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Introduction & Theories of Development Week 1 What is Psychology • Psychology is both an applied and academic field • Object of study: the human mind and behavior. • Research in psychology seeks to understand and explain – – – – thought emotion behavior Applications of psychology • mental health treatment • performance enhancement • self-help Early Psychology • Evolved out of both philosophy and biology. • Discussions of the two subjects date as far back as the early Greek thinkers such as Aristotle and Socrates • The word psychology is derived from the Greek word psyche, meaning 'soul' or 'mind.' A Separate Science • The field and study of psychology was truly born when Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology lab in Leipzig • This perspective relied heavily on the analysis of sensations and feelings through the use of introspection, a highly subjective process Schools of Thought • • • • • • Structuralism Functionalism Psychoanalysis Behaviorism Humanism Cognitivism Areas of Psychology • • • • • Abnormal Psychology Clinical Psychology Cognitive Psychology Developmental Psychology Personality Psychology What is Education • Education is a concept, referring to the process in which students can learn something – Instruction • refers to the facilitating of learning toward identified objectives, delivered either by an instructor or other forms. – Teaching • refers to the actions of a real live instructor designed to impart learning to the student. – Learning • refers to learning with a view toward preparing learners with specific knowledge, skills, or abilities that can be applied immediately upon completion. Educational Psychology • Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings – Educational Psychologists strive to understand: • • • • • nature and characteristics of the learner human growth and development the nature of the learning process the manner these processes can be facilitated and guided personality and adjustments Developmental Psychology • Developmental psychology, also known as human development, is the scientific study of systematic psychological changes that occur in human beings over the course of the life span. Issues in Developmental Psychology • • • • Nature vs Nuture Early Experience vs. Later Experience Continuity vs. Discontinuity Abnormal Behavior vs. Individual Differences Theories of development • A Theory of Development includes more than just a description of an individual • It is an attempt to explain the development of an individual from the perspective of a particular view of humankind • We will focus for our study on four broad approaches in developmental psychology: – – – – The psychoanalytic approach The learning-theory approach The person-oriented approach The cognitive approach The Psychoanalytical Approach • This approach developed from the psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud [1859-1939] • According to Sigmund Freud, personality is mostly established by the age of five. • Freud's theory of psychosexual development is one of the best known, but also one of the most controversial. The Psychoanalytical Approach • • • Id - already present at birth. It contains all the psychic energy a person needs for psychological and psychic functioning Ego - An organism cannot survive only through ID. A second subsystems of personality develops namely the ego. It functions according to the reality principle. It is contact with reality and functions at conscious level. It postpones immediate gratification. The ego starts to develop during the first year. Superego - Ego is constantly put under pressure by ID to satisfy drives. It is also under pressure of the superego. The superego demands the ego to obey society's rules and regulations. Constant conflict. Ego has to develop defense mechanisms. The Psychoanalytical Approach • Psychosexual stages of development • Freud believed that personality develops through a series of childhood stages – Pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. – This psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving force behind behavior. – If stages are completed successfully = a healthy personality – If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixation can occur. A The Psychoanalytical Approach • Oral Stage – Infant’s primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth • Anal stage – The primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements • Phallic stage – During this, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. Children also discover the differences between males and females. • Latent stage – During the latent period, the libido interests are suppressed • Genital Stage – Here, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex The Psychoanalytical Approach • Evaluation – The theory is focused almost entirely on male development with little mention of female psychosexual development. – His theories are difficult to test scientifically. – Future predictions are too vague. How can we know that a current behavior was caused specifically by a childhood experience? – Freud's theory is based upon case studies and not empirical research. Also, Freud based his theory on the recollections of his adult patients, not on actual observation and study of children. The Psychoanalytical Approach Learning Theory • Most behaviour is learnt • Philosophical basis of this approach: Empricists. Locke. Tabula Rasa • Has led to the emergence of behaviourism • We should study only objectively observable matters Learning Theory • Behaviourism – John B Watson • Watson claimed that psychology was not concerned with the mind or with human consciousness • Watson’s work was based on the experiments of Ivan Pavlov – B. F. Skinner • B.F. Skinner tested Watson’s theories in the laboratory • Skinner’s studies led him to reject Watson’s almost exclusive emphasis on reflexes and conditioning Learning Theory • Ways of learning – Classical Conditioning [Pavlov] Learning Theory • Ways of learning – Operant conditioning [Skinner] Learning Theory • Ways of learning – Observational Learning • Albert Bandura called the process of social learning modeling and gave four conditions required for a person to successfully model the behavior of someone else: – – – – Attention to the model Retention of details Motor reproduction Motivation and opportunity Learning Theory • Ways of learning – Observational Learning • Effects on behaviour – Teaches new behaviors – Increases or decreases the frequency with which previously learned behaviors are carried out – Can encourage previously forbidden behaviors – Can increase or decrease similar behaviors. For example, observing a model excelling in piano playing may encourage an observer to excel in playing the saxophone. Learning Theory • Ways of learning – Bandura’s Model