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Ecology Unit Name ___________________________ Hour ____ I. The Basics of Ecology A. Ecology – The study of the relationship between organisms and the adaptations to their environment. B. Levels of Organization Atoms- The smallest unit of matter, dead or alive Molecules- Combinations of atoms (ex. Lipids, Carbohydrates, Proteins, Nucleic Acids) Organelles- Cell structures that perform specific functions (groups of molecules) Cells- Groups of organelles all working towards common functions Tissues- Groups of cells all working towards common functions Organs- Groups of tissues working towards common functions Systems- Groups of organs working towards common functions Organism- An individual that can carry out all life processes Population/Species- _________________________________________________ Community- _________________________________________________ Ecosystem- All living organisms and nonliving features in an area Biome- Large ecosystems Biosphere- Where life exists (Earth – all biomes) C. Ecosystem – All abiotic (___________) and biotic (____________) factors in a given area. 1. Habitat – The physical area where an organism lives, which includes climate, topography, soil and water chemistry, and plants & animals (where it lives). 2. Niche – How an organism lives in its habitat which includes feeding habits, reproductive behavior (how it lives). RAPS: Explain the relationship between the variety of resources and the number of niches in an ecosystem. _________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________ RAPS: Explain the relationship between the number of niches and biodiversity in an ecosystem. ______________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________ II. Energy Flow A. Trophic (eating/feeding) Levels – Determined by what an organism eats and what eats the organism. 1. Autotroph/Producer – _______________________________________________________________________ 2. Heterotroph/Consumer – Organism that must obtain its food from other organisms. a. primary consumer – Eats producers; known as an herbivore b. secondary consumer – Eats primary consumers; known as an carnivore c. tertiary consumer – Eats secondary consumers d. omnivore – Eats both producers and consumers e. scavenger – Eats newly killed animals 3. Saprotrophs/Decomposers/Detrivores – Organisms that obtain nutrients from dead organisms. Q: What important role do the decomposers play in an ecosystem?_______________________________________ 1 B. Food Chain – Diagram showing the direction energy flows from one organism to the next due to feeding habits. 1. Most energy on Earth used by living organisms is derived from _______________________. 2. The sun’s energy is converted into stored chemical energy by producers through the process of ________________. 3. On average, an organism stores about 10% of the energy it receives from the organism upon which it feeds. C. Food Web – Interrelated food chains. In an ecosystem, many animals may eat the same organism, and animals can eat a wide variety of other organisms. or or or Sun’s Energy or or ALL ORGANISMS IN A FOOD WEB HAVE AN EFFECT ON THE OTHER ORGANISMS IN THAT WEB!!! What do the arrows in the food web represent? ___________________________________________ What would happen to the fox population if the grasshoppers were to all die? ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ Write out a food chain that has a 4°consumer. ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ If there is a total of 20,000 kilocalories of energy available in the grass, how much of that energy will the owl receive? ___________________________________________ 2 D. Ecological Pyramids – A diagram showing the relative amounts of energy or matter contained within each trophic level in a food chain or food web. 1. Energy Pyramid – represents the total amount of energy (kilocalories) in each trophic level. a. Only about 10% of the total energy transfers from one level to the next. What happens to the rest? ________________________________________________________________________________________ b. Energy pyramids are never inverted (small bottom & big top); energy is always lost between trophic levels. 2. Biomass Pyramid – Compares the amount of biomass at each trophic level. Numbers Biomass a. Biomass is the total dry weight (w/o water) of the organisms in an ecosystem. b. Usually, producers have the greatest biomass. c. An example of an inverted biomass pyramid would be one in savanna grasslands where the biomass of herbivores such as zebra, gazelles, elephants and hippopotamuses is more than the biomass of the slender grasses found in that food web. 3. Numbers Pyramid – compares the number of individual organisms at each trophic level. a. Usually, producers are the greatest in number. b. An example of an inverted numbers pyramid would be one tree that sustains a population of leaf-cutting ants. III. Cycles of Matter A. Water/Hydrologic Cycle 1. Evaporation – Radiant energy from the sun moves water from land to the atmosphere. 2. Transpiration – Radiant energy moves water from plants to the atmosphere. 3. Precipitation – Water returning to the land in the form of rain, snow, sleet, hail, or fog. (the air is saturated with water). 3 B. Carbon (and Oxygen) Cycle 1. What two processes cycle C and O in our environment? ____________________________________ CO2 + H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2 (Photosynthesis – Plants, Bacteria, Protists) C6H12O6 + 6O2 → CO2 + H2O + Energy (Cell Respiration – all organisms) ____________________________________ ____________________________________ 2. What has increased the CO2 levels in our atmosphere in the last century? ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ 3. CO2 along with methane gas, water vapor, and others cause the greenhouse effect. C. Nitrogen Cycle 1. Nitrogen gas comprises 78% of our atmosphere in the form of N2 gas, which many organisms cannot use in this form. 2. What do organisms need Nitrogen to build? ________________________________________ _______________________________________ 3. Bacteria convert N2 gas into usable forms such as nitrate (NO3) and nitrite (NO2). 4. Denitrification – ______________________ ____________________________________. Nucleotide D. Phosphorus Cycle 1. Living organism need Phosphorous for ________ and __________. 2. This cycle does not involve the atmosphere, but rather earths lithosphere or its rock layer. Weathering of rock releases phosphorus into the soil, usually as phosphate (PO 4), where it is absorbed by plants and moved along the trophic levels. 3. Phosphorus is returned to the soil via animal wastes and the decomposition of organisms by bacteria and fungi. 4 IV. Climate - The average, year to year conditions of ___________________ and ___________________________. A. Weather – The day to day condition of earth’s atmosphere at a particular time and place. B. Climate Zones – Created due to the tilt of earth’s axis; causes different light intensities for different regions or zones a. Polar Zone – ____________ Temperature & ____________ Precipitation b. Temperate Zone – __________ Temperature & __________ Precipitation c. Tropical Zone – ___________Temperature & ___________ Precipitation C. Ocean and Wind Currents – Created from the uneven heating of air and water. List at least 3 factors that determine climate for a biome or ecosystem. ___________________________________, ____________________________________________, ____________________________________________________ RAPS: Explain how climate affects the biotic factors in an ecosystem. _____________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________ V. Biomes A. Terrestrial – Land areas whose climate determines plant types (flora), which in turn determines animal life (fauna). Examples: ___________________________________________________________________________________________ B. Aquatic – Bodies of water whose temperature and salinity (salt content) determine flora & fauna (plants & animals). 1. Freshwater Biomes a. Low salinity (.005% salt) → Freshwater that moves - ____________________ & ____________________. → Freshwater that does not move - ____________________ & ____________________. 2. Marine Biomes a. High salinity (3.5% salt) → Ocean – ____________________________________________________________ → Wetland – An ecosystem in which the roots of plants are submerged under water at least part of the year. → Estuaries –freshwater flows into saltwater; shallow enough for sunlight to reach the bottom plants. Explain the importance of wetlands and estuaries for the wildlife of many biomes. __________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________ VI. Other Driving Forces in an Ecosystem A. Abiotic Factors – Nonliving components of an ecosystem. Examples: ________________________________________ 1. Rivers can flood changing soil composition of nearby banks. 2. Volcanoes can form mountains. 3. Lightning can cause forest fires. B. Biotic Factors – Living organisms of an ecosystem. Examples: _________________________________________________________ 5 1. Competition - Use or defense of a resource that reduces the availability of that resource to another individual. Intraspecific Competition – Occurs between organisms of the same species Interspecific Competition – Occurs between organisms of different species Explain why intraspecific competition is more intense than interspecific competition. ________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________ Gauses' Competitive Exclusion Principle - ______________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ 2. Predation – When one organism (predator) feeds on another (prey). Describe the predator/prey relationship in the graph showing moose and wolf population numbers. _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ 3. Symbiosis – a biological relationship between unlike organisms Parasitism – When one organism (parasite) obtains nutrition from another organism (host). One organism benefits while the other is negatively affected. Examples: ____________________________________________________________________________________ Commensalism – When one organism benefits and the other is not affected in a positive or negative way. Examples: ____________________________________________________________________________ Mutualism – When both organisms benefit. Examples: _____________________________________________________________________________) C. Succession – The gradual, sequential replacement of populations in an area. 1. Primary Succession – The sequential replacement of populations in an area that has not previously supported life. a. Pioneer Species –first species to live in a new habitat (algae, lichen, short grasses, mosses, insects, worms). b. Seral community will out-compete and replace the pioneer community (tall grasses, bushes, larger animals). c. Climax community – usually the highest biodiversity; will remain stable as long as the area is left undisturbed. 6 VII. Population Growth A. Population Density – The # of individuals per unit area (this # can vary depending on the species and ecosystem). B. Population Growth Rate –change in the # of individuals ipopulation over time. Calculated by: Growth # organisms time C. Factors that Affect Population Growth 1. _____________________________ 2. _______________________ 3. ___________________________ Immigration – ________________________________ Emigration – ________________________________ D. Types of Population Growth 1. Exponential Growth – Occurs when the individuals in a population reproduce at a constant rate, assuming unlimited resources and no predators. → In a graph, this type of growth forms a J-shaped curve. 2. Logistical Growth – Occurs when a population’s growth slows or stops after a period of exponential growth. → In a graph, this type of growth forms an S-shaped curve. Q: What causes exponential growth to slow or stop in a population? __________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ E. Growth Curve – Shows population growth over time; * Label the lag phase and exponential phase on the graph. 1. Carrying Capacity – Max # of individuals that an ecosystem’s resources and space can support. 2. Lag Phase – A time of little to no growth. 3. Exponential Phase – A time of rapid growth (population doubles over shorter and shorter periods of time). F. Limiting Factors – A factor that causes population growth to decrease. 1. Density-Dependent – limiting factor dependent population size. Examples: ______________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 2. Density-Independent - Limiting factors affecting populations in similar ways regardless of population size. Examples: __________________________________________________________________________ _____ RAPS: Explain why the carrying capacity of deer in Weldon Springs Conservation Area is limited . _______________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________ G. Human Population Growth 1. Demography – The study of human populations, looking at changes in birth and death rates and their causes. 2. Demographic Transition – Occurs when population shifts from a high birth and death rate to a low birth and death rate. The result is that the population grows very slowly, if at all. Most developed countries have experienced this. 3. The population of Earth continues to grow exponentially because most people live in countries that have not completed demographic transition. Examples of countries with exponential growth: __________________, ________________________, ________________________ 7 * Use the graph below right to answer the following questions. Estimate the human population in 9,000 B.C.: _________________ Estimate the human population in 6,000 B.C.: _________________ What was the human population in 1,000 B.C.? _________________ What was the human population in 1,500 A.D.? _________________ What was the human population in 2,000 A.D.? _________________ Extrapolate the population for 2,010 A.D.: ___________________ Label the lag and exponential phases of growth. RAPS: Explain why exponential growth in the human population began in the 1900s. ________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________ 4. Demographers can use age-structure diagrams to predict the future growth of populations. Q: Is Rwanda a steady, growing, or shrinking population? Explain. _____ __________________________________________ ________________________________________________ 5. Current projections suggest that the world population will be 7.8 billion by 2025 and up to 9 billion by 2050. 6. In the US and other developed nations, the growing population lives in mostly urban and suburban areas. Urban Sprawl – ___________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ RAPS: Explain the impact of urban sprawl on ecosystems. ______________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________ VIII. Natural Resources – The biotic and abiotic materials that support life on Earth. A. Renewable Natural Resources – The materials that can be replenished in a relatively short time span. 1. Forests – Communities dominated by trees and many different species of organisms. a. Deforestation (fast process) – Clearing large areas of forested land for human use and consumption. b. Reforestation (slow process) – Replanting or seeding to replace trees and reverse deforestation. 8 2. Wildlife – All plants and animals in a community that are interdependent on one another. a. Endangered Species – Those organisms that are at risk of extinction in their native habitats. b. Threatened Species – Those organisms that are likely to become endangered in their near future. c. Endangered Species Act (1973) – Passed by the U.S. government to define endangered species and establish regulations for their protection. 3. Soil – A mixture of rock fragments, minerals, and organic matter. a. Soil is renewed by erosion and decaying organisms. Plants and animals rely on soil for nutrients and water, and soil relies on plants and animals to prevent destructive soil erosion. b. Desertification – Formation of deserts by drought, overgrazing, and/or over farming (depletes nutrients). Q: How can humans help prevent soil erosion and depletion? Crop Rotation – Reduces loss of nutrients. Treelines – Decrease wind erosion. Plant Grasses – Decrease soil erosion because roots hold onto the soil. Irrigation Ditches – Allow run-off (from watering or rains) to be stored near root level. Contour Plowing – Decreases water erosion Terracing – Decreases water erosion Fertilizers – Increases plant growth 4. Water (H2O) – Essential to all life, only 3% of the water on Earth is usable by man and nearly 2% is in the ice caps. Q: How does man get by on such little water? _________________________, _________________________, & ______________________________ B. Nonrenewable Natural Resources – Those materials in nature that cannot be replenished by nature or man. 1. Fossil Fuels – Formed by incomplete decay of prehistoric plants and animals living in the Carboniferous period about 300 million years ago. Fossil fuels are used for over 90% of our energy needs. Examples: ____________________, ____________________, ____________________ Q: What are some alternative energy sources to fossil fuels? → _________________________ → _________________________ → _________________________ → _________________________ → _________________________ → _________________________ 2. Minerals – Inorganic solids formed in earth (Fe, Ag, Al, Cu, Zn…) - maintain normal body structure & function. 3. Air – composed of a mixture of gases, including N 2 (78%), O2 (21%), and CO2 (.03%) a. Smog – _______________________________________________________________________________ b. Acid Rain – The release of Nitrogen and Sulfur compounds from burning fossil fuels (lowers H 2O pH). c. Ozone Layer - __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ There has been thinning of the ozone layer from excess CFCs in the atmosphere CFC’s have been banned, so now the ozone layer can begin to slowly recover. d. Greenhouse Effect– An excess of CO2 and other gases (like methane, water vapor) traps the sun’s heat in Earth’s atmosphere, resulting in increased temperatures thus global warming. 9 IX. Biodiversity A. Ecosystem Diversity – Includes the variety of habitats, communities, and ecological processes in the living world. B. Species Diversity – The number of different species in the biosphere. C. Genetic Diversity – The sum total of all the different genomes carried by all living organisms on Earth. Why is biodiversity important? ____________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ D. Human Activities Affect Biodiversity 1. Humans reduce biodiversity by altering habitats, hunting species to extinction, introducing toxic compounds into food webs, and introducing foreign species to new environments. 2. Habitat fragmentation - breaking habitat up into smaller, disconnected pieces (roads, dams, urban sprawl, deforestation, agriculture, draining wetlands). 3. Pollution – undesirable change in the chemical, physical, or biological characteristics of an ecosystem. a. Biodegradable pollutants – can be broken down by decomposers such as fungus and bacteria Examples: _____________________________________________ _______________________________________________ b. Nonbiodegradable pollutants – cannot be broken down by living organisms Examples: waste oils, CFC’s (chlorofluorocarbons), Styrofoam, Industrial cleaning chemicals c. Biological Magnification – Concentration of a harmful substance increases in organisms at higher tropic levels in a food chain or food web. d. Recycling – reusing materials so that they do not become waste or pollution. 4. Non-native species - (Invasive, exotic, alien, nonindigenous) – species migrate (naturally or by human introduction) into areas where they have not previously lived. This disrupts the food web of that habitat. Crown vetch plant is used along roadsides to prevent erosion, but it takes over large areas and native plants can’t compete, so native animals have less nutritious food. Zebra mussels, immigrants from E. Europe/W. Asia in shipping vessels, remove so many nutrients from our fresh water lakes and rivers that native mussels and other organisms cannot find enough food. They also clog water drains, cover boat docks and bridge posts and are very expensive to remove. Feral Hogs – tear up soil causing erosion, killing native plants, and creating mud holes where mosquitoes breed. In Hawaii, this has led to spread of diseases in native birds. Explain the effect of non-native/invasive species on a food web. __________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________ 10 Human Activity Describe Specific Example Negative Impacts Ways to reduce or reverse the negative impact Pollution Habitat Fragmentation Over Fishing 1. What organism in the food web above is the producer? __________________________________________________ 2. Write the names of all the secondary consumers below. ________________________ ________________________ ______________________________ ______________________________ ______________________________ 3. Identify the highest order consumer in the food web above: ___________________________ = Level _________ 4. List 2 food chains to which the Adélie penguins belong. a) ____________________________________________________________________________________________ b) ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 5. A toxic chemical has found its way into the ocean, nearly depleting the krill. This causes the number of squid to decrease. Describe a chain of at least three events that will result in a change in the population of killer whale. _______________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________ 6. The Leopard Seal receives 300 Kilocalories of useable energy from the King Penguin it eats. The King Penguin in turn feeds on krill. How much initial energy was there in the Phytoplankton eaten by the penguin?____________________ 7. What is the ultimate source of energy in the ocean ecosystem pictured above? ____________________ 11