Download Militaria Romana

Militaria Romana
Fighting, Warrior Culture,
and Military Affairs in
Ancient Rome
Importance to Roman Culture
Military service was at the center of Roman culture. All male Roman citizens with the means
to do so, especially in the upper classes, was expected to serve their time in the army.
Children ‘played’ by practicing running, swimming, fencing, and javelin-throwing at the
Campus Martius – dedicated to the War God.
Rome had a special group of priests (the fetiales) whose purpose was to declare just war
against enemies by visiting the enemy and performing rituals. When wars began to take place
too far from Rome, these priests set aside a patch of ground at the temple of Bellona to be
considered enemy territory to save time when they had to declare their wars.
The Temple of Janus in Rome had huge gates that were only closed when Rome was at war
with no other state. Before Augustus had them closed again, this had only happened twice in
Rome’s 700 year history.
Roman Military Discipline
Discipline and obedience were at the heart of Roman society.
Children were raised to obey their fathers without question. In the
military, this same behaviour was expected. Fast and fluid response
to orders and unwillingness to disobey were key to Roman victory
against overwhelming odds.
Deserting a post or sleeping on watch earned a soldier the
punishment of death by beating (fustuarium) – his fellow soldiers
used clubs and stones to kill him. Committing lesser crimes in camp
three times earned the same punishment.
If an entire unit of the army needed to be punished, generally for
cowardice or failure to follow orders, the Romans practiced
decimatio – in which all of the guilty soldiers would be gathered and
a tenth of them selected by lot. Those picked by lot were clubbed to
death by their companions; the survivors were reduced to barley
rations and had to camp outside the walls of their fort.
Eras of ancient Roman warfare – The Early Army
Romulan period – King Romulus, the legendary founder of Rome, supposedly organized the
first Roman army called the legio, or ‘draft,’ from which we get ‘legion.’ His army was based on
a phalanx of volunteer militia who were armed with the equipment they could afford, and a
cavalry force drawn from the wealthiest. Roman culture kept relics of these divisions – the
comitia centuriata and the equites.
Republic (Camillan legions) – Later, under the Republic, this system was reformed. Roman citizens
were divided into three types of heavy troops (hastati, principes, and triarii) by their equipment,
and fought in three lines of maniples, supported by the levites, or troops to poor to afford full
equipment. Republican armies were supported by Latin and Italian allied troops, or socii,
arranged in the same manner.
Eras II – Later Adaptations
Marian reforms – Gaius Marius implemented vast reforms of the military system. Because of
manpower shortages and economic problems, Marius hired professional troops from the lower
classes. Their equipment was provided by the state (the cost deducted from their pay), so that all the
legionaries had essentially the same equipment. The maniples were mostly discarded in favour of the
larger cohorts. These troops were extremely effective but politically unreliable.
http://www.woodlands-junior.kent.sch.uk/Homework/romans/auxiliaries.html
Some changes were made during the Empire. The lorica segmentata replaced the lorica hamata, and
the huge area of the Empire made it possible to draw upon a wide variety of hired auxilii. Late in the
Empire, the infantry legions were used more as frontier garrisons, while the ‘field armies’ were
composed more of heavy bodyguard troops and cavalry.
The Military as a Way of Life
Roman children trained for a future military career by playing at the Campus Martius – the Field of
Mars, god of war. Roman boys practiced running, fencing, javelin-throwing, wrestling, and swimming
to use during their time in the legions. The widespread literacy of Romans would also be an
invaluable aid to their armies, as troops could all read and write instructions and orders. Children
also learned to obey orders from their superiors without question, and heard heroic tales of
warriors like Romulus, Horatius, Scaevola, and others.
Adult Roman men were expected to serve in the military, and could not advance politically without
doing so. Even Cicero served his campaigns during the Social War. The money and reputation gained
by a successful commander was a tremendous political boost, and Roman senators fought over the
leadership of potentially lucrative wars. Some wars were started with little just cause by governors
greedy to prove themselves. The highlight of the military career was the ‘triumph,’ in which a
victorious general got to ‘be’ Jupiter for a day.
Equipment of the Marian legionary
Protective gear – Staying alive on the battlefield was very important. Romans depended on
effective drill and expensive equipment to do so. The biggest piece of equipment was the lorica
(hamata or segmentata), followed by the all-important scutum. In addition, a Roman legionary
wore his caligae, galea, and cingulum. Greaves, called ocreae, were also sometimes worn.
Just as important as staying alive was
the ability to kill your enemy.
The chief weapons of legionaries
from this period were the pila, or
throwing-spears, and the gladius, or
short, stabbing sword. Roman troops
also were generally equipped with a
small dagger called a pugio. Students
used to medieval history may be
confused to find that the gladius was
generally worn on the right hip for
quick access (Roman soldiers needed
to be right-handed).
Other weapons which might be used
included the spatha – a long sword
for cavalry fighting; a heavy hasta – a
spear, especially useful when fighting
sieges or cavalry; and the plumbatae
– lead-weighted javelins used by
legionaries in the Late Empire.
Other Troops
Auxilii, or auxiliaries, were non-Roman troops who were hired to accompany the Roman army
and perform the tasks for which it was less suited. Roman cavalry were almost exclusively
auxiliary by the time of Marius, as well as ranged troops (slingers and archers) . Claudius even
hired elephant troops to invade Britain. Auxiliaries who performed well would be paid a salary
and a share of spoils, and could gain citizenship.
Romans relied heavily on battlefield engineering for many of their victories. Architecti designed and
maintained the construction works the Roman army used, from the daily camp and permanent
walls and forts to roads, and fantastic siegeworks such as those used in Caesar’s conquest of Gaul.
They also designed and manned artillery, such as catapults, ballistae, and scorpions, to attack the
enemy at range and destroy their morale.
Roman combat style – triplex acies and quincunx
There is some debate over precisely how the Romans fought in the field, but they appear to have
marched and fought in an open quincunx pattern, with open spaces covered by units behind. In
three lines (the triplex acies) this offered strategic depth, flexibility, cover, and ease of
reinforcement while allowing Romans to cover more length of line and maintain reserves.
Legionaries threw their javelins (each man carried two), fought with their swords while using
shields for defense, and then fell back behind the cover of the next line to rest. Auxiliaries were
usually deployed on the wings for support while the Romans did the most fighting.
Organization
A Roman army, or exercitus, was composed of divisions called legiones. These were
futher broken down, with approximate ‘paper’ numbers of soldiers:
• Legion
Approximately 5,000 troops
• Cohort
480 (or 800)
• (Maniple)
160
• Century
80
• Contubernium
8
Less than 5,000 actual troops per legion was more realistic. Caesar preferred
fighting with smaller 3,600 man legions for increased flexibility and speed.
The commander of an army was a
dux, or imperator after winning a
battle. A legion would be
commanded by a legatus, and
elected officers called tribuni
militum would assist these
commanders. Subunits of the legion
were commanded by career officers
called centuriones, each of whom
was assisted for administrative
purposes by an optio, who was also
responsible for troop morale in
combat.
The Romans were, as a general rule, outnumbered by their opponents but able to defeat them.
This is probably due to a combination of the individual skill of soldiers and commanders and the
style that they used. In contrast to the Hellenistic style of warfare, with longer solid units of phalanx
troops, the smaller Roman units could adapt to a changing situation, work around terrain, and
provide opportunities for tired troops to fall back under cover, or to bring reserves to bear.
Against disorganized forces, the Roman style of fighting provided support, discipline, a chain of
command, and cover. The ability of Caesar’s troops to out-march Gallic armies while maintaining
lines of supply, scouting properly, and even constructing proper fortifications for every night of the
march was devastating to the Gallic rebellion under Vercingetorix.
Model Battles
Cannae: Paullus and Varro, Romans, vs. Hannibal, Carthage
(note reversed colours)
B
A
C
Zama – Scipio (Roman) against Hannibal (Carthaginian).
Battle of Alesia – Caesar against Vercingetorix
Pharsalus – Caesar’s Roman army against Pompey’s Romans