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Fall of the Roman Empire Big Questions • Why do great Empires fall? • Did the Roman Empire actually fall? – If so when? • How could the Romans have better solved the problems they faced? Historians of Rome • One of the first great history books was written by Edward Gibbon (1737-1794) called The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire – Gibbon argued that the Roman Empire collapsed due to Christianity – Main argument: Roman’s lost their state religion, which caused them to lose faith in the state it upheld • Decline of the pursuit of virtue, replaced with concern for afterlife Other arguments for why Rome fell • Slavery: Romans became lazy due to overreliance on slaves. Could not handle new challenges • Invasion: Rome was destroyed by better organized and more powerful barbarian tribes • Corruption: Rome fell because its government was too corrupt • Insanity: Lead in Roman pipes led to mental illness Was there one reason why Rome fell? • No: – Rome fell due to a congruence of various problems that all affected it together and were often related – These various problems became insurmountable when taken altogether Continuing questions • Now historians wonder if Rome ever truly collapsed completely • There is no question that Rome faced a series of crises that destroyed its political power • Its cultural power, remained for centuries to come Problems facing the Empire • Commodus (reign: 180-192) wastes Roman money on gladiator games, antagonizes Senate • Killed when Senators hire wrestling coach to strangle him • After the short reign of Commodus the Empire began facing several major problems Civil War • After Commodus’ death, Rome ruled by a series of barracks emperors – Roman generals who invade Rome, take the throne, declare themselves emperor, then are killed by the next general – Rome experiences 20 Emperors in a 40 year period – Left large gaps in the defense of the Roman borders Example • From 260-262 Rome had 12 separate “emperors” vying for the throne, each briefly holding it at one time or another – Gallinus, Ingennus, Regalianus, Macrianus Senior, Macrianus Iunior, Quietus, Piso, Valenus, Ballista, Mussius Aemilianus, Aureolus, Celsus, Saturninus Size • Roman Empire had become too large to rule from one city – Problems of corrupt or rebellions Factors – Unable to respond to threats in far corners – Civil wars left Rome with few active legions Example: The Reign of Septimus Severus (193-211) • Brought brief stability to Roman Empire during the civil wars that followed Commodus’ death – Used this to annex the Parthian Empire (Northern Iran) • While he captured it, he could never fully control it • Rome would end up spending millions attempting to pacify a region it did not need Famine • Throughout the 5th Century, Europe undergoes a mini-ice age – Temperatures drop significantly – Summer and spring shorten leading to less time for planting and growing – Europe experiences widespread famine Famine • Ironically, it is the famine that saves Europe from total destruction at the hands of the Huns – One of the motivating factors of Attila ceasing his invasion of Italy was that there would be no food to sustain his army The Money • Too much of the coinage was being adulterated – Mixed with lesser metals to create more coins – Allowed Rome to make more money but drastically lowered value of money – Quick solution allowing barracks emperors to hire more troops Invasion • Germanic and Eastern European tribes invading and raiding Roman territory – Roman army too busy fighting itself to stop it Emperor Diocletian • Diocletian assumed control after defeating the former emperor’s son Carinus, who attempted to unite barbarian tribes underneath him – Diocletian played on the disunity of Carinus’ men to separate and destroy them – Stabilized northern border • Tried to solve two problems: the stability and size of the Empire Emperor Diocletian • Made his assistant Maximilian into a coemperor • Gave Maximilian control of Rome, moved to the city of Byzantium in Asia Minor • Divided military into a tetrarchy – Four military commanders including himself and Maximilian which would control quadrants of Empire Great Persecution • Diocletian targeted Christians to be imprisoned or killed – – – – Feared Christian efforts to convert Romans Blamed fire in Imperial palace on Christians Burned churches and scriptures Punishments so harsh other Tetrarchs refused to carry them out • Diocletian becomes too wrapped up in rebellions in Northern Africa to punish the rebels Emperor Constantine • Constantine takes over after Diocletian abdicates – When a King or Emperor voluntarily gives up his throne • Oldest of Diocletian’s sons Constantine’s Reforms • Finalizes Diocletian’s reforms by officially splitting the Empire in half – Made the Roman Empire two completely separate entities instead of one Empire ruled by two emperors – Takes control of Byzantium, renames it Constantinople – Gives his brother control of Rome • Was this the fall of the Empire? Why Constantinople? • Strategic: Strategically placed between Europe and Asia • Wealthy: Major stop on trade route • Safe: Easy to defend, unlike Rome which has been weakened by civil war Constantine’s Conversion • 313: Edict of Milan: Constantine declares that Christians can follow their faith without fear of persecution • 375-380: Constantine converts to Christianity – Claims he saw a vision before a battle – More likely convinced by his mother who converted first Converting the Empire to Christianity • Closes all temples and dismisses all oracles • Replaces office of Pontifex Maximus with Bishop of Rome (directly appointed by him) – Gives Constantine greater control over religion • Ends wasteful practice of sacrifice in the middle of a famine • Constantine takes a direct hand in the shaping of the religion Converting • While Constantine did not make it a legal requirement to convert for citizens ANYONE serving the Imperial government had to be Christian – Meant that advancement in Roman society relied on you converting to the new religion – By 400 it DOES become required that all Roman citizens become Christians Holidays • Replaces most popular Roman holidays with Christian holidays on the same day – Allows Romans to continue celebrating as they always have Council of Nicea • Problem: Christianity has multiple branches, none can agree on a single truth – Brought about by the Marian Heresy • Argued that all traces of Judaism including the Torah should be excluded from Christianity – Constantine calls a council of Church leaders • Settles on a single Christian Bible • Declares all other writings heretical • Officially Breaks Christianity with Jewish traditions, including keeping kosher • Declares Bishop of Rome to be leader of Church named Pope Council of Nicea Religious Conflict • Not all Romans gladly accepted the transition to monotheism • Julian the Apostate (361-363) – Attempted to retake Persian territory lost to a “barbarian” tribe known as the Sassanids – Moved the capital from Constantinople to Antioch – Reinstated all temples and oracles • Ignored the very signs he reinstated when attacking Persia, was killed (quite possibly by one of his own Christian soldiers) • Christianity restored by his successor Jovian Military collapse • Much of the Roman military moved to Constantinople • Rome left to hire mercenaries to defend itself – Hired soldiers who fight for money The Threat of Barbarians • What is a barbarian? Threat of Barbarians • Barbarian originally comes from Greek – It originally meant: Those who do not speak our language • Barbarian to the Romans meant those outside the Roman Empire The Huns • Originally came from Northern China • United by a war chief called a Kahn – Greatest of these Kahns was Attila • The Huns were masters of the Horse – Developed stirrups which allowed them to ride and shoot arrows at the same time – Typically Hun would ride into battle with 6 horses • Would switch when he ran out of arrows or spears Attila the Hun Attila the Hun • Called “The Scourge of God” by the Romans • Inherited various tribes of Scythia (central Europe and Asia) from his father – Organized them into a single army The Huns • By 451BCE the Huns had devastated Russia and were raiding the Roman Empire • Threatened Empire because they pushed many other barbarian tribes to flee ahead of them into Imperial territory – Eventually would attempt to attack Italy itself – Destroyed the Italian city of Aquileia so completely its original foundation site could not be recognized – Dissuaded only when the Pope (Bishop of Rome) offered Attila a large bribe Attila in Europe • Did not invade into France only after Lombard King offered his daughter to Attila and half of his kingdom in exchange for peace • Defeated Eastern Roman Armies at Thermopylae and Utus – Stopped only at the gates of Constantinople Treaty of Margus • The Romans, fully admitting that they could not defeat the Huns in battle agreed to pay tribute – Offered 700 pounds of gold annually to the Huns to keep them out of their territory – Huns ultimately ignored this treaty, destroying several Roman garrisons and spreading chaos across the borderlands Attila’s death • On Attila’s wedding night to his Lombard princess he got so drunk that he collapsed • His nose bled profusely – Left face down on his wedding bed, he suffocated on his own blood • Huns collapse into civil war between Attila’s sons The Goths • Germanic speaking tribes from Northern Europe – Several different tribes including Vandals, Ostrogoths and Visigoths • Pushed out of territory by Huns • Invaded Roman territory – Took control of Hispania, and Northern Africa The Goths • Ostrogoths – Eastern tribe that would be absorbed into Attila’s horde • After his death they struck out westward on their own • Visigoths – Rebels who escaped both Roman and Hun rule to challenge the Empire – Defeated and killed the Roman Emperor Valens at the Battle of Adrianople • Seen as the final defeat of the Roman Military in the West The Vandals • Oringally from Southern Poland – Fled the Hun invasion southward all the way to Northern Africa – Resisted all Roman attempts to retake the territory • Took revenge by sacking Rome in 455CE – Often portrayed as savages by Roman historians, but were in fact master metal workers Vandal Gold Foil Jewelry The Franks • Group of Germanic tribes that invade Gaul • Take territory from Romans without a fight • Rome acknowledges Frankish Kingdom in 357BCE Goth Territory Franks • Franks begin building fortified castles to protect their territory The Sack of Rome • Last Roman Emperor in the western Empire was Romulus Augustulus – In his teens when placed on throne by family – Had very little power even in Rome – Empire no longer had any effective control over its former provinces • Rome invaded by Visigoths led by Odoacer in 410. – Last Emperor killed replaced by Odoacer as a King • Pope endorses Odoacer (rather than be killed) – Marked as the official end of the Empire in the West The Last Roman Emperor Was this the End of Rome? • The Eastern Empire based around Constantinople would survive for generations more • People in Western Europe continued using Roman language and customs for another hundred years • Roman Church remains dominant religion Last Question • Can the fall of Rome teach us anything about our own society?