Download CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: THEMES IN THE STUDY OF LIFE

CHAPTER 1
INTROD UCTION : THEM ES IN
THE STUDY OF LIFE
OUTLINE
I. Life s Hierarchical Order
A. The living world is a hierarchy, with each level of biological structure building on the
level below it
B. Each level of biological structure has emergent properties
C. Cells are an organism s basic units of structure and function
D. The continuity of life is based on heritable information in the form of DNA
E. Structure and function are correlated at all levels of biological organization
F. Organisms are open systems that interact continuously with their environments
G. Regulatory mechanisms ensure a dynamic balance in living systems
II. Evolution, Unity, and Diversity
A. Diversity and unity are the dual faces of life on Earth
B. Evolution is the core theme of biology
III. Science as a Process
A. Testable hypotheses are the hallmarks of the scientific process
B. Science and technology are functions of society
C. Biology is a multidisciplinary adventure
OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter and attending lecture, you should be able to:
1.
Briefly describe unifying themes that pervade the science of biology.
2.
Diagram the hierarchy of structural levels in biology.
3.
Explain how the properties of life emerge from complex organization.
4.
Describe seven emergent properties associated with life.
5.
Distinguish between holism and reductionism.
6.
Explain how technological breakth roughs contributed to the formulation of th e cell
theory and our current knowledge of the cell.
7.
Distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
8.
Explain what is meant by "form fits function."
9.
List the five kingdoms of life and distinguish amo ng them.
10.
Briefly describe how Charles Darwin's ideas contributed to the conceptual framework of
biology.
11.
Outline the scientific method.
12.
Distinguish between inductive and deductive reasoning.
13.
Explain how science and technology are interdependent.
KEY TERMS
biogenesis
biome
community
control group
deductive reasoning
ecosystem
emergent property
eukaryotic
evolution
experimental group
holism
hypothesis
inductive reasoning
natural selection
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population
prokaryotic
reductionism
scientific method
scientific theory
taxonomy
variable
CHAPTER 2
THE CHEMICAL
CONTEXT OF LIFE
OUTLINE
I. Chemical Elements and Compounds
A. Matter consists of chemical elements in pure form and in combinations called
compounds
B. Life requires about 25 chemical elements
II. Atoms and Molecules
A. Atomic structure determines the behavior of an element
B. Atoms combine by chemical bonding to form molecules
C. Weak chemical bonds play important roles in the chemistry of life
D. A molecule s biological function is related to its shape
E. Chemical reactions make and break chemical bonds
OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter and attending lecture, you should be able to:
1.
Define element and compound.
2.
State four elements essential to life that make up 96% of living matter.
3.
Describe the structure of an atom.
4.
Define and distinguish among atomic number, mass number, atomic weight, and
valence.
5.
Given the atomic number and mass number of an atom, determine the number of
neutrons.
6.
Explain why radioisotopes are important to biologists.
7.
Explain how electron configuration influences the chemical behavior of an atom.
8.
Explain the octet rule and predict ho w many bonds an atom might form.
9.
Explain why the noble gases are so unreactive.
10.
Define electronegativity and explain how it influences the formation of chemical bonds.
11.
Distinguish among nonpolar covalent, polar covalent and ionic bonds.
12.
Describe the formation of a hydrogen bond and explain how it differs from a covalent or
ionic bond.
13.
Explain why weak bonds are important to living organisms.
14.
Describe how the relative concentrations of reactants and products affect a chemical
reaction.
KEY TERMS
anion
atom
atomic number
atomic nucleus
atomic weight
cation
chemical bond
chemical reactions
equilibrium
dalton
electron shell
electron
electronegativity
element
energy
energy level
hydrogen bond
ion
ionic bond
isotope
mass number
matter
molecular formula
molecule
neutron
covalent bond
polar
nonpolar
double
orbital
potential energy
products
proton
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radioactive isotope
reactants
structural formula
trace element
valence shell
valence
CHAPTER 3
WATE R AND T HE FITN ESS
OF THE ENVIRONMENT
OUTLINE
I. Water s Polarity and Its Effects
A. The polarity of water molecules results in hydrogen bonding
B. Organisms depend on the cohesion of water molecules
C. Water moderates temperatures on Earth
D. Oceans and lakes don t freeze solid because ice floats
E. Water is the solvent of life
II. The Dissociation of Water
A. Organisms are sensitive to changes in pH
III. Acid Precipitation Threatens the Fitness of the Environment
OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter and attending lecture, you should be able to:
1. Describe how water contributes to the fitness of the environment to support life.
2. Describe the structure and geometry of a water molecule, and explain what properties
emerge as a result of this structure.
3. Explain the relationship between the polar nature of water and its ability to form hydrogen
bonds.
4. List five characteristics of water that are emergent properties resulting from hydrogen
bonding.
5. Describe the biological significance of the cohesiveness of wate r.
6. Distinguish between heat and temperature.
7. Explain how water's high specific heat, high heat of vaporization and expansion upon
freezing affect both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.
8. Explain how the polarity of the water molecule makes it a versatile solvent.
9. Define molarity and list some advantages of measuring substances in moles.
10. Write the equation for the dissociation of water, and explain what is actually transferred
from one molecule to another.
11. Explain the basis for the pH scale.
12. Explain how acids and bases directly or indirectly affect the hydrogen ion concentration of
a solution.
13. Using the bicarbonate buffer system as an example, explain how buf fers work.
14. Describe the causes of acid precipitation, and explain how it adversely affects the f itness
of the environment.
KEY TERMS
acid
adhesion
aqueous solution
base
buffer
calorie
Celsius scale
cohesion
evaporative cooling
molecular weight
pH scale
polar molecule
solute
solution
solvent
specific heat
surface tension
temperature
heat
hydrogen ion
hydrophilic
hydrophobic
hydroxide ion
kilocalorie
kinetic energy
molarity
mole
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CHAPTER 4
CARBON AND
MOLECULAR DIVERSITY
OUTLINE
I. The Importance of Carbon
A. Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds
B. Carbon atoms are the most versatile building blocks of molecules
C. Variation in carbon skeletons contributes to the diversity of organic molecules
II. Functional Groups
A. Functional groups also contribute to the molecular diversity of life
OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter and attending lecture, you should be able to:
1. Summarize the philosophies of vitalism and mechanism, and explain how they influenced
the development of organic chemistry, as well as mainstream biological thought.
2. Explain how carbon s electron configuration determines the kinds and number of bonds
carbon will form.
3. Describe how carbon skeletons may vary, and explain how this variation contributes to the
diversity and complexity of organic molecules.
4. Distinguish among the three types of isomers: structural, geometric and enantiomers.
5. Recognize the major functional groups, and describe the chemical prop erties of organic
molecules in which they occur.
KEY TERMS
alcohol
aldehyde
amine
amino group
carbonyl group
carboxyl group
carboxylic acid
enantiomer
functional group
geometric isomer
hydrocarbon
hydroxyl group
isomer
ketone
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organic chemistry
phosphate group
structural isomer
sulfhydryl group
thiol
CHAPTER 5
THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
OF MACROMOLECULES
OUTLINE
I. Polymer Principles
A. Most macromolecules are polymers
B. A limitless variety of polymers can be built f rom a small set of monomers
II. Carbohydrates: Fuel and Building Material
A. Sugars, the smallest carbohydrates, serve as fuel and carbon sources
B. Polysaccharides, the polymers of sugars, have storage and structural roles
III. Lipids: Diverse Hydrophobic Molecules
A. Fats store large amounts of energy
B. Phospholipids are major components of cell membranes
C. Steroids include cholesterol and certain hormones
IV. Proteins: The Molecular Too ls of the Cell
A. A polypeptide is a polymer of amino acids connected in a specific sequence
B. A protein s function depends on its specific conformation
V. Nucleic Acids: Informational Polymers
A. Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary information
B. A nucleic acid strand is a polymer of nucleotides
C. Inheritance is based on replication of the DNA double helix
D. We can use DNA and proteins as tape measures of evolution
OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter and attending lecture, you should be able to:
1. List the four major classes of biomolecules.
2. Explain how organic polymers contribute to biological diversity.
3. Describe how covalent linkages are formed and broken in organic polymers.
4. Describe the distinguishing characteristics of carbohydrates, and explain how they are
classified.
5. List four characteristics of a sugar.
6. Identify a glycosidic linkage and describe how it is formed.
7. Describe the important biological functions of polysaccharides.
8. Distinguish between the glycosidic linkages found in starch and cellulose, and explain why
the difference is biologically important.
9. Explain what distinguishes lipids from other major classes of macromolecules.
10. Describe the unique properties, building block molecules and biological importance of the
three important groups of lipids: fats, phospholipids and steroids.
11. Identify an ester linkage and describe how it is formed.
12. Distinguish between a saturated and unsaturated fat, and list some unique emergent
properties that are a consequence of these structural differences.
13. Describe the characteristics that distinguish proteins from the other major classes of
macromolecules, and explain the biologically important functions of this group.
14. List and recognize four major components of an amino acid, and explain how amino acids
may be grouped according to the physical and chemical properties of the side chains.
15. Identify a peptide bond and explain how it is formed.
16. Explain what determines protein conformation and why it is important.
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17. Define primary structure and describe how it may be deduced in the laboratory.
18. Describe the two types of secondary protein structure, and explain the role of hydrogen
bonds in maintaining the structure.
19. Explain how weak interactions and disulfide bridges contribute to tertiary protein structure.
20. Using collagen and hemoglobin as examples, describe quaternary protein structure.
21. Define denaturation and explain how proteins may be denatured.
22. Describe the characteristics that distinguish nucleic acids from the other major groups of
macromolecules.
23. Summarize the functions of nucleic acids.
24. List the major components of a nucleotide, and describe how these monomers are linked
together to form a nucleic acid.
25. Distinguish between a pyrimidine and a purine.
26. List the functions of nucleotides.
27. Briefly describe the three-dimensional structure of DNA.
KEY TERMS
alpha (a) helix nucleotide
amino acid
carbohydrate
cellulose
chaperone proteins
chitin
cholesterol
condensation
conformation
conformation gene
dehydration reaction
denaturation
deoxyribonucleic acid
disaccharide
disulfide bridges
double helix
fat
fatty acid
glycogen
glycosidic linkage
hydrolysis
hydrophobic interaction
lipid
monomer
monosaccharide
nucleic acid
peptide bond
pleated sheet
polymer
polynucleotide
polypeptide
polysaccharide
primary structure
protein
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Cpurine
pyrimidine
quaternary structure
reaction
ribonucleic acid
ribose
saturated fatty acid
secondary structure
starch
steroid
tertiary structure
triacylglycerol
unsaturated fatty acid