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History / Evolution of Civilization
11-THE ROMAN REPUBLIC
Prof.Dr. Halit Hami ÖZ
Kafkas Üniversitesi/Kafkas University
Kars,Turkey
[email protected]
THE ROMAN REPUBLIC
THE ROMAN REPUBLIC
 For convenience sake, Historians divide
Roman history up into three periods,
each named for the governmental type
Rome had at the time.


1. Monarchy (753-509)
2. Republic (509-31 BC)
3. Empire (31 BC—AD 476 in the West
and to AD 1453 in the East)
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

During the period of the monarchy, Rome
isn’t very important, and so we don’t
cover that period in this class.

The stories of the monarchy, however, are
fascinating, and you might enjoy reading
them on your own in the opening
chapters of Livy’s great history of Rome
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

Equally interesting, and much more important, is the
story of Republican Rome—a story that, told in full,
has some exceptionally valuable lessons for us.

It’s a story full of surprises.

The story of the rise of Republican Rome is one of
the most amazing success stories in all history.

Even more surprising is Rome’s continued success
during the last days of the Republic, the period we
call the Roman Revolution.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

During the Republican period (509 BC to 31
BC), Rome grows from a small city state,
perhaps not much bigger than Groton, and
ends up dominating all most the entire
Mediterranean.

The equivalent today would be a town the
size of to grow to the point where it
dominated first South Dakota, then all of the
Midwest, then the United States, and finally
turning all of North America into the great
Grotonian empire. Quite a surprise…
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

And yet, not quite such a surprise as it might seem at first.

A closer look at the Roman people shows that they had from their
earliest days many of the qualities that make for success.

One key to early Roman success was what the Romans themselves
called VIRTUS.

“Virtus” comes from the Latin word “vir” which means “man.”

However, a better translation for us would perhaps be excellence.

The Romans strove for excellence in all that they did—and perhaps
Diogenes would have been more successful in his search for a true
man if he had crossed the Adriatic and looked in Rome.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

An important part of virtus was what the Romans
called Pietas, piety.

The Romans had a religious ceremony for every
occasion—and they were convinced that they had
their relationship with the gods exactly right.

They worked to maintain the pax deorum, a kind of
treaty with the gods.

Roman historians and poets constantly pointed to
Roman religion as one of the reasons for Roman
success.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

And modern historians would agree. One
historian rights that it was Roman religion
that gave the Romans their “doggedness,
and determination.”

The Romans lost battles: they never lost
wars. They always held on, always
expecting that, in the end, the gods were
on their side.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

Roman pietas extended to their ancestors as
well.

The Romans preserved masks of the men
(and sometimes the women) of each
generation, getting out those masks for
ceremonial events.

Here was a constant reminder of what one
was living for: to add glory, honor, and dignity
to the family tradition
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

Another part of virtus was gravitas. We get our word gravity from gravitas,
but a better translation is probably seriousness.

The Romans took themselves and their responsibilities seriously.

This included both family responsibility and civic responsibility.

During the early Republic, adultery was rare and divorce almost unheard
of.

Stable families: again, a key for transmitting cultural values from one
generation to the next.

And as to civic responsibility, consider the Roman consul Brutus whose
commitment to duty meant he was willing to pass sentence of death even
on his own sons when they were found plotting against Rome.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC


Another key to Roman success:
Roman respect for authority, symbolized by fasces.

Although the Romans elected their leaders, once the
leaders were elected, the Romans respected their
leaders’ authority: a tricky business, but a major
source of strength.

In addition, Rome was successful because of her
ability to solve internal political problems peacefully.

The great example of this: the Struggle of Orders.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

During the early days of the Republic, Romans were divided into two
classes, the patricians and the plebians.

The patricians were the most powerful 50 or so families in Rome—about
10% of the population.

The plebians? Everyone else.

Initially, all power was in the hands of the patricians. Only patricians could
be consuls, the chief executive and military officers of Rome.

Only patricians could be praetors, the judicial officers of Rome.

Only patricans could be quaestors, the financial officers of Rome.

And only patricians were eligible for the senate, the chief legislative body
of Rome.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

Naturally, with all power in the hands of the
patricians, the plebians were often treated
unjustly.

They could easily have staged an armed
revolt, even wiping out the patricians as a
class if they had wanted.

Instead, they used only the peaceful
technique of seccessio (essentially, going on
strike) to achieve their goals.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

And they did win a series of important
concessions:

1. The right to elect 10 sacrosanct tribunes, men
who could stand up and speak for others without
fear of retribution of any kind (470 BC).

2. The Twelve Tables, the first written law code
for Rome (450 BC).

3. The right to intermarry with the patricians and
the right to hold offices like the consulate.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

4. The lex hortensia (287 BC), a law which
gave the plebians the right to pass
legislation binding on the Roman state in
their assemblies whether or not the
senate consented.

In other words, now the plebians could
make any law they wanted and had the
ultimate say in any matter—at least
theoretically.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

The important thing to notice is that, in
the long, long struggle to secure their
rights, the plebians, with very real
grievances, never once used violence to
gain their ends.

This served Rome well, because, had the
Romans been fighting one another, they
could never have won the victories that
led to the growth of Roman power.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

Republican Rome was constantly at war, first with
Rome’s immediate neighbors, then for control of
Italy, and then for control of the lands bordering
the Mediterranean.

Rome’s victories in these wars show both what’s
surprising and not so surprising about Roman
success. A good example, the three Punic Wars
(264-241, 218-202, 149-146).

The Punic Wars were wars against Carthage,
originally a Phoenician colony (hence the name
Punic).
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

The first Punic war was fought over control of Sicily, and, one
would have thought that the Carthaginians, a seafaring power,
would have a great advantage when fighting for control of an
island—especially since Rome had no navy at all.

Well, the Roman got their navy.

They took a wrecked Carthaginian ship as their model and
built for themselves ships just like the Carthaginian ships.

A now they are an equal to Carthage on the seas?

Well, they shouldn’t have been, but Rome found a way to
overcome superior Carthaginian sailing skills and, eventually
won the 1st Punic War.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

The second Punic War also started badly for the
Romans. Led by Hannibal, Carthage attacked Rome from the
north, defeating Roman forces at Trasimene, Trebia, and, finally
(216) at Cannae.

The Romans lost 50,000 men in a single day in that last
battle.

But the Romans lost battles: they never lost wars. Though
their commanding officers had clearly blown it, the Roman
people rallied behind them and held on.

And the Romans learned. They copied and imitated some of
Hannibal’s strategies. They figured out how to deal with
attacking elephants. And they won the 2nd Punic War as well.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

And the Romans finished the job.
Cato(this Cato we often call Cato the
Censor to distinguish him from later
Cato’s), constantly reminded the Romans
of the danger Carthage posed to Rome
and its culture.

He conclude all his speeches (no matter
the topic) with the words “delenda est
Carthago,” Carthage must be destroyed.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

In these days of cultural relativism, we find it hard to identify with
Cato’s view, and so hard to understand what’s going on here.

But Cato clearly believed that Roman society stood for something
good, that Carthage stood for something evil.

And the Carthaginians were a cruel and corrupt people.

Just as during WWII Americans believed they stood for something
noble against the evils of totalitarianism, so Roman belief that they
stood for something noble was a strength to them.

And eventually Carthage was destroyed in the 3rd Punic War
(though Cato didn’t live to see it).
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

But Rome’s successes in warfare created a complicated political
situation in Rome—and were beginning to affect Roman virtus as
well.

Rather than just two competing classes, Rome now had lots of
competing interests.

1. A few of the most successful plebian families joined with the
patricians and became what we call the Senatorial class.

2. Other successful plebians formed a slightly less privileged group,
the Equestrians.

3. Many plebians, however, lost their farms, came to the cities, and
found few opportunities for gainful employment. These people
constitute what we call the proletarians.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

4. Rome’s Italian Allies constituted yet another
interest group, cities that had aided Rome in it’s
victories over Carthage and in the Macedonian
Wars.

5. Rome also governed many subject peoples,
people who sometimes preferred Roman
governors to their native rulers, but who might
prefer independence as well.

6. Finally, there were tens of thousands of often
cruelly treated slaves who might stage a revolt at
any time.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

Perhaps Rome could have once again solved its problems
peacefully, but, instead, the Romans end up going through a
hundred year period we call the Roman Revolution (133-31
BC), a period in which the Romans eventually lose their
ability to be a self-governing people.

The Roman Revolution began with the Grachhi brothers,
Tiberius and Gaius Grachhus.

The Gracchi were from one of the most distinguished
patrician families of Rome.

Nevertheless, in 133 BC, Tiberius Gracchus decided to run,
not for Consul, but for Tribune, wanting to be one of the ten
sacrosanct spokesman for the people of Rome as a whole.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

Once elected, T. Gracchus proposed a plan to restore the
plebian small farmers.

He proposed taking public land and selling it to landless
proletarians on good terms.

Why? Well, without land and a decent income, Roman
soldiers couldn’t afford the proper equipment, and Gracchus
had realized that an inadequate base from which to recruit
soldiers was going to mean military disaster for Rome.

His plan was a good one…but the senate said
no. Why? Because senators were using that public land as if
it were there own, and they simply did not want to give it up.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

Gracchus decided the issue was too important to give up on, and
so he took the matter to the assembly which, by the lex hortensia
of 287 had the right to pass legislation binding on the Roman state
with our without the consent of the senate.

After some political maneuverings (and some legally questionable
actions on both sides), T. Gracchus got his legislation passed.

Well begun—half done: but only half done. T. Gracchus decided to
run for a 2nd term as tribune, and the senators just wouldn’t put up
with this.

They armed their followers and chased Tiberius Gracchus through
the streets, eventually clubbing him to death and killing some 300 of
his followers.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

The senate was back in charge, and all was right with the Roman world. Except that it
wasn’t.

Tiberius Gracchus wanted his reforms for an important reason: restoring the Plebians was
essential to the success of the Roman army, and some of his surviving supporters could
see this.

In 123 BC, Gaius Gracchus decided to take over where his brother had left off. He ran
successfully for tribune in 123 and 122, and carried out a series of reforms somewhat
broader than his brother had championed him.

He was unsuccessful in his third try for tribune, and, losing his sacrosanct status, he was
all of a sudden vulnerable.

The senate took advantage: armed the followers for an attack. The attempts of Gaius
Grachhus and his supporters to defend themselves were all the excuse they needed.
Gaius Gracchus was killed—and this time 3,000 of his followers.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC





The senate was in charge, and all was right with
the Roman world. Except that it wasn’t.
The Grachhi had wanted their reforms for a
reason: Roman military success. And, without the
completion of these reforms, Rome was
vulnerable.
A guy named Jugurtha began stirring up trouble
for Rome in Africa. Even more worrisome, the
Cimbri and the Teutones were headed south and
threatened Rome itself.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

The African situation was more and more troubling as senatorial
general after senatorial general failed.

This gave one of the equestrians, a man named Gaius Marius, the
campaign issue he needed to be elected Consul (107 BC).

He promised he could succeed were the senatorial generals had
failed. And, sure enough, he did—a great hero!

Meanwhile the threat posed by the Cimbri and the Teutones was
getting worse.
Several senator-lead armies failed, and Marius decides to run again
for consul, promising success.
He gets five more consulships, each time using the same issue—and
he does eventually beat the Cimbri and the Teutones


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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

He was successful in part by turning Roman soldiers into
professional soldiers.

Now there were some real advantages to a professional
army, but also a big disadvantage: professional soldiers are
more expensive.

Marius wanted pay for his soldiers, but the senate, once again,
said no.

Marius made himself some effective political alliances with
the reform elements in Rome (people who favored programs
like that of the Gracchi) and was for a time successful.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

But the senate eventually maneuvered Marius into a
bad political position, and Marius had to leave for a
temporary exile. The senate was in control, and all
was right with the Roman world.

Except that it wasn’t. Without Marius military
leadership and with reform long overdue, Rome soon
found itself facing a real crisis.

Rome’s Italian Allies revolted, insisting on their share
of political power (Social War—90-88 BC). And in
the East, Mithridates of Pontus leads a revolt against
Rome, and Rome looks likely to lose all possessions
there.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

To the rescue? Gaius Marius and his former
associate by now rival Sulla. Marius and Sulla
manage to help Rome end the Social War,
but now there’s a new question: who will
take on Mithridates?

Both Sulla and Marius want to take their
troops east, and the soldiers of both men
are eager to fight: lots of good things for the
taking, and lots of opportunity to kill people
without them having much of an opportunity
to kill you back. Who is going to go?
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

Well, the senate hates Marius and gives the command to
Sulla. Marius is mad, but what can he do?

Well, he can go to the assembly, which, by the lex hortensia
of 287 had the right to pass legislation binding on the Roman
state without the consent of the senate. The assembly
decides Marius can have the command against Mithridates.

But wait! Sulla’s troops are very close to Rome when they
get the bad news: they aren’t headed east after all. And so
Sulla marches his men into Rome, smiles very nicely and says
to the assembly—you were right the first time. Me and my
army are the ones going to fight Mithridates, right?
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

Well, yes sir, Mr. Sulla. Anything you say—and off goes Sulla,
leaving the senators in charge and everything right in the
Roman world.

Except *also* left behind is Marius—and some very angry
troops.

Marius and his allies now march on Rome and take over.

And now is the time to settle old scores.

Many, many senators are put to death—and we call this
period the Marian reign of terror—though Marius himself
dies right at the beginning of it and would likely have
restrained his troops somewhat.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

For a few years, the allies of Marius control Rome,
making at long last some long overdue reforms.

But reform won’t last: Sulla is coming back eventually
and bringing his army.

Well, that day comes: Sulla marches on Rome, defeats
his enemies, makes himself dictator, takes revenge on
the Marians—and retires, leaving the senators back in
control and everything right in the Roman world.

Except that it wasn’t.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

Mithridates resumes his attempts to drive Rome out of the eastern
Mediterranean.

Pirates plague Mediterranean shipping. Slaves under Spartacus stage
a revolt, liberating thousands of slaves and taking appropriate
revenge on their former masters.

But the worst threat to Rome came from within the political
system itself.

Politics in Rome had become essentially a game for the wealthy and
powerful, a high stakes games without any fixed rules.

Roman politicians, with very few exceptions came to thing that
anything that would increase their own power and prestige was fair
enough.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

Typical of the new kind of politician, Catiline. Catiline was a capable
man, but totally unscrupulous and immoral.

He ran for consul in 63 BC. Running against him was Cicero, a
great philosopher and a true statesman.

And which of these two men did the Roman people vote for?

Well, Cicero of course. But it was a near thing. How did a corrupt
man like Catiline almost win?

By lavish campaigning among influential Romans: parties with lots of
food and wine and for dessert young women or boys—whatever
happened to be your taste. But the main promise: a cancellation
of debts.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

When Catiline didn’t win, his disappointed followers decide
to take matters into their own hands and kill Cicero.

The plot was discovered, and Cicero ended up having the
conspirators put to death—without the usual safeguard of a
fair trial.

You see the problem here: unscrupulous and unlawful
behavior almost forces the political opposition to take
unscrupulous and unlawful steps of its own.


Foremost of the unscrupulous politicians who destroyed the
Republic, the members of the first triumvirate, Crassus,
Caesar, and Pompey.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

Now each of these men was capable, but they were
unscrupulous in the extreme.

Crassus ended the Spartacus revolt: a crucified thousands of
slaves.

Caesar added Gaul to Rome—but carried out a campaign of
what we might call genocide.

For a time, the three men worked together, but after
Crassus death, Caesar and Pompey ended up battling it out.

Caesar’s forces prevail: Caesar reigns and Pompey dies.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC


Caesar was a skillful politician: he knew how to make himself
popular: one government program after another.
Colonization, building programs, libraries, calendar reform.

But what he was after was power pure and simple. He made
himself dictator for ten years then dictator for life. He seemed to
be angling to make himself king (as Shakespeare shows) but what
he was really after was to make himself into a god.

And this was too much for the senators. Sixty of them organized a
conspiracy against Caesar, and on the Ides of March 44 BC, they
assassinated him.

They ran from the theater shouting, “Liberty! Freedom! Tyranny is
dead!”
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

But they were wrong.

It was the Republic that was dead.

Caesar’s death plunged Rome into another 13 years
of bloody civil war, the years of the 2nd triumvirate.

And when the dust had cleared, the Republic was
gone…replaced by the rule of one man:

Casesar’s adopted son Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus:
best known by his nickname, Augustus.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

And do you know what’s remarkable about this?

Amidst all this struggle, all this fighting, slave
revolt, civil war, pirates, assassinations—Rome
actually grows.

France is added to the empire.

Egypt. Britain for at least a brief time.


Is that amazing, or is that amazing?
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