed
under Titus in 80. The basic design is 2 Greek theatres that are placed together to create
an oval shape arena. The floor is covered with sand (arena in Latin) over a foundation of
service rooms and tunnels. 76 entrance doors to 3 levels of seating that could
accommodate 55,000 people. Seats were in ascending tiers over barrel vaulted halls and
entrance tunnels connecting halls to ramps and seats on each level. Intersecting barrel
vaults with ring corridors create a groin vault. The top level (attic story) of Colosseum
supported a huge awning that would be pulled over the top, by naval personnel, to give
audience shade. The outer walls are arranged in 3 arcaded levels, each with a different
engaged column order: ground level-Tuscan, 2nd level-Ionic, 3rd –Corinthian. The outer
wall of attic story has small square windows that had cartouches of gilded bronze shield
like ornaments. The 3rd level supports a row of corbels that project beneath cornice. All
elements outside are purely decorative, and serve no structural reason. The measurements
are 615 ft x 510 ft, Floor 280 ft x 175 ft and 159 ft high. The opening of the Coliseum
was celebrated with 100 days of games, animal hunts, gladiator fights and even naval
battles (they were able to flood the floor of the arena.).
Roman Religious Architecture
The Temple Portunus is an early Republic temple that reflects the taste and style of the
Etruscans and Greeks. The early structures of the republic were built around a large cella
much like the Greek temples, but the Romans would place the structure on a podium.
This temple has a colonnaded porch at one end, in front of the cella. Ionic columns
freestanding on porch, but engaged on the walls of the cella.
The Temple of Sibyl (Sibyls were women who could “see” the future and interpret
events) is a circular temple on a podium from the Republic period. Again this design is
based on the tholos plan that was used in Greek and Etruscan temples. Ionic columns
support a continuous frieze of images with alternating garland and
ox heads. The steps are only in front; the foundation is made from
tufa.
One of the most important and famous temples that was built in the
Roman Empire was the Pantheon. Originally this temple was the
site for another structure that had a colonnaded rectangular entrance portico. Constructed
during the Emperor Hadrian reign (he was a great admirer of Greek art and architecture is
considered one of the “five good emperors”) the rectangular temple is replaced with a
massive circular room. The rotunda is some 75 feet high with 20 feet thick concrete
walls. The façade is a typical Roman temple with an inscription that reads Marcus son
of Lucius, who was consul 3 times Agrippa (Marcus Agrippa was the son in-law to
Augustus and who oversaw the construction of the original pantheon that was built in 2725BCE, but burned down in 80). Hadrian respected history and put Agrippa’s name as a
memorial. The walls of the Pantheon support a dome of 143ft in diameter and are also a
143 ft from floor to summit.
Sunken coffers in dome ceiling may have bronze gilded rosettes or stars; light enters from
the oculus which is meant to represent the Eye of Jupiter. The oculus replaces the
keystone that is used in constructing arches. A marble veneer disguises brick and
concrete. An interior wall form and buttresses the drum of the dome. In the rotunda
walls are decorate with architectural elements such columns, exedrae (semi circle niches)
and alternating rectangle niches that houses statues of all the gods. Pope Boniface IV
dedicated to the church of St Mary and the Martyrs.
Roman Commemorative
Architecture
Imperial commemorative art was developed specifically to celebrate the exploits of
emperors and generals. Julius Caesar would use art as
propaganda by having his image on denarii’s; Augustus
continued the tradition in commissioned art work that
would continue to promote his reign as a leader, general
and family man. The war monument Ari Pacis was built to
celebrate Augustus defeat of Gaul. Inside the altar was
decorated with swags held by ox skulls (sacrificial offering)
and garlands that represent continuous peace. The outside
of structure shows a processional of actual people who
attended the parade of triumph.
The Imperial Procession shows
senators on the north wall, and
Augustus’ family on the south.
East and west sides represent
allegories of peace and war.
Romans favored realism and so the
figures are not considered to be
idealized but actual portraitures of
people who were present:
Augustus’s wife, Livia and her
sons (by her first marriage) Gaius Caesar and Tiberius and other members of the family.
The skill of the sculpture is evident in the blend of high and low relief in the work, very
reminiscent of the Pergamon altar.
Under Trajan, the empire reached to its
greatest extent to Dacia (Romania); the
Empire consolidated their borders and
continued to impose social, administrative
& military reforms. Trajan greatly
admired Greek culture and initiated new
buildings and renovations that reflected his
taste for Greek aesthetic. The use of a
freestanding column for memorials has
been used since the Hellenistic period.
Trajan’s column is 97’8 ft high, and
interns Hadrian’s ashes at the base and a
large bronze statue of Trajan on top (St.
Peter’s statue is on top of the column
now). The difference between this column
and typical Hellenistic columns is that the
entire surface of the columns is carved
with the narrative of Trajan’s triumph over Dacia. At the
beginning of the spiral (reads bottom to top) are the
images of the Roman army crossing Danube River on a pontoon bridge, as we move up
the column we see soldiers building battlefield headquarters and so on. Trajan is
portrayed as a strong military leader with brave Roman soldiers, but the barbarians as
unorganized and pathetic. By the 3rd spiral we see a captured Dacian spy before Trajan
and on the 4th spiral there is a fight between the Romans and the Dacian. Even though
the higher up images cannot be seen from the ground, the artists did keep in mind that the
higher images can be seen from balconies and roof tops. The scrolls features over 2500
individuals portrayed, with Trajan reappearing often on registers. This is a fine example
of good use of an awkward and potentially difficult and impossible pictorial plane.
Another popular commemorative monument type is the arch. The
Arch of Titus was built by Domition to honor is Brother Titus victory
in Jerusalem. The inscription reads the senate and the Roman people
to the deified Titus Flavius Vespasianus Augustus, son of the deified
Vespasian. The arch was a free standing barrel vaulted gateway,
which served as a base for a giant 4 horse chariot and driver. The
column order is a
composite (a
combination of ionic and
Corinthian elements)
which supports an
entablature. The spandrels show winged
victories holding a wreath. In the center of
the vault is a carving of Titus being carried away on the back of an eagle to join the gods.
Inside the arch the Roman traditional recording relatively current events is apparent. The
Romans often would march though the city carrying the spoils of their victory. The
processional was recorded by Josephus, a Jewish historian who actually witnessed this
particular parade. The artists using high and low relief helps to give a sense of real space
as well as give attention to details of likenesses, as well as description of the spoils. On
other side of arch is a relief of Titus riding in chariot in the celebration ceremony.
Erected in Rome by the senate, the Arch of Constantine is a 3
barrel vaulted arches that is surrounded by Corinthian
columns on a pedestal with an attic story that is inscribed.
This monument was meant to commemorate Constantine’s
victory over Maxentuis at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge.
The medallions are spolias from monuments that were taken
from Marcus Aurelius and Hadrian monuments. Constantine
was not just recycling materials to save money, but rather
Constantine was trying to associate himself with the 5 good
emperors.
Roman Sculpture
The main form of Roman sculptures is in their portraitures. The
Romans placed a lot of value on family and ancestors. The
upper class citizens often commissioned portraits of
themselves with ancestors. The Romans greatly favor verism
(realism) over idealization, in their art. They preferred
portraits that would truly resemble themselves as well as
memorialize their family. As early as in the republic, Romans
understood how to use art as propaganda. The portrait of the
politician Aulus Metellus is in a typical pose for a politician:
dressed in robe, arm raised, regal to convey a sense of
authority and statesmanship. This is definitely meant to look
and appear to be an actual person.
Unlike the Greeks the treatment of women in art was a little
more prevalent. Husband and wives were often portrayed as
equals in portraitures which in turn have led some historians
to believe that women were on a more equal level with men.
By the 1st century AD, bust portraiture of
women became popular. In the portrait of
a Flavian woman we do see some
idealization which is unusual in Roman
portraits; the mouth is perfectly shaped,
strong jaw and pronounced nose. The
hairstyle was popular during time of the
Flavian Emperors. The tight springy curls
are drill work (rapidly cutting deep
grooves in a straight line), creates a dramatic effect with light.
Roman Imperial Portraiture
Imperial portraitures were not just an exercise in vanity or documentation purposes, but
mostly the imperial portraitures were to continue to further the
agenda of the emperor. Augustus Caesar, Julius Caesar’s great
nephew, utilizes art and his image to unify and create the Pax
Romana (Roman Peace). After the death of Julius Caesar, a
civil war broke out amongst the Roman politicians. Augustus
brought opposing factions under control and gave himself the
title Pontifex Maximus which is a high priest. Augustus, in
essence, not only makes himself the highest ranking political
figure but also the highest ranked religious figure.
Augustus of Prima Porta is a visual testament of how Augustus
wanted to be seen in his empire: the raised arm tells us that he
was a great statesman or orator; his bare feet say he is a scholar;
the armor (cuirass) and decoration refer to one of his military
victories. Augustus carries a baton which also refers to the
military. The cupid by his leg lets the audience know that his
family is descents of Venus’s son Cupid. This portraiture shows
a young and vibrant Augustus, however it was probably done
when Augustus was closer to 60 years of age. After his death in
14 CE the senate venerated Augustus to a divine status called apotheosis.
The equestrian statue was very popular for their emperors.
However most of these statues were casted in bronze and
the Romans did recycle metals. The only reason this
equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius is still in tact is
because it was mistaken as portraiture of Constantine, the
first Christian emperor. Marcus Aurelius is considered the
last of the 5 good emperors. Again the artist would position
Marcus in a way that would help to create an image of a
strong yet benevolent leader. Marcus in a traditional
philosopher pose raised hand, military tunic and cloak, hair
style of that of a philosopher (popularized by Hadrian),
carries no weapon, and conquers by the will of the gods.
Originally under the horse’s raised leg was a barbarian that about to be
trampled.
Commodus was the son of Marcus Aurelius. He was a bit of an
eccentric, who is often compared to Nero because of his rather bizarre
behavior. Saw himself as a reincarnation of Heracles and would
appear in public as Heracles and as a gladiator. Commodus even
changed the name of Rome to Colonia Commodiana. In the portrait as Hercules while
rather silly looking, still a beautifully crafted piece of art. We can also say this is a
successful portrait because the artist not only captures Commodus likeness but also his
rather bizarre personality. The artist use of drill work brings an eerie sense of liveliness;
we see he is holding the golden apples & wearing the skin of the lion that relates to the 12
feats of Heracles. Commodus’s death marks the beginning of the end of Roman
dominance
Constantine the Great is considered the first
Christian emperor of Rome. He defeated
Maxentuis at Milivania Bridge. This is after he
had a vision about Christ appearing to him and
commanding Constantine to painted X P (Chi
Rho=Christos) on the shields of his army.
Constantine’s mother Helen was a Christian,
which was probably a big influence on him as
well. In 313 Edict of Milan declared religious
freedoms for everyone. But Constantine would
remain the Pontifex Maximus and would still worshipped typical
Roman gods. By 324 defeated Licinius and became the sole ruler of
Rome. In another bold move he would move the capital of Rome to
Byzantium and renamed it Constantinople. The colossal head of
Constantine was a part of a full body statue of the emperor that sat
the apse of the Constantine basilica. While still a likeness, we do see
the exaggeration of the eyes, part of this is because of the enormity of
the statue’s head. Gone is the emperor that tries to reach to his
subjects, but in its place is an emperor that is distant and aloof from his subjects.
Roman Mural Painting
In the ruins of Pompeii was discovered literally hundreds of murals. Scholars separate
the paintings in 4
distinct styles. As
stated earlier the
Romans would
paint architectural
elements on their
walls. This first
style is seen
mostly in the
Republic period
of Rome’s history. The second style is exemplified
by the paintings found in the so called Villa of Mysteries. These are strange and bizarre
images of possible rites of a cult that was performed in private homes. Setting of this rite
is set on a shallow stage on a dado (lower part of wall). There is a priestess on left
prepares to reveal a draped cult object, winged figures prepares to whip cult initiate,
fourth female dances and plays symbols or the dancer could be initiate herself dancing for
joy to get it over.
The third style is seen in Young Woman Writing. Imaginary
portraitures were very popular Roman upper class homes. The
portrait is placed in a tondo which is an unusual format. The
woman’s look is contemplative as if pondering what she is about to
write. The use of value on the face and drapery helps to enhance the
volumes of the figure. The artist repeats the circular shapes of the
tondo and ringlets in the hair. The stylus and pad shows us that this
was an educated woman (remember in Rome women were on a
more equal footing with men). Also part of the third style is
paintings of villa
landscapes on walls.
The artists would use
highlights and shadows to
create the illusion of
looking out a window of
panoramic view. The use
perspective also helps to
give the wall a three
dimensionality.
a
of
The Romans also really enjoyed still life murals. This is the
fourth style which is a combination of the previous three styles.
From the earlier styles, one can assume that the Romans
enjoyed illusionist paintings. This is referred to as Trompe
L’oiel which is French for “fool the eye”. The painter creates
an illusion of depth using what is called intuitive perspective;
the artist uses scale and value to instead of mathematic
perspective. Strong use of light and shadow displayed in real
space
Just as Rome would absorb other cultures (the Roman influence reaches as far east
as Pakistan and India) the cultures they encounter
would adopt some of Rome’s visual traditions. This
visual cross fertilization is seen in the Faiyum
paintings in Egypt and also in the Tophet cemetery in
Carthage.
When Constantine moved the capital of the Roman Empire to the east, the hand
writing is on the wall: the Roman dominance is at an end. The official fall of
Rome in the west is around 479 AD. The eastern empire would continue to
thrive for at least another 500 to 1000 years. The Byzantine Empire would
eventually fall to the Ottoman Turks in the 15th century. But as we move
through out history we will see that Rome would continue to be a major
influence in the development of western civilization and culture.
As you can imagine there will be A LOT of information on the Romans. I have listed
only one because, really, there is A LOT of information on the Romans.
http://www.pbs.org/empires/romans/