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Before Entering a Grammar Handbook:
A Guide to the Sentence
I
Most of us worry about correct grammar. And when we write, we
also worry about correct punctuation, such as those pesky commas and
mysterious colons and semicolons. And we are right to worry about them.
Most people judge us not only by the dialect we happen to be speaking but
also by the kinds of errors that they can detect in our speech or writing.
I’m not going to say that I have a pill that if you swallow, the problem
will go away. But my years of teaching English composition have taught me
a thing or two about correct grammar. I want to share what I know with
you. I want to provide access to the rules of correct grammar and
punctuation by making you aware of what a sentence is. I want to show you
the parts of this automobile that we call “a complete sentence.” Once you
learn the meanings of just a few words, you will be able to read a grammar
handbook with comprehension and pleasure.
Here is a complete sentence:
(1) John is a bear.
And here’s another complete sentence:
(2) John kicks a bear.
Actually, what I’ve done here is given you two sentences that contain
a noun, “John,” and its verb (1) “is” and (2) “kicks.” You have to have at
least a noun (or a pronoun) and a verb to make a meaningful statement. We
call that combination of noun-verb the subject and predicate of the sentence.
Every sentence that you write has to contain at least one subject-predicate
combination:
(1) Good people tell few lies.
(2) Honesty is a blessing.
(3) The bigger they are, the harder they fall.
(4) Nothing matters as much as emotion (matters).
(5) A wise choice means that there will be fewer regrets.
I’ve underlined the simple subjects with one line and the simple
predicates with two lines. Now what can I say about these subject-predicate
combinations?
I can say that in each case of a subject-predicate combination
someone or something either is or does something. Please notice that in my
opening examples of a complete sentence I wrote, (1) “John is a bear.” And
then I wrote (2) “John kicks a bear.” The first sentence says that “John”
exists as a bear. In the second sentence, “John” does something: he kicks a
bear. Believe it or not, when you make any statement about our world, all
that you can do is 1. say what someone or something either is or is-like or 2.
state what someone or something does. There are no other choices. Our
world is composed of “things” that act in relationship to other “things.” You
can with a sentence either state what one of these “things” is like or what
any one of these “things” does. As I said, there are no other choices. A
sentence (or rather, a clause—about which later) names a person, place,
thing, or idea and says what that person, place, thing, or idea is or is-like. Or
it names a person, place, thing, or idea and says what he or she or it does or
they do. There are no other choices.
Let’s take a look at the five sentences that I used to illustrate subjectpredicate combinations:
(1) Good people tell few lies.
(2) Honesty is a blessing.
(3) The bigger they are, the harder they fall.
(4) Nothing matters as much as emotion (matters).
(5) A wise choice means that there will be fewer regrets.
At this point let me state what a clause is. A clause is not Santa Claus.
A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate and that
can be either a complete sentence or a part of a sentence. When it is or
could be written as a complete sentence, we call it an “independent clause.”
When it’s just a part of another clause, it’s called a “dependent (or
subordinate) clause.”
Sentence (1) is one independent clause. It contains one subjectpredicate combination and makes sense by itself. The subject people in this
case does something: tell.
In sentence (2) Honesty is what is being talked about. Honesty is the
subject of the sentence. But in this case Honesy doesn’t do anything. It is
merely being identified as a “blessing.” It is merely being identified as
existing in a certain way, as a “blessing.” The verb is is called a “state of
being” verb while the verb tell in sentence (1) is called an “action” verb. So
the “state of being” verb tells us what the subject is or is-like while the
“action” verb tells us what the subject does.
“In sentence (3) please notice that there are two subject-predicate
combinations: “they are” and “they fall.” We need at least one independent
clause in order to have a complete sentence. Which of these two clauses,
“The bigger they are” and “the harder they fall” is a complete sentence by
itself? It’s the second one, “the harder they fall.” The first clause, “The
bigger they are” tells how they fall (harder)—they fall harder “The bigger
they are.” There are two clauses in this sentence, and the second clause is
independent while the first clause is dependent. Notice that you can’t
reverse the two clauses and still make sense: “The harder they fall, the
bigger they are.” It’s the clause “The bigger they are” that helps to explain
“the harder they fall” and not the other way around.
In sentence (4) there are two subject-predicate combinations: Nothing
matters and emotion (matters). You’ll notice that the second predicate
“matters” has been written in by me. I would usually simply say, “Nothing
matters as much as emotion.” But the meaning, of course, is that “nothing
matters as much as emotion matters.” The second “matters” is understood to
be there, just as when I write “He’s the man we like,” I mean “He’s the man
whom we like.” The word “whom” (a relative pronoun) has been left out.
Or in another case of something being left out, we write “It’s a nice day.”
The word “It’s” really means “It is.” The letter “i” has been left out and
been replaced by an apostrophe. It’s important to realize that sometimes the
way something is expressed leaves certain parts of the sentence out. Such
constructions have the fancy name of being “elliptical”—as in ellipsis points
(. . .) when a person is showing that something has been left out of a quoted
sentence. Such ellipses occur often in speech:
“Why’d he do that?” (Why did he do that?)
“Don’ know.” (I do not know.)
“You sure?” (Are you sure?)
“Of course! You think I’d lie?” (Of course I am sure! Do you think
that I would lie?)
Now here’s the sentence again: “(4) Nothing matters as much as
emotion (matters).” There are two clauses since there are two subjectpredicate combinations. What are the two clauses? Well, the first one is
simply “Nothing matters” while the second one is “as much as emotion
(matters).” At least one of these clauses has to be independent if we are to
have a complete sentence. Which clause is independent? Which clause
could be read as a sentence by itself? Well, it’s clearly the first one,
“Nothing matters.” I could not write “As much as emotion (matters).” The
words “As much as” make a person wonder how the idea relates to
something else. It doesn’t express a complete independent notion of
somebody or something being something or doing something. But when I
attach it to the first clause, “Nothing matters,” the second clause makes
perfect sense: Under what conditions can one say that “Nothing matters”?
“Nothing matters” or is anywhere near as important as when it is qualified
by emotion. The verb “matters” in “Nothing matters” is being qualified by
the clause “as much as emotion (matters).” Thus the second clause is a
dependent clause. And because it is modifying a predicate (verb), it is an
adverb dependent clause.
The last sentence under consideration, “(5) A wise choice means that
there will be fewer regrets” also contains two subject-predicate
combinations: “choice means” and “regrets will be.” Please notice that the
usual pattern of subject-predicate can be reversed in certain situations, such
as in questions, “Do you dance?” where the helping verb “Do” precedes the
subject “you.” It can be done just for effect, as in the sentence, “In the
basement lurked the little jinn.” And then there is the above situation using
what is called an expletive, “There,” to start the sentence. For instance,
“There’s milk in the refrigerator” or “There are bananas on the table.” In
both these sentences the predicate precedes the subject: ‘s milk (is milk) and
are bananas.
Once again, since there are two subject-predicate combinations, that
means that there are two clauses. Which one of these clauses is
independent? We need at least one independent clause in order to have a
complete sentence. In this case the entire sentence “A wise choice means
that there will be fewer regrets” is the independent clause. Why is this so?
Well, the reason is that the second clause is a noun-clause. It is a whole
clause working as if it were merely a one-word noun. The noun clause is
“that there will be fewer regrets.” It answers the question “what?” to the
independent clause “A wise choice means what?” I could have written, “A
wise choice means security.” Or I could have written “A wise choice means
fewer worries.” The words “security” and “worries” in the examples are
single-word nouns. Please notice that they also answer the question
“what?”: “A wise choice means what? (security); “A wise choice means
what? (fewer worries). “A wise choice means what? (that there will be
fewer regrets). A noun clause is a group of words containing a subject and
predicate and working together as a noun—the name of a person, place,
thing, or idea. Therefore wherever a noun can occur in a sentence, a nounclause can be used in that place.
Before I move on to the nitty-gritty of the specifics of the parts of
speech, phrases, and clauses of a sentence, I also want to mention to you that
grammarians talk of sentences as being simple, compound, complex, and
compound-complex. What does this mean? What grammarians have done
is to look at the number and types of clauses that are found in a given
sentence. If there is only one subject-predicate combination and the clause
makes sense by itself, we say that it is a simple sentence. If there are two or
more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction or
conjunctions (and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so) or a correlative conjunction or
conjunctions (either . . . or, neither . . .nor, whether . . .or, not only . . .but
also, both . . .and), and there are no dependent clauses, the sentence is called
a compound sentence. Now if the sentence contains one independent clause
and at least one dependent clause (it could have more than one dependent
clause), it is called a complex sentence. And finally there is the last
possibility: the sentence contains at least two independent clauses and at
least one dependent clause (there could be more dependent clauses, just as
there could be more independent clauses). In this case the sentence is called
compound-complex. Here are two examples of each type of sentence (I’m
indicating independent clauses in yellow highlight and dependent clauses in
turquoise highlight. I’ve also underlined simple subjects with one line and
simple predicates with two lines):
simple sentence: (1) Derrick is a simple man.
(2) Derrick holds no grudges.
compound sentence: (1) Wyconnda is the wife, and Derrick is her husband.
(2) A good marriage requires a lot of compromise, and
a good marriage requires mutual tolerance, but above all else a good
marriage requires honesty.
complex sentence: (1) Whenever Derrick stays out late, Wyconnda wants to
know why.
(2) Derrick, who is an honest husband, doesn’t mind
telling her the truth because he is not guilty of infidelity.
compound-complex: (1) Wyconnda likes to shop, but Derrick prefers to stay
at home because for him shopping is boring.
(2) Derrick always makes sure that the house is safe,
and he doesn’t get to bed until he has checked the doors and windows.
The best writers know how to “mix it up.” They do not write a series
of simple sentences, for instance, because the effect is too choppy. They
write simply, that’s true, but they vary the kinds of sentences that they use
because the human mind likes variety even as it likes uniformity. So the
thoughts are presented in a logical manner but conveyed in sentencestructures that keep the reader’s interest fresh.
II
I have already prepared a file to explain the parts of speech, phrases,
and clauses—the components of the automobile that is the English sentence.
But whereas the parts of an automobile are all useful in creating a vehicle
whose primary purpose is transport, the parts of a sentence are all useful
toward conveying information—creating meaningful communication. Once
you have learned the meaning of the parts of speech, of the four types of
phrases, and of the four types of clauses, you will be able to read a good
grammar handbook with ease and comprehension. You will be able to apply
the rules for correct writing to your own writing. You will know when you
have expressed something effectively, and if you have not expressed it
effectively, you will be able to correct what you have written. A knowledge
of correct grammar and punctuation is a powerful asset in a highly literate
and technological society. As I’ve read somewhere or heard it said, even the
most difficult mathematical formulas can be expressed in words. The
problem is that the expression becomes very complicated. Mathematical
symbols are a kind of shorthand to get the idea said in a very economical
way. But a good writer can explain what a given equation means and what it
is meant to achieve. The spoken or written word is immensely useful.
So let me insert this file directly below:
Effective Writing
Table of Contents
Effective Writing ............................................................................................ 7
The Parts of Speech ...................................................................................... 10
Noun/Pronoun and Verb ............................................................................... 11
Adjectives and Adverbs ................................................................................ 13
Prepositions ................................................................................................... 14
Conjunctions ................................................................................................. 15
Prepositional Phrases .................................................................................... 22
Verbals: Participles, Gerunds, and Infinitives .............................................. 27
Clauses .......................................................................................................... 30
Distinguishing between Independent Clauses and Noun Clauses ................ 37
Summary ....................................................................................................... 40
Examples of Effective Writing ..................................................................... 41
Effective Writing
Dear Students,
I’m going to try to explain as best I can what it means to write
effectively. First of all I want to tell you that too many people think that
writing is something as natural as burping. It isn’t. Just because a person
knows how to burp, that person doesn’t in the same way know how to write.
Correct, effective writing requires a knowledge of words, the accepted order
for arranging those words into phrases and clauses, and choosing such
words, phrases, and clauses as most clearly and compellingly communicate
what the writer is actually trying to say. This activity is nothing like burping
until one has learned correct grammar, done a lot of writing, and
experienced life both in the everyday living of it and in the reading about it
by other writers who are competent at what they do. Then the writer can
“burp” with each word. She or he knows the rules inside and out, is entirely
familiar with applying those rules, and experiences few moments when there
is any difficulty in making her or his point as economically yet cogently as
possible. That’s when people say that a person’s art makes the most difficult
things seem easy. Burping is easy. But effective writing isn’t easy until one
has learned to do it according to the rules for clear communication.
Good writers give one a lot of pleasure. They see the world as
objectively as possible, don’t try to make it into something that it isn’t, yet
find all sorts of beautiful data available to their skill to express. Some
writers are especially able at presenting a detailed view of the world of their
senses and intellect, while others have an enormous knack to get at the
feelings that their experiences raise in them. They give the world an
emotional tinge that other people regard as remarkable.
So one can ask, “What exactly is a person doing when she or he writes
effectively?” My answer is simple: the person knows how to put a subject in
front of a predicate and to modify that subject and predicate effectively.
This seems to be no “big” thing:
John is a bear.
John sees a bear.
Please notice that the second sentence could have any number of “action”
verbs in it:
John kicks a bear.
John likes a bear.
John watches a bear.
John feeds a bear.
and so on. By the way, the verb “be,” which has the additional forms, “am,”
“is,” “are,” “was,” “were,” “been,” and “being” –eight forms in total, is a
true state-of-being verb. There are only two others (linking verbs that can
take either a predicate adjective or a predicate noun): “become” and
“remain.” Thus the sentence above, “John is a bear,” which doesn’t express
any action that John is doing, could also convey a state of being if it were
written as follows:
John becomes a bear.
John remains a bear.
The verbs “becomes” and “remains” aren’t expressing an action, as the verbs
“sees,” “kicks,” “likes,” “watches,” and “feeds” express. These two
situations, when somebody or something either is or does something are the
only two things that can happen when a person is trying to communicate
with another person. There are variations, such as those involving different
tenses, voice, and mood, but basically everything comes back to this
premise: a subject either is something or does something.
The Parts of Speech
Just as an auto-mechanic has to know what a gasket is, a piston-ring, a
valve, an oil filter, and so forth, in order to work on a car-engine—or a
surgeon has to know what a suture is, and a scalpel, nipper, curette, forceps,
and so forth—a writer has to know what the eight parts of speech are. They
are the units that go into the building of sentences, but even more
importantly, they are the functions that individual words do in sentences, as
well as what phrases and clauses do. Actually, there are only seven parts of
speech—units that go into the construction of a clause or a sentence. The
interjection is merely a word that stands outside of a sentence, such as the
words “Wow!” “Gee!” or “Yay!” for instance. Therefore I will be speaking
only of the seven parts of speech from now on:
Nouns
Pronouns
Verbs
Adjectives
Adverbs
Prepositions
Conjunctions
Please notice that the parts of speech are printed above in four
groupings, and each part of speech is assigned a given color. Nouns and
pronouns are “naming words,” and I have assigned the color red to them.
Verbs are the action words (or the state-of-being verbs), and I have assigned
the color blue to them. Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns, so I have
chosen the color red for them, just as I have for the nouns and pronouns.
Adverbs modify verbs, so, like the verbs, they are blue in color. Finally
there are the “joining” words, the prepositions and conjunctions. I have
assigned the color green to them.
Just as an automobile is meant to transport people and things, a
sentence is meant to convey some information. Each automobile consists of
parts that are meant to facilitate transport. The engine generates power, the
transmission delivers that power to the wheels, the wheels provide the
locomotion, and the body of the automobile houses the passengers and
cargo.
In a sentence, the nouns (or pronouns) are the subjects and objects
under discussion, the verbs tell what those subjects and objects are doing or
being, the adjectives make those subjects and objects more specific so that
the information is more accurate, the adverbs clarify the verbs, indicating the
strength, duration, time, place, and extent of the action. Prepositions join a
noun or pronoun to the rest of the sentence as a modifier (either as an
adjective or an adverb), while the conjunction can join two words, phrases,
or clauses together. And that’s it. These seven units either name somebody
or something, express action or state of being, make clearer which
“somebody” or “something” is under discussion, establish the conditions
under which an action is taking place, or join different words or groups of
words together. Here’s an explanation of the parts of speech, with examples
of how they are used:
Noun/Pronoun and Verb
Nouns and pronouns are “naming” words. They are words that stand
for “somethings” and “somebodies.” A noun is a word that names a person,
place, thing, or idea and always creates a kind of “picture” in the mind. If a
person says the word “table,” the picture that I’m talking about isn’t of a
round or a square table but of a flat surface supported, usually, on legs. One
can pull a chair or chairs up to it and eat from it or place one’s books on it.
A pronoun, on the other hand, doesn’t create a picture in the mind.
Words such as “it,” “he,” “that,” “someone” and so forth indicate a thing or
person, but they don’t create a “picture” in the mind.
Verbs express action or state of being. “Raul kicks the ball.” “Raul is
a man.” Both of these are independent clauses as well as complete
sentences. The verbs (which are also called predicates when they are the
action or state of being that the subject does or is) are indicated in blue.
Verbs are not hard to identify in a clause, especially the action-verbs.
Noun/Pronoun and Verb can create a Clause,
and a clause can be a sentence.
Adjectives and Adverbs
Adjectives=these are words and groups of words that make nouns
clearer: good girl; man on the roof; beautiful flower; a man who loves
baloney.
They answer the general question, “What Kind Of?”
Adverbs=these are words and groups of words that make verbs or other
adverbs or adjectives clearer: spoke loudly; listens with interest; hit the ball
hard; went to the store whenever he could; walked extremely slowly.
They answer the questions, “How?” “When?” “Where?” “Why?” “To
What Degree?” “Under What Conditions?”
Adjectives and Adverbs “fill in” the meaning that the
subject and the predicate express. They make clearer
exactly what kind of “who” or “what” did it and how,
when, where, or why he, she, it, or they did it.
Prepositions
Prepositions are “pointer words” that join nouns or pronouns to the
rest of the clause as adjectives or adverbs. They indicate direction, usually,
such as the prepositions in, into, through, over, down, beyond, above, and
so forth. They also “point” a few other things, less easy to pin down, such as
during, for, except, and so forth. But this one fact is for sure: they are
followed by a noun or pronoun that they link to the rest of the clause as
either an adjective or an adverb. All prepositional phrases work as either
adjectives or adverbs. And by that I mean that the whole phrase, such as “in
that room,” is either an adjective or adverb depending on how it is used in
the clause. It is an adjective in the sentence, “The man in that room is
talking.” But it is an adverb in the sentence, “The man is talking in that
room.” In the first case “in that room” is describing the man, his position in
space, but in the second case, “in that room” is modifying the verb “is
talking,” telling where he is talking.
Here’s a list of prepositions copied from The Bedford Handbook:
about
above
across
after
against
along
among
around
as
at
before
behind
below
beside
besides
between
beyond
but
by
concerning
considering
despite
down
during
except
for
from
in
inside
into
like
near
next
of
off
on
onto
opposite
out
outside
over
past
plus
regarding
respecting
round
since
than
through
throughout
till
to
toward
under
underneath
unlike
until
unto
up
upon
with
within
without
Conjunctions
Conjunctions are actual “joining” words because they truly “join”
either individual words, phrases, or clauses. When they join exactly equal
things, like a teeter-totter, they are either coordinating conjunctions or
correlative conjunctions. When they join unequal units, they are called
subordinating conjunctions.
As I keep telling you, there are only seven coordinating conjunctions:
and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so. They join either two words, two phrases, or
two clauses. Those words, phrases, and clauses have to be of the same kind:
“John and Mary”; “to sing and to dance”; “He likes to dance, and she likes
to sing.”
The correlative conjunctions are “either . . . or”; “neither . . . nor”;
“both . . . and”; “whether . . . or”; “not only . . . but also”—and they work
just like coordinating conjunctions: “Either Mary or Paul will go”; Either to
sing well or to dance well is required”; “Either Mary will bake the cake, or
John will bake the cake.”
The subordinating conjunctions introduce adverb clauses. You know
the most common one which I am always bringing up in class: because.
Here’s a list of them from The Bedford Handbook:
after
although
as
as if
because
before
even though
how
if
in order that
rather than
since
so that
than
that
though
unless
until
when
where
whether
while
why
Here are a few sentences to show them in action:
(1) After he had bought the baloney, he was satisfied.
(2) Although he had bought the baloney, he still wasn’t satisfied.
(3) As he was buying the baloney, his satisfaction increased.
(4) As if buying baloney was all-important, he went to the store.
(5) Because he buys baloney, he doesn’t have money for ham.
Now each of these sentences can be re-cast to put the adverb clause last:
(1b) He was satisfied after he had bought the baloney.
(2b) He still wasn’t satisfied although he had bought the baloney.
(3b) His satisfaction increased as he was buying the baloney.
(4b) He went to the store as if buying baloney was all-important.
(5b) He doesn’t have money for ham because he buys baloney.
Please notice that when the adverb clause introduces the sentence, it is
followed by a comma. But when it concludes the sentence, it is not
separated from the independent clause by a comma.
Expanding a Simple Sentence
I started this document with two simple sentences:
John is a bear.
John sees a bear.
The first sentence has a noun in it, John, and another noun, bear. It
also contains the state-of-being verb is and an indefinite article, a, which is
treated as a weak adjective modifying the noun bear.
The second sentence also contains two nouns, John and bear. But it
contains an action verb, sees, as well as the indefinite article a, which is
serving, as I mentioned above, as a weak adjective modifying the noun bear.
Both of these sentences can be expanded with adjective and adverb
modifiers. These modifiers can be single-words, phrases, or clauses. Let’s
expand the first sentence:
John, who lives caged at Lincoln Park Zoo, is a polar bear.
And then I can expand it some more:
John, who lives caged at Lincoln Park Zoo, is a huge polar bear.
And some more:
John, who lives caged at Lincoln Park Zoo, is a huge polar bear without
much hair.
And:
John, who lives caged at Lincoln Park Zoo, is strangely a huge polar bear
without much hair.
And here is the list of modifiers that I have added to that sentence:
who lives caged at Lincoln Park Zoo is an adjective clause;
polar is a single-word adjective;
huge is a single-word adjective;
without much hair is an adjective prepositional phrase;
strangely is a single-word adverb modifying is.
The second sentence can also be expanded:
John sees a big bear.
And then I can say,
John, who is a student of mine, sees a big bear.
And then further on,
John, who is a student of mine, sees a big, heavy bear.
Further:
John, who is a student of mine, sees a big, heavy polar bear.
And further still:
John, who is a student of mine, sees a big, heavy polar bear who is named
“John.”
And even further still:
John, who is a student of mine, sees a big, heavy polar bear living at the zoo
[who is named “John.”]
And then adverbs can be added:
Because he lives close to the zoo, John, who is a student of mine, often
sees a big, heavy polar bear living at the zoo [who is named “John.”]
And here is the list of modifiers that I have added to the sentence:
big is a single-word adjective;
who is a student of mine is an adjective clause;
heavy is a single-word adjective;
polar is a single-word adjective;
who is named “John” is an adjective clause;
living at the zoo is an adjective participle phrase (which includes an adverb
prepositional phrase “at the zoo” as a part of the participle phrase and
modifying the verb “living”—living where?--“at the zoo”)
Because he lives close to the zoo is an adverb clause modifying the verb
“sees”
often is a single-word adverb modifying the verb “sees”—sees when?—
often sees
Please notice that no matter how a speaker or writer may expand a
sentence with modifiers, the basic core of the clause or sentence remains the
same:
John is bear.
John sees bear.
What that person is doing is attaching modifiers to the nouns and pronouns
that make up the core of the clause or sentence. The modifiers are meant to
give clarity to the basic components. To say, “I drove a car yesterday” is not
as specific as saying “I drove John’s yellow Buick yesterday.” The
adjectives “John’s” and “yellow” and the noun “Buick” have created a much
more vivid and accurate picture of the event.
I have mentioned that modifiers can occur as single words, as phrases,
and as clauses. According to what they are doing inside of a clause, singlewords are identified as being nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs,
prepositions, or conjunctions.
Phrases, which are groups of words that do not contain a subject or a
predicate but are working together to do one job as if they were a single part
of speech, are identified by their structure as well as their function.
According to structure, the most commonly found phrase is the prepositional
phrase, which always works as either an adjective or an adverb. There are
also three verbal phrases: the participle phrase, the gerund phrase, and the
infinitive phrase. The participle phrase is always either an adjective
(usually) or an adverb (rarely). The gerund phrase is always an –ing form of
the verb working as a noun, and the infinitive phrase is always the
preposition to followed by a verb and not a noun or pronoun and working as
either a noun, adjective, or adverb. So “to sing” is an infinitive, but “to
John” is a prepositional phrase.
A clause is a group of words that contains its own subject and
predicate and that is working as either a complete sentence (independent
clause) or as a noun, adjective, or adverb (dependent, or subordinate,
clause). “John is a bear” is both a clause and a sentence. The reason that it
is a clause is that it is a group of words working together and containing a
subject and a predicate, and in this case working as a complete sentence
(independent clause). But if I were to write “Because John is a bear,” I
would still have a clause because the group of words contains a subject
“John” and a predicate “is,” and if I were to use it in a sentence, it would be
working as an adverb. For instance, I could write, “Because John is a bear,
he eats a lot.” You’ll notice that the main idea is “he eats a lot.” That’s an
independent clause because it contains its own subject “he” and the predicate
“eats” and expresses a complete idea. The clause “Because John is a bear”
is a clause, as I have already explained, but it can not be written as a
sentence by itself, so it is not an independent clause. It is a dependent
adverb clause because it is modifying the predicate “eats” in the independent
clause: “Why does he eat a lot?”—“Because John is a bear.” A predicate is
the verb of a clause, and therefore any word or group of words that is
modifying the predicate (verb) must be an adverb because adverbs are words
or groups of words that express how? when? where? why? under what
conditions? to what degree? something happens. Adverbs can also modify
adjectives and adverbs, as in the example “She is a very intelligent young
lady.” The three adjectives are “a,” “intelligent,” and “young.” The adverb
“very” modifies “intelligent.” “How intelligent is she?”—“very.” So the
word “intelligent” is modifying the noun “lady”—What kind of “lady”?—
“intelligent”—but “How intelligent”?—“very.” “Intelligent” is an adjective
modifying a noun, and “very” is an adverb modifying an adjective.
Now to review what I have already said: “What exactly is a person
doing when she or he writes effectively?” My answer is simple: the person
knows how to put a subject in front of a predicate and to modify that subject
and predicate effectively. A sentence has to be made up of at least one
clause (an independent clause), and every clause contains its own subject
and predicate, which means that somebody or something is either being
something or doing something:
John is a bear.
John sees a bear.
Also, a noun, adjective, or adverb can be a single word, a group of words
without a subject and a predicate (a phrase), or a group of words containing
a subject and a predicate (a clause). Let me explain the four kinds of phrases
first, and then the four types of clauses.
Prepositional Phrases
A prepositional phrase, as I mentioned above in the section on the
parts of speech, is introduced by a preposition and ends on either a noun or a
pronoun, called “the object of a preposition.” Thus in the sentence, “Mary
walks her dog in the park,” the prepositional phrase is “in the park.” The
word “in” is the preposition, and the object of the preposition is the noun
“park.” It tells where Mary walks her dog: “in the park.” It is an adverb
prepositional phrase because it is modifying the predicate (verb) “walks.”
Here again is the list of prepositions as copied out of The Bedford
Handbook:
about
above
across
after
against
along
among
around
as
at
before
behind
below
beside
besides
between
beyond
but
by
concerning
considering
despite
down
during
except
for
from
in
inside
into
like
near
next
of
off
on
onto
opposite
out
outside
over
past
plus
regarding
respecting
round
since
than
through
throughout
till
to
toward
under
underneath
unlike
until
unto
up
upon
with
within
without
Just to provide a few examples, I can create prepositional phrases using each
of the first five prepositions listed:
about the bill
above the water
across the river
after the war
against the enemy
Please notice the structure of these phrases: preposition + “the” + noun (or
pronoun). They fit into a clause to modify either some other noun or
pronoun in the clause, or to modify a verb in the clause (or sometimes
another modifier). Thus I can write sentences using each of the
prepositional phrases that I have created above:
1. He called the phone company to inquire about the bill.
2. The ducks swam above the water.
3. The trees across the river looked very green.
4. The peace after the war did not last.
5. Almost all of the troops marched against the enemy.
Please notice that about the bill in the first sentence is an adverb
prepositional phrase modifying the verb “inquire”—how inquire?—about
the bill.
In the second sentence the phrase above the water is also an adverb
prepositional phrase. It modifies the verb “swam”—where swam?—above
the water.
In the third sentence, across the river is an adjective phrase. It is not
modifying a verb. It is saying something about the noun “trees”—which
trees or what kind of trees?—across the river trees.
In the fourth sentence we also see an adjective prepositional phrase.
Which peace are we talking about, or what kind of peace are we talking
about?—after the war peace.
And in the fifth sentence we see another adverb prepositional phrase:
against the enemy. It is an adverb phrase because it modifies a verb and not
a noun: marched where?—against the enemy.
But a prepositional phrase doesn’t have to have only the three
words— the preposition, the adjective “the,” and the object of the
preposition. A prepositional phrase can be made up of only two words, the
preposition and its object, or four or more words. For instance, “Give the
book to John” contains the two-word prepositional phrase “to John,” but the
sentence “He looked into her deep, dark eyes” contains the prepositional
phrase “into her deep, dark eyes.” A prepositional phrase is defined by the
notion that there is a preposition which is linking some noun or pronoun to
the rest of the clause as an adjective or adverb modifier. It doesn’t matter
whether the prepositional phrase contains merely two words or four or more
words. The phrase is meant to modify either a noun (pronoun) or to modify
a verb or another modifier.
Please take a look at this sentence:
The man in the green suit swam in the dirty river.
Notice that the sentence contains two prepositional phrases introduced by
the preposition “in.” The entire two phrases are “in the green suit” and “in
the dirty river.” So by structure these are prepositional phrases—they begin
with a preposition and end on its object. However, as I have mentioned
several times, all prepositional phrases function as either adjectives or
adverbs. They are modifiers. They can make a noun clearer, more specific,
or they can make a verb clearer, more specific. In the example above, for
instance, “in the green suit” is clearly saying something about the man.
Which man or What kind of man?—in the green suit man.
But the phrase “in the dirty river” says something about the verb
(predicate) “swam.” Where swam?—in the dirty river. Since it is
modifying a verb, it is called an adverb prepositional phrase.
Now, to finish up this explanation of prepositional phrases, I’ll take
the last five prepositions from the list out of The Bedford Handbook and
create sentences in which each of the prepositions introduces first an
adjective phrase and then an adverb phrase:
1. The raft up the river moved slowly up the turn.
2. The pen upon the table was used upon occasion.
3. The man with the golden arm spoke with his wife.
4. The soul within his body knew what raged within his heart.
5. A person without enemies lives without excitement.
Please notice that sentences 1, 2, 3, and 5 are composed of only one
independent clause each—which means that they are complete sentences
since there are no other clauses. But sentence number 4 contains two
clauses: the independent clause, which is the entire sentence, but inside of
that independent clause is a noun clause acting as a direct object of the
predicate “knew”—knew what?—“what raged within his heart.” In each
case I have the first prepositional phrase modifying the subject of the clause,
and each second prepositional phrase modifying the predicate (main verb) of
a clause. Thus, in the first sentence, up the river is modifying the noun
“raft” answering the question what kind of? raft—up the river raft. Then up
the turn is modifying the verb “moved”—moved where?—moved up the
turn.
In the second sentence, upon the table is saying something about the
subject (noun) pen, what kind of pen?—upon the table pen. The phrase
upon occasion, on the other hand, is saying something about the verb
“used”—used when?—upon occasion. Since it is a phrase that is modifying
a verb, it is an adverb prepositional phrase.
In the third sentence, with the golden arm is saying something about
the “man”—which man?—with the golden arm man. Since “man” is a
noun, then the phrase which is making it more specific or clearer must be an
adjective phrase. The phrase, with the golden arm, is an adjective
prepositional phrase. But the phrase with his wife is an adverb prepositional
phrase. It is modifying the predicate (main verb) of the clause, “spoke.” As
a result it’s an adverb phrase because it is answering the question how? he
spoke or under what conditions? he spoke. He spoke with his wife.
In the fourth sentence, it’s clear that within his body is saying
something about the subject “soul.” Therefore, since it is modifying a noun,
it must be an adjective prepositional phrase. The phrase, within his heart, on
the other hand, is modifying the verb of the noun clause, “raged.” Where?
raged—raged within his heart.
And then in the fifth sentence, without enemies is saying something
about the noun “person” and is therefore an adjective prepositional phrase
while the phrase “without excitement” says something about how he or she
lives—lives without excitement. The phrase without excitement is therefore
an adverb prepositional phrase because it is modifying a verb.
Finally, you have to realize that a phrase is a group of words without a
subject and a predicate working together as one part of speech. But you
have to remember that a prepositional phrase is composed of at least two
words, and what that means is that each individual word is its own part of
speech, but the words together are also a part of speech. Thus the
prepositional phrase “on the dark water” is an adverb phrase in the sentence
The feather floated on the dark water.
Where did the feather float?—on the dark water. The phrase on the dark
water is an adverb prepositional phrase modifying the verb “floated.” Any
word or group of words that makes a verb clearer is called an adverb. But
what about all the individual words in the phrase “on the dark water”? Well,
“on” is a preposition, “the” is a weak adjective, “dark” is an adjective, and
“water” is a noun. A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition and
ends with its object (either a noun or a pronoun).
Verbals: Participles, Gerunds, and
Infinitives
Today I want to talk about verbal phrases (infinitive phrases, gerund
phrases, and participle phrases). You already have a pretty good idea of
what a prepositional phrase looks like (in the room, to him, by the river,
during the war, at the railroad crossing) and that a prepositional phrase
always functions as an adjective or an adverb. And every prepositional
phrase is found inside of some clause, whether that clause is independent or
not:
Raul kicks the ball into the stands.
“into the stands” is an adverb prepositional phrase telling where he kicks the
ball.
Because Raul kicks the ball in his direction, the goalie must react quickly.
“in his direction” is a prepositional phrase answering the question where?
kicks: “in his direction.” Therefore “in his direction” is modifying the
predicate kicks of the adverb clause “Because Raul kicks the ball in his
direction” and is thus an adverb prepositional phrase. The prepositional
phrase “in his direction” is located inside the adverb clause “Because Raul
kicks the ball in his direction” and not inside the independent clause “the
goalie must react quickly.”
Verbal phrases behave in the same way. They are always related to
other words in the same clause, whether that clause is independent or
dependent (adjective clause, adverb clause, or noun clause). The verbals are
classified according to how they look.
An infinitive is always the preposition to followed by a verb and not a
noun. “To sing” is an infinitive; “to John” is a prepositional phrase.
The gerund is always the –ing form of a verb working as a noun:
Singing is fun.
“Singing” is working as a what? in this sentence, so it is a noun. The noun
always answers the question who? or what?
A participle can have several forms:
singing
sung
having sung
speaking
spoken
having spoken
talking
talked
having talked
and it is always working as a modifier, either as an adjective or an adverb:
The man [speaking in a loud voice] is John.
In this sentence “speaking in a loud voice” is modifying the noun man: what
kind of? man: “speaking in a loud voice” man. The phrase “speaking in a
loud voice” is a participle phrase working as an adjective.
OR
Words [spoken in anger] usually cause hurt feelings.
what kind of? words: “spoken in anger” words. Therefore the phrase
“spoken in anger” is a participle phrase working as an adjective.
John, [having spoken in anger], wished he had thought before
speaking.
What kind of? John: the John “having spoken in anger.” Again this is an
example of a participle phrase working as an adjective. The three forms of
the participle have their own names:



speaking is called the present participle
spoken is called the past participle
having spoken is called the perfect participle
To get back to the infinitive. It also can have several forms:
 present infinitive: to walk
 perfect infinitive: to have walked
 progressive infinitive: to be walking
It doesn’t matter whether it’s walk, have walked, or be walking. If it’s
preceded by the preposition to and is functioning as a noun, adjective, or
adverb, it’s an infinitive.
To walk the dog gives him pleasure.
What? gives him pleasure: “To walk the dog”—“To walk the dog” is an
infinitive phrase working as a noun.
The desire to walk the dog has become a habit.
What kind of? desire has become a habit? The desire “to walk the dog.” In
this case the infinitive phrase “to walk the dog” is working as an adjective
modifying the noun desire: what kind of? desire: “to walk the dog” desire.
He was persuaded by his mother to walk the dog.
How?—under what conditions? persuaded: “to walk the dog.” In this case
the phrase is not clearly answering how? when? where? why? under what
conditions? to what degree? But it is modifying the verb (predicate)
persuaded. The phrase “to walk the dog” in this case cannot be called a
noun or an adjective. It is definitely not answering the questions what? or
what kind of?
This is the lesson for today. Each phrase (prepositional phrase,
infinitive phrase, gerund phrase, and participle phrase) works inside of some
clause as a noun, adjective, or adverb. The gerund phrase is always a noun.
The prepositional phrase and the participle phrase are always working as
either adjectives or adverbs. The infinitive phrase can work as any of those
three: noun, adjective or adverb.
Clauses
It is possible to learn about the four types of clauses. A clause is a
group of words that contains a subject and a predicate. And you already
know what “contains a subject and a predicate” means. It means that a noun
or a pronoun either does something or is something (by the way, I’m
underlining the subject of a clause with one line and the predicate [main
verb] of the clause with two lines):
Raul kicks the ball.
Raul is a man.
Both of the sentences above are also independent clauses. A clause is
independent when it can stand alone as a sentence. Here is another sentence:
John goes to the store because he is hungry.
In the above sentence there are two clauses because there are two subjectverb combinations:
(1) John goes
(2) he is
Notice that in (1) the subject “John” does something, “goes,” and in (2) the
subject “he” is something, “is.” That means the sentence contains two
clauses:
John goes to the store
because he is hungry
In this case only one of the two clauses is independent:
John goes to the store
This clause can be written as a sentence by itself:
John goes to the store.
But “because he is hungry” cannot be written as a sentence by itself:
Because he is hungry.
It is a sentence-fragment. If somebody were to say to you either “Because
he is hungry” or “Because John is hungry,” you would ask, so? More
information is required. This clause is dependent, not independent. And if it
is dependent, then why is that so?
The answer is that a dependent clause is working as a part of speech
with regard to another clause and is not meant to express separate, selfcontained information. It merely adds to the meaning of another clause. A
dependent clause can work as a noun in another clause, it can modify a noun
or pronoun in another clause, or it can modify the verb or some adjective or
adverb in another clause. That’s why grammarians say that there are four
types of clauses:
independent clause
noun clause
adjective clause
adverb clause
Here are examples of each:
Independent Clause: John buys three pounds of baloney.
Noun Clause: Whoever craves tasty fat buys three pounds of baloney.
Adjective Clause: The man who loves tasty fat buys three pounds
of baloney.
Adverb Clause: John buys three pounds of baloney because he loves tasty
fat.
The independent clause can be written as a complete sentence:
John buys three pounds of baloney.
But the noun clause
Whoever craves tasty fat
cannot be written as a complete sentence. It answers the question “who buys
three pounds of baloney?” in the sentence:
Whoever craves tasty fat buys three pounds of baloney.
Who? buys three pounds of baloney: “Whoever craves tasty fat.” Notice
that instead of saying “Whoever craves tasty fat” you could say “John” and
then complete the sentence: “John buys three pounds of baloney.” A noun
clause is merely a fancy noun of more than one word. Any word or group of
words that answers to the question who? or to the question what? is either a
noun or a pronoun.
An adjective clause, on the other hand, answers to the question what
kind of? For instance, if one says “dirty rug,” what kind of? rug: dirty rug.
So in the sentence
The man who loves tasty fat buys three pounds of baloney.
“who loves tasty fat” answers the question what kind of? man: who loves
tasty fat (man). An adjective answers the question “what kind of?” and it
doesn’t matter whether the adjective is merely one word or a whole clause.
Is it answering “what kind of? somebody or something.” If it is, it is an
adjective.
And finally there’s the adverb clause. An adverb can answer how?
when? where? why? under what conditions? and to what degree? In the
sentence
John buys three pounds of baloney because he loves tasty fat.
“because he loves tasty fat” is modifying the verb “buys” in the independent
clause
John buys three pounds of baloney
Why? does he buy?: “because he loves tasty fat.” The clause “because he
loves tasty fat” is an adverb clause since it is modifying a verb and is
answering one of the adverb-questions: why?
What must you clearly remember? You must remember that every
sentence is made up of at least one clause, an independent clause. But a
sentence can contain more than one clause. If it does, at least one of its
clauses has to be independent. But the other clauses in the sentence could
also be independent, as in the sentence
John goes to the store, but Mary stays home.
Here
John goes to the store
but Mary stays home
are both independent clauses. They can each stand alone as a complete
sentence. That means that one can begin a sentence with one of the
coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet). One can write
John goes to the store. But Mary stays home.
These are both considered to be independent clauses and, in this case, two
separate sentences.
But a clause can also be a dependent clause. A sentence can contain
as many clauses as a writer chooses to fill it with. For instance,
The man who loves baloney goes to whatever store carries the brand that
he likes because not all baloney is the same.
This sentence contains the following subject-verb combinations:
man . . . goes
who loves
store carries
he likes
baloney is
And here are the clauses:
Independent Clause: “The man . . . goes to whatever store carries the brand”
Adjective Clause: “who loves baloney”
Noun Clause: “whatever store carries the brand”
Adjective Clause: “that he likes”
Adverb Clause: “because not all baloney is the same”
Please notice that if an adjective clause is modifying a noun in any
other position than the end-position of another clause, it’s going to break that
clause up.
The sailor who loves baloney is a fool.
“who loves baloney” is breaking up the independent clause “The sailor . . . is
a fool.”
But if the adjective clause is modifying the last noun in a clause, then it
doesn’t break that clause up:
John is a man who loves baloney.
“who loves baloney” is modifying the noun “man,” so the independent
clause remains intact:
John is a man
Here’s the rule: single-word adjectives come before the noun:
That’s a dirty rug (what kind of? rug)--dirty
not
That’s a rug dirty
But an adjective phrase or clause comes after the noun:
The man at the deli is John. (what kind of? man—“the man at the deli)
John is a man who loves baloney. (what kind of? man—“a man who loves
baloney”
You can’t say
The at the deli man is John.
John is a who loves baloney man.
And now the noun clause. The noun clause works as a noun within another
clause. To repeat the whole sentence:
The man who loves baloney goes to whatever store carries the brand that
he likes because not all baloney is the same.
In this sentence there’s an adverb prepositional phrase that modifies the verb
“goes.” “goes where?”: (to whatever store carries the brand). You might
have written “to the deli” instead of “to whatever store carries the brand.”
Then the object of the preposition would be “deli” and not “whatever store
carries the brand.” A noun clause works in any of the six positions that a
single-word noun or pronoun works in:
Subject ...................................... John loves baloney.
Predicate Noun .......................... John is a man.
Direct Object ............................. John kicks the ball.
Indirect Object .......................... John gives his mother a rose.
Object of a Preposition ............. John passes the ball to Raul.
Object of a Verbal ..................... He loves to kick the ball.
Subject................... Whoever is a fool loves baloney.
Predicate Noun ...... John is whatever he wants to be.
Direct Object ......... John kicks whatever ball comes his way.
Indirect Object ...... John gives whomever he meets his best wishes.
Object of Prep. ...... John passes the ball to whoever is there.
Obj. of a Verbal
He loves to kick whatever ball he gets.
And then there’s the adverb clause. It answers to a verb or to another
modifier one of the questions: how? when? where? why? to what degree?
under what conditions? In the sample-sentence
The man who loves baloney goes to whatever store carries the brand that
he likes because not all baloney is the same.
the clause “because not all baloney is the same” tells why? he goes. It is an
adverb clause because (1) it contains a subject and a predicate (baloney is),
(2) it answers the question why? and (3) it is connected to the independent
clause by the subordinating conjunction because. Other subordinating
conjunctions are although, even though, if, since, when, whenever, while,
unless, and so forth. Here’s the list again as copied from The Bedford
Handbook:
after
although
as
as if
because
before
even though
how
if
in order that
rather than
since
so that
than
that
though
unless
until
when
where
whether
while
why
Distinguishing between
Independent Clauses and Noun
Clauses
The noun clause is not an independent clause. An independent clause
can stand by itself as a sentence. For example,
Raul kicks the ball.
or
Raul is a man.
These are both independent clauses. But the following are noun clauses:
whoever kicks the ball
or
whoever is a man
These two clauses cannot be written as sentences by themselves, so
even though they are clauses (because each contains a subject and a
predicate—whoever kicks and whoever is), they are not independent
clauses. They can, however, be used in any position that calls for a noun in
another clause. So, for instance, either of them can work as the subject of a
clause, as a predicate noun, direct object, indirect object, object of a
preposition, or object of a verbal. Let me use “whoever kicks the ball” in
each of these positions:
Subject: Whoever kicks the ball seeks to score a goal.
Predicate Noun: The winner is whoever kicks the ball.
Direct Object: The coach likes whoever kicks the ball.
Indirect Object: He gives whoever kicks the ball a lot of praise.
Object of a Preposition: The team is satisfied with whoever kicks the ball.
Object of a Verbal (in this case of the infinitive): The coach tries to inspire
whoever kicks the ball.
In each of these sentences “whoever kicks the ball” is a noun clause, and
therefore any appropriate single-word noun could work in this situation also:
Subject: Raul seeks to score a goal.
Predicate Noun: The winner is Raul.
Direct Object: The coach likes Raul.
Indirect Object: He gives Raul a lot of praise.
Object of a Preposition: The team is satisfied with Raul.
Object of a Verbal (in this case the infinitive): The coach tries to inspire
Raul.
The point is that a noun clause is a noun. It answers to either the question
who? or what? just as any noun or pronoun does, and it cannot be written as
a sentence by itself. It is not an independent clause.
Summary
I hope that this overview of what constitutes effective writing has
been useful to you. There are other files below this one on this Web page
http://learn.southsuburbancollege.edu/mkulycky/four.htm which will make
you even more aware of some of the finer details of correct writing and
usage. But as I wrote at the very beginning of this explanation, “So one can
ask, ‘What exactly is a person doing when she or he writes effectively?’ My
answer is simple: the person knows how to put a subject in front of a
predicate and to modify that subject and predicate effectively.”
There are only seven parts of speech (since the interjection does not
enter into the expression of a complete thought). The phrases and dependent
clauses are merely clusters of words that can work as nouns, adjectives, or
adverbs. A good sentence is composed of words in their correct positions
and then the phrases and clauses sandwiched in so that they clearly stand for
somebody or something (when the phrases or clauses are nouns) or modify
either nouns/pronouns or verbs/adjectives/adverbs. To know the basics of
grammar is to have the power to say what one wants to say as
unambiguously and un-ambivalently as possible. To write well is also a
very marketable skill. A good writer adds value to any business, agency, or
corporation and therefore has both a better chance to be hired and to be
promoted once she or he is on the job.
Examples of Effective Writing
I’m sure that the reason you want to learn to write effectively is so
that you can earn a better living, but there is also the desire to write
something beautiful, something that gives pleasure in terms of what is under
consideration and how that content is phrased. It’s called aesthetic pleasure.
Great speakers and writers have a knack for getting at things in just the right
way to make the most telling impression.
I have said that “One can ask, ‘What exactly is a person doing when
she or he writes effectively?’ My answer is simple: the person knows how
to put a subject in front of a predicate and to modify that subject and
predicate effectively.” In other words, we’re back to the notion of writing
effective clauses, groups of words that contain a subject and a predicate and
likely also contain adjectives and adverbs in order to make those subjects
and predicates more specific.
I want to look at three examples of excellent writing and show how
the basic concepts from grammar apply to anything that is spoken or written
with the intention of communicating effectively. I have always loved to hear
or read the “Twenty-third Psalm” from the King James version of the Bible.
It is a statement of hope and faith that there is both merit and reward in
being righteous and doing the just thing rather than merely the convenient
thing.
I also admire Abraham Lincoln’s “Gettysburg Address.” It insists on
the need for self-sacrifice in the achievement of worthwhile goals. And the
address also expresses what these worthwhile goals indeed are. The
enormous pain of battle is necessary if human beings are to protect and
spread abroad the “inviolable rights” expressed in the Bill of Rights.
And for the third work, I am always inspired by Robert Frost’s “The
Road Not Taken.” It expresses the importance of choosing the road that one
thinks is best for one, accepting the consequences of one’s choice, and
realizing that there is no “going back.” In most cases there are inevitable,
irreversible consequences that attend upon one’s choices and actions.
Permit me to copy each of the three works here below and then look at
the first few lines of each to show how the grammar and punctuation are
everywhere at work when one is creating an effective psalm, or speech, or
poem:
The Twenty Third Psalm
The Lord is my shepherd: I shall not want.
He maketh me to lie down in green Pastures; he leadeth me beside the still
waters.
He restoreth my soul. He leadeth me in the paths of righteousness for his
name's sake.
Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no
evil: for thou art with me; thy rod and staff, they comfort me.
Thou preparest a table before me in the presence of mine enemies; thou
anointest my head with oil: my cup runneth over.
Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life, and I will
dwell in the house of the Lord forever.
from the King James Version of the Bible
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The Gettysburg Address
Gettysburg, Pennsylvania
November 19, 1863
Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a
new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all
men are created equal.
Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any
nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a
great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that
field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that
nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.
But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate—we can not consecrate—we can
not hallow—this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled
here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The
world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never
forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here
to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly
advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining
before us—that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that
cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion—that we here
highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain—that this nation,
under God, shall have a new birth of freedom—and that government of the
people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.
by Abraham Lincoln
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The Road Not Taken
Two roads diverged in a yellow wood,
And sorry I could not travel both
And be one traveler, long I stood
And looked down one as far as I could
To where it bent in the undergrowth;
Then took the other, as just as fair,
And having perhaps the better claim,
Because it was grassy and wanted wear;
Though as for that the passing there
Had worn them really about the same,
And both that morning equally lay
In leaves no step had trodden black.
Oh, I kept the first for another day!
Yet knowing how way leads on to way,
I doubted if I should ever come back.
I shall be telling this with a sigh
Somewhere ages and ages hence:
Two roads diverged in a wood, and I—
I took the one less traveled by,
And that has made all the difference.
by Robert Frost
As I mentioned before, I will look at the grammar and punctuation of
the first few lines of each of the three works that I have copied into this file.
But before I do, I want to make a point about grammar and punctuation. It is
in some ways very similar to the html code which creates the pages that one
sees on the Internet. It is there, but it is not visible unless one has been
trained in writing the code. Of course, the “grammar and punctuation” code
is not as removed from what one sees as is the html code behind the visible
page, but it is still true that it is a code which produces given results and that
when the code is not properly written, the message becomes confused and
sometimes not at all understandable. I’ll give an example of the html code
as applied to a page on a Web browser. Below is the opening page of
Google as seen on Microsoft’s Internet Explorer:
And here is what that page looks like if one clicks on “View” in the main
menu at the top of the screen and then clicks “Source”:
It’s hard to believe that the file directly above, typed into a simple wordprocessing program that handles only text, when loaded into a browser
window becomes the page that is the opening page of Google on the Web.
But that’s a fact. And it is also a fact that all effective speaking and writing
is a code that conveys an intended meaning. The words, phrases, and
clauses are spoken or written in a specific order so as to say something both
accurately and clearly. The code has to be written correctly or the intended
page will not show properly.
Before I begin to parse (which means to analyze—determine the parts
of) the first few lines of each entry, let me tell you the order in which I think
it is best to proceed. I think that the first thing to do is to find the clauses.
As you know, a sentence has to contain at least one independent clause. If it
doesn’t, it is a sentence-fragment, an incorrect way to express an idea. For
instance, “Raul kicks the ball” is a perfectly correct clause, since it is a
group of words that contains a subject and a predicate, but “Because Raul
kicks the ball” is also a perfectly correct clause since it also is a group of
words that contains a subject and a predicate. But “Raul kicks the ball” is a
sentence whereas “Because Raul kicks the ball” isn’t a complete sentence.
If someone were to say, “Because Raul kicks the ball . . .” the hearer would
ask, so? “Because Raul kicks the ball” is a sentence-fragment and must be
attached to an independent clause in order to be grammatically correct:
“Because Raul kicks the ball, his team wins.”
Please notice that I am indicating the subject of the clause in red since
it is a noun and the predicate in blue since it is a verb. Also, I’m underlining
the subject with one line and the predicate with two lines.
So let’s find the clauses in the first two sentences of “The Twentythird Psalm”:
[The Lord is my shepherd:] [I shall not want.]
[He maketh me to lie down in green Pastures;] [he leadeth me beside the still
waters.]
I’ve enclosed the clauses in brackets. Remember that any phrase that
occurs in a sentence must be a part of its own clause and not a part of any
other clause. So “to lie down in green Pastures” is an adverb infinitive
phrase that is confined to the clause, “He maketh me to lie down in green
Pastures” and not involved in the clause “he leadeth me beside the still
waters.” And the prepositional phrase “in green Pastures” is also a part of
the first clause because it is an adverb prepositional phrase modifying the
verb of the infinitive, “lie”—lie down where?—“in green Pastures.” Please
also notice that in the second clause, “beside the still waters” is also an
adverb prepositional phrase because it answers the question where? to the
main verb “leadeth”—leadeth where?—“beside the still waters.”
What you should also notice is that all four clauses are independent
clauses. Each one of them could be written as a complete sentence:
The Lord is my shepherd
I shall not want
He maketh me to lie down in green Pastures
he leadeth me beside the still waters
Usually when two independent clauses make up one sentence, they
are connected by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so).
But if the second clause explains the first clause or amplifies its meaning in
some important way, one can use a colon [:] to connect the two clauses.
Also, a semicolon [;] can take the place of a coordinating conjunction and
the comma that precedes it. Please notice the semicolon connecting the two
independent clauses of the second sentence:
He maketh me to lie down in green Pastures; he leadeth me beside the still
waters.
But the sentence could also have been written as
He maketh me to lie down in green Pastures, and he leadeth me beside the
still waters.
The comma and the coordinating conjunction and would now be connecting
the two independent clauses.
Therefore, you can see that on the basis of what I have explained
above, the first two sentences of “The Twenty-third Psalm” contain four
independent clauses and three phrases. What’s left to do is to identify each
word as a part of speech:
The (adjective) Lord (noun) is (verb) my (adjective) shepherd (noun): I
(pronoun) shall (verb) not (adverb) want (verb).
He (pronoun) maketh (verb) me (pronoun) to (preposition) lie (verb) down
(adverb) in (preposition) green (adjective) Pastures (noun); he (pronoun)
leadeth (verb) me (pronoun) beside (preposition) the (adjective) still
(adjective) waters (noun).
So there it is: the first two sentences of “The Twenty-third Psalm” have had
their grammatical “code” exposed. Of course one could also talk about the
rhetoric of a sentence, namely, the choices that a writer makes within the
grammatical rules to most effectively convey a meaning. The author of the
first sentence could have written, for instance,
“Because the Lord is my shepherd, I shall not want.”
This would be a completely correct sentence, starting with an adverb clause
modifying the predicate “shall not want” of the independent clause—why
shall not want?—“Because the Lord is my shepherd.” But the writer chose
her or his own way of saying what she or he is saying. Both versions are
grammatically correct, but one or the other version sounds better to the
person hearing or reading it.
The main point to remember is that any version that is used must be
grammatically correct. It has to stay within the agreed rules for meaningful
communication.
Abraham Lincoln’s “Gettysburg Address” begins with a brief
paragraph:
[Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a
new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition] [that all
men are created equal.]
I want to follow the same format in parsing this sentence (it is only
one sentence, as you can see) that I followed in parsing the two sentences
from “The Twenty-third Psalm.” If this group of words is indeed a sentence,
then you already know that it has to contain at least one independent clause.
That independent clause is “Four score and seven years ago our fathers
brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and
dedicated to the proposition.” The other clause, “that all men are created
equal” is saying something about the “proposition”: what kind of
proposition?—that all men are created equal. Therefore this second clause is
an adjective clause because it is modifying the noun “proposition.” And
adjectives always modify either nouns or pronouns. Notice that the two
subject-predicate combinations are fathers brought and men are created.
Remember that a clause is a group of words containing a subject and a
predicate working together either as a complete idea (an independent clause)
or as a noun clause, adjective clause, or adverb clause.
What sort of phrases are found in this sentence? Well, to begin with,
“Four score and seven years ago” is definitely a group of words that tells
when “our fathers brought forth.” It is therefore modifying the verb
“brought,” and as you already know, any word or group of words that tells
how, when, where, why, to what extent, or under what conditions a verb
happens is called an adverb. Therefore this is an adverb phrase. It does not
contain a subject and a predicate, so it cannot be a clause. But what sort of
phrase is it? Well, it’s really a prepositional phrase with the preposition
understood but not expressed. What Abraham Lincoln is really saying is
that “on four score and seven years ago.” A situation such as this, when one
or more words are implied rather than stated, is called “elliptical.” The
ellipsis points are the three spaced dots in a sentence that tell the reader that
something has been omitted but should be there. So whenever a
grammatical element is not expressed, that might be an elliptical
prepositional phrase or an elliptical adjective clause or, in the case of “it’s,”
for instance, a contraction because the “i” of “it is” has not been expressed.
In other words, some structures are not fully expressed. But they are there
and understood to be there.
Further, “on this continent” is also a prepositional phrase. It starts
with a preposition and ends on the noun which is its object. What is this
phrase doing? It is saying where our fathers brought forth. Therefore it is
modifying the verb “brought” and is by definition an adverb. The phrase
“on this continent” is an adverb prepositional phrase.
The next phrase is a participle phrase, “conceived in liberty.” Notice
that it is saying something about the “nation,” which is a noun. What kind
of nation—conceived in liberty nation. Since the word “nation” is a noun,
the phrase “conceived in liberty” is an adjective phrase because an adjective
is any word or group of words that makes a noun or a pronoun clearer.
And after the phrase conceived in liberty there is the coordinating
conjunction, and. You will remember that coordinating conjunctions join
exactly identical units, words or groups of words working in the same way
within the sentence. I’m pasting in what I have already written about
coordinating conjunctions:
There are only seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, nor, for, yet,
so. They join either two words, two phrases, or two clauses. Those words,
phrases, and clauses have to be of the same kind:
“John and Mary”; “to sing and to dance”; “He likes to dance, and she likes
to sing.”
So what is and doing here? You’ll notice that it is followed by the
phrase, dedicated to the proposition. This phrase starts with a past participle,
“dedicated,” just as the phrase conceived in liberty starts with the past
participle “conceived.” The structure is identical. It involves a past
participle followed by an adverb prepositional phrase. The phrase dedicated
to the proposition is also doing the same thing that conceived in liberty is
doing: modifying the noun “nation.” One asks, what kind of nation?—
conceived in liberty nation and dedicated to the proposition nation. There
are two prepositional phrases within the participle phrases: in liberty and to
the proposition. They are both adverb prepositional phrases. The first one,
in liberty, answers the question how? conceived?—conceived in liberty.
The second one, to the proposition, also answers the question how?—how?
dedicated?—dedicated to the proposition. As you know, “conceived” and
“dedicated” are the past participle forms of the verbs “to conceive” and “to
dedicate.” Any word or group of words that makes clearer the time, place,
or manner of an action is an adverb.
You can see that the first paragraph of “The Gettysburg Address”
contains only one sentence, and that sentence contains two clauses. There
are also two participle phrases and four prepositional phrases. Now to
indicate what each word is doing as a part of speech:
Four (adjective) score (noun) and (conjunction) seven (adjective) years
(noun) ago (adjective) our (adjective) fathers (noun) brought (verb) forth
(adverb) on (preposition) this (adjective) continent (noun) a (adjective) new
(adjective) nation (noun), conceived (verb) in (preposition) Liberty (noun),
and (conjunction) dedicated (verb) to (preposition) the (adjective)
proposition (noun) that (conjunction) all (adjective) men (noun) are (verb)
created (verb) equal (adjective) .
By the way, “equal” is indeed an adjective and not an adverb. It is
saying something about the men, what kind of men?—equal men, and not
how are created?—which would be answered by the adverb “equally” as in
the sentence, “The children were treated equally.” How were the children
treated?—equally.
Now to turn to Robert Frost’s poem “The Road Not Taken.” I’ll parse
the first stanza, the first five lines of the poem, which although they end on a
semicolon, represent a completed thought and could be concluded with a
period, which is what I’ll do when I type in the five verses as if they had
been written as a sentence on the page:
[Two roads diverged in a yellow wood,] [and, sorry [I could not travel both
and be one traveler], long I stood and looked down one] [as far as I could to
[where it bent in the undergrowth.]]
Again what I want to do is to parse this sentence by indicating the
clauses first. I have underlined the simple subjects with single lines and the
simple predicates with double lines. Subjects are indicated in red because
they are either nouns or pronouns, and predicates are indicated in blue
because they are verbs.
“Two roads diverged in a yellow wood” is an independent clause. It
could be written as a sentence by itself. The next independent clause is a
little more complicated: “and, sorry [I could not travel both and be one
traveler], long I stood and looked down one”—which is an independent
clause with an adverb clause inside of it because “I could not travel both and
be one traveler” is modifying the adjective “sorry”—which is modifying the
pronoun “I” in “long I stood and looked down one.” Which “I” stood and
looked?—“the ‘sorry’ ‘I’ that “could not travel both and be one traveler.”
The clause “[as far as I could to [where it bent in the undergrowth]]”
is an adverb clause answering the question “stood and looked how?—“as far
as I could”—and the prepositional phrase “to [where it bent in the
undergrowth]” is composed of the preposition “to” with a noun clause
“where it bent in the undergrowth” as its object. The phrase is modifying
the predicate could (look): “could (look) where?-- “to [where it bent in the
undergrowth.]” Please notice that Robert Frost created an elliptical
predicate in the adverb clause “as far as I could to [where it bent in the
undergrowth.” Since the hearer or reader knows that he means to say could
look, he doesn’t repeat the main verb, “look.”
I’ve already identified one of the phrases in Frost’s long opening
sentence: “to where it bent in the undergrowth”—an adverb phrase
modifying the predicate “could look.” The phrase “in a yellow wood” is
also a prepositional phrase, and it is modifying the predicate (verb)
“diverged,” “diverged where?—“in a yellow wood,” so that makes it an
adverb prepositional phrase. The phrase “down one” is also a prepositional
phrase. It is modifying the predicate “looked”—“looked where?—“down
one.” As you know, any word or group of words that answers how? when?
where? why? to what extent? and under what conditions? to a verb or to
another modifier is called an adverb.
And, finally, there is one last phrase, the prepositional phrase, “in the
undergrowth.” It is also an adverb prepositional phrase because it is
modifying the predicate (verb) “bent”—bent where?—bent in the
undergrowth. As I have said several times, what does it mean to write well?:
My answer is simple: the person knows how to put a subject in front of a
predicate and to modify that subject and predicate effectively. This seems to
be no “big” thing.
And now to indicate each word as a part of speech:
Two (adjective) roads (noun) diverged (verb) in (preposition) a (adjective)
yellow (adjective) wood (noun), and (conjunction), sorry (adjective) I
(pronoun) could (verb) not (adverb) travel (verb) both (pronoun) and
(conjunction) be (verb) one (adjective) traveler (noun), long (adverb) I
(pronoun) stood (verb) and (conjunction) looked (verb) down (preposition)
one (pronoun) {as far as} (conjunction) I (pronoun) could (verb) to
(preposition) where (adverb) it (pronoun) bent (verb) in (preposition) the
(adjective) undergrowth (noun).
As you can see, there is code behind each sentence that one meets. It
is important to learn the rules of correct grammar in order to express oneself
as clearly and efficiently as possible. When one writes within the rules, one
is “playing the game” in a way that other people can understand, and
effective communication is the means to achieving objectives, whether they
are to be liked by others, to make a decent living, or to simply enjoy the
beauty in a well-crafted poem or story or magazine-article.
Effective writing is learned. It is the result of understanding the rules,
writing often, and then editing carefully to make sure that every word and
phrase and clause is placed in just the way that one intends. Effective
writing is more a reward for hard work than it is an inborn gift for gab. It is
not as natural as burping unless one has a knowledge of words, the accepted
order for arranging those words into phrases and clauses, and choosing such
words, phrases, and clauses as most clearly and compellingly communicate
what the writer is actually trying to say. Then one can write easily and
spontaneously, as if one had been born from the beginning to “burp.”